1.

41 INTEGRATION OF VECTORS
(i) Line integral. Let dl be an element of length at a point on a smooth curve AB drawn in a

vector field and F , a continuous vector point function, or vector, inclined at an angle 6 to dl, as
shown in Fig. 1.37, such that it continuously varies in magnitude as well as direction as we proceed
along the curve. Then, the integral

F-di Fcosdi
is referred to as the line integral of vector F along the curve AB.
In terms of the components of F of along the three Cartesian di
coordinates, we have

Fdi F, de +F, dy+F, de), Fig.1.37

Thus, if F represents the force acting on a particle moving along the curve from A to B, the line

integral. F.dl represents the total work done by the force

A during the motion of the particle over
its entire path from A to B.
fthe value of the line integral depends only upon the location of the two points in the
and not upon the actual vectorfield
path taken between them, the vector field is referred to as a conservative
field. Familiar examples of such fields are the
electrostatic, magnetic and gravitational fields.
 52 Mechanics
field intensity at the point
If, therefore, F represents the value of the electric (or magnetic)
the line integralF.dl represents the work done on unit charge (or unitpole) during its moti
B) irrespective of the path taken.
otion
from A to B (i.e., the potential difference between A and
point function or vector (F alon.
In Hydrodynamics, the line integral of continuous
vector
ong
the curve. And, if the circulation of a vector m
closed curve is called the circulation of F along
it is said to be irrational in that region,
poin
function along every closed curve in a region be zero,
curl. There
Relationship between line integral and
vector field
is a definite relationship between the curl of a D C
O of an y+o
F as a point and its integral along the boundary
To
infinitesimal plane area around and including that point.
calculate the
clearly bring this out, let us, for convenience,
line integral of F around and infinitesimal plane rectangular x
area ABCD, of sides AB är and BC öy in the x-y plane
= =

(Fig. 1.38) surrounding and including a point P. X+Ox

Let the components of F along the axes ofx and y be Fig. 1.38
F and Fy respectively. Then, since the sides of the rectangle are small, the average values of thes
components along them may respectively be taken to be the same as those at their mid-points,
that, we have
average value ofx componel along thepath AB = F+

and average value of x-components along the path CD

F+ , dA
Remembering that the path CD is oppositely directed to the x-axis, we have line integral of h
along AB + line integral ofF along BC given by

.ai-frai-E ax 2
oF xoy
oy
Proceeding exactly in the same manner and remembering that DA is
y-axis, we have oppositely directed to"
line integral of F along BC + line integral of F along DA given by

Ox
Thus, adding relations (i) and (ii), we have
line integral over the entire boundary C of the
rectangle ABCD given by
Fdi-Fa7-80u
ABCD C
Ox y)

Now, the x-component

1ave, of curl F at the
point being the above line
integral per unit area
 So, that, if the small area &rdy be rogarded as the vector
axis of a), we have
area d«,k (where k is the unit vector
Blong the
Frai-6r.di - tourt ),ð«,
ABCD

follow, therefore, that if we have an infinitenimal plane area at the

point in question given by
8+å,j+8»,k, with a boundary Cand ted in any direction, we have
F.d-curl .8s.
themaximum value of F.dl being | ourl | 8s.
We thus see that the magnitude of eurl F at a point is the maximum ahue of the line integral
fF per wnit area along the boundary Cof an infinitesimal plame area (&a) at that point. Andthe
direstion of the curl is perpendieular towith
the plane of the infinitesimal area (when the valhue of the line

integral is maximum) in accordance the right handed screw rule.

at all points
N.B. It has been mentioned earlier that the curl ofa conservative vector field is zero
in space. This may be seen from the following,
a conservative vector field is,
The line integral between any two points P and Q in the case of
know, a constant property of those points, irrespective of the path taken between them. It
A we
that if we choose two different paths I and Wbetween
the two points, as indicated
follows, therefore,
in fig. I.39, we shall have

Path Path I
nearer to P, path/becomes
shorter and in
IrQ brought
be nearer and
coincide with P, path /is reduced to zero hence
the limit when Q is made to
too, is reduced to zero, Thus, the
the integral along this, or any other path
(also ealled circulation of field F
line integral of F along any closed path
beginning and ending at the same point, is zero in
around the elosed path),
the case of conservative field, ile., Flg. 1.39
F.d =0,
clased path
ie,
We similarly have x-component of ,

(curl),- and (eurlP),-

So that, curl =ieurl F), +j(euri F), +k(ourl P),

4 shown in 1.37.
 of the closed path
chose.
54 Mechanics fields irrespective
all
conservative
are referred
to as curl-fr
holds good for That is why they
Since the relation in space.
curl at all points
have z e r o
N
these fields must
or non-curl fields. S (Fig. 1.40)
smooth surface
integral. Imagine
a
() Surface ds
continuously varying vector point
vector field and a
drawn in a
dS of the
P in a small element
function or vector
F at a point
the surface, at the point
surface, at an angle 0 with the normal to
closed and always
towards the S
(drawn outwards if the surface be
Fig. 1.40
side otherwise). Then, the integral F.ds FcosdS =

same
generally, simply the
surface integral
surface inregral, or
over the surface is called the normal
entire
of vector F over the surface.
of F we have
In terms of the Cartesian components

SFAS-JjEA, +F,AS,+F4S,)
continuous vector point function F overa
The surface integral of the normal component of a
closed surface S is called the flux of across F the surface*, As we have seen before (i) if the flux
ofa vector point function across every closed surface in a region be zero, it is said to be solenoidal|
in that region.
Examples () If F represents the electric or magnetic induction at the pont P, the surface

integral F.dS represents the total normal induction over the surface.
(ii) If the surface Sbe drawn over a region of a moving or a flowing fluid such that its velocity v
varies from point to point the surface
of the fuid across the surface.
integral of v
viz., ||v.dS gives the value rate offow
(ii) Volume integral. Suppose we have a surface enclosing a
region of volume V and that F isa
vector point function at a
point in a small element dV of the region. Then, the
integral
JIFdV,covering the entire region, is called the volume integral of vector over the
In terms of the Cartesian components, we have surface
volume integral Ed=i |||F,dxdz+iF,dxdz +k J{{V F, driyde.
1.42 GAUSS'S
THEOREM OF
The theorem states that the
DIVERGENCE
normal surface
integral of afunction F over the
surface S(i.e.the across boundary ofa closed
integral of the
ftux S) is equal to the volume
divergence of the function over the 7
volume V enclosed
by the surface, i.e., x, y, z) X+dx). y, z
ftuxF.4S- fflý div Fdv
t i s by
no
the means necessary that
=

ff{v.F)av.
represent
the surface. flow of anything, the the vector snould Fig. 1.41
surface integral ofrepresent the flow of
componentsomething.
its normal Even if it
is still does
called its tlux acro
 thematical Backg und: Scalars
This may be easily shown as follows: andVectors 55
he Srface S enclosing a volume V be divided
up into a very large number of
the form of cubes or rectangular parallelopipeds elementary
volune141). with its edges along the three Cartesian adjoining each other. Imagine one such
cube coordinate axes and
their lengths d, d, and
respectively. The
ly The fu
flux outwards through the left face is
d, obviously given by F,d,d,, where F-

1ent of the
the vector
vec field and the
is the
x-component
integral extends over the area of the face.
the cube considered is an infinitesimal one, this
nc integral may be taken to be very nearly
eaual to the oroduct of the x-component of F at the centre Pi of the face and the area dydz of the

nter S o that, denoting the x-component of a t the centre of the face by F, (P), we have
fhur through leftface of the cube =-F, (P) dydz
ilarlv, fur through right face of the cube =FP2) dydz, the component F= P) now being
positive
Taking FP)
=

F(R)+ a dr, we have

ove fu through risghtface ofthe cube = |E(R)+ OF dyd

he t
Cnoi fAux though the left amd right faces

urf
=

F.(R)+d ddt-F,R)dd: =ddhydt.

Similarly,fhux through top and bottom faces of the cube
dxdydz
ity Oy
and fhux through the remaining faces ofthe cube

dxdyd
Oz
F all the face of the cube is given by the sum of all these. So that,
Therefore, flux though
teg
F.ds-,
y , |dydt,
urtaa Surface
of tube

where dS is the area of the surface of the cube.

d.
Now OF d = V.For div F
Ox Oz
dV, volume of the cube.
and drdydz =

We, therefore, have F.ds =

(V.F)dv.
Surface
of cube
which the surface is
the fluxes through all the elemental cubes into
Tore, summing up
divided up, we have

which is Gauss's theorem.

rernaps, more rigorously, it may be written as
 Mechanlcs
normal veclor area of F theb
where is the unit ounvard drawn of P over the
surface integral formin
. d S gives the cubes other than those
t may be noted that elemental
all cane
of the integrals thus
becAuse surface their surtaco
volume V, and
a c e enelosing p o m m o n to two adjacent eubes
S
are
Or $urtace Sitself directed normals,
in view of their oppositely
FdS+FdS+Fds,= Favdz t Surface S
F.dS =
Obviously, since CGauss's theorem
in terms of thhe
can express
y z r + Fardy, we Surface &
Cartesian coordinates as
na
here that Gauss's theorem applies
It may as well be mentioned shown in
two closed surfaces, as
also to a volume bounded by it
number ofclosed surfaces),. Only,
Fig. 1.42 (and, indeed by any drawn normals (n and na) Flg. 142
must be remembered that the outward
concerned must point away from the
at any points on the surfaces
enclosed volume as shown,