IRRIGATION IN UPPER HUNZA: EVOLUTION OF SOCIO-HYDROLOGICAL INTERACTIONS IN

THE KARAKORAM, NORTHERN PAKISTAN

Author(s): Sitara Parveen, Matthias Winiger, Susanne Schmidt and Marcus Nüsser
Source: Erdkunde, Bd. 69, H. 1 (January – March 2015), pp. 69-85
Published by: Erdkunde
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/24365265
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 2015 6RDKUND6 Vol.69 ■ No. 1 • 69-85

IRRIGATION IN UPPER HUNZA: EVOLUTION OF SOCIO-HYDROLOGICAL

INTERACTIONS IN THE KARAKORAM, NORTHERN PAKISTAN

SiTARA Parveen, Matthias Winiger, Susanne Schmidt and Marcus Nüsser

With 5 figures, 1 table and 4 photos

Received 2 October 2014 • Accepted 18 March 2015

Summary: Based on three case studies, this paper describes and analyzes the structure and dynamics of irrigat
in Upper Hunza, located in the western Karakoram, Pakistan. In these deeply incised and arid valleys, glacier
melt-water are the primary water sources for agricultural production. The study shows how glacio-fluvial dynam
upon irrigation systems and land use practices, and how, in turn, local communities adapt to these changing
framed here as socio-hydrological interactions. A combined methodological approach, including field observat
views, mapping and remote sensing analysis, was used to trace historical and recent changes in irrigation ne
land use patterns.

Zusammenfassung: Auf Grundlage von drei Fallstudien behandelt der Beitrag die Struktur und Dynamik von
rungssystemen im oberen Hunza-Tal, einer Hochgebirgsregion im westlichen Karakorum, Pakistan. In den tief
tenen Tälern bilden die Schnee- und Gletscherschmelzwässer eine essentielle Voraussetzung für die landwirt
Nutzung. Die Fallstudien zeigen den Einfluss von Gletscherveränderungen auf die Bewässerungssysteme u
zungsmuster und wie sich die lokalen Gemeinschaften wiederum auf diese Veränderungen einstellen. Diese A
strategien werden hier als Teil eines sozio-hydrologischen Interaktionsmodells behandelt. Zur Erfassung und A
historischen und rezenten Veränderungen des Bewässerungssystems und der Landnutzungsmuster dient ein M
bund in dem sowohl Interviews und mündliche Überlieferungen, als auch detaillierte Feldaufnahmen und Fern
daten einbezogen werden.

Keywords: Irrigation systems, glacier change, livelihoods, high mountains, Pakistan

1 Introduction the Hindu Kush. Unlike other Himalayan regions,

where glacier retreat dominates, glaciers in the upper
The importance of mountains as 'water-tow- Indus catchment are characterised by an ove
ers' for adjacent lowlands (Viviroli et al. 2003, 32; crease of total snow and ice volume with sig
Viviroli and Weingartner 2008, 16) is widely ac- regional differences, also called the 'Ka
knowledged by scientific and political actors, with anomaly' (Hewitt 2005, 332). However, th
the result that much effort has been invested for a many cases where glacier termini are in ret
better understanding of the sensitivity and dynam- where ablation reduces glacier extent, ofte
ics of these hydro-climatic highland-lowland sys- ing in the desiccation of irrigation channe
terns (Immerzeel et al. 2010; Käser et al. 2010). lateral moraines. At various scales, these dyna
In the case of the Indus Basin, the discussion have been documented through field studies
foregrounds lowland oriented development priori- remote sensing analysis (BGIG 1979; Schm
ties, which include the demands for secure potable, Nüsser 2009, 2012; Scherler et al. 2011; G
industrial and agricultural water, as well as energy et al. 2012; Kääb et al. 2012; Rankl et al. 2
supply for a rapidly growing population. Less at- Furthermore, remote sensing data has been
tention, however, is paid to the concerns of moun- investigate seasonal snow cover dynamics (
tain communities, who also depend on these water et al. 2005; Immerzeel et al. 2009; Forsyth
resources for their livelihood (Kreutzmann 1998, 2012). The question of how glacial dynamics
194ffi; 2000, 13ff., 2011, 529ffi). the livelihoods of mountain communities liv
The upper Indus Basin is fed by water originat- close proximity to these ice bodies has been
ing in the western Himalaya, the Karakoram and neglected.

DOI: 10.3112/erdkunde.2015.01.05 ISSN 0014-0015 http://www.erdkunde.uni-bon

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 70 eRDKUNDe Vol. 69 -No. 1

Local irrigation systems

gions are unique examples
interactions, which are c
terplay of site-specific gla
ditions, socio-economic d
tional arrangements and e
interventions. Despite an in
of household strategies, irr
mains the main component
for mountain dwellers. R
requires constant and suffi
from glaciers and snowfiel
studies on irrigation system
in the arid to semi-arid mo
of the upper Indus Basin.
were carried out in Gilgit-
2009 was known as Northern Areas of Pakistan in order to assess more recent socio-economic and
(Kreutzmann 1989; 2011, Schmidt 2004), and environmental changes affecting local liv
in Ladakh, India (Labbal 2000; Nüsser et al. Village Numberdars (leaders) and represen
2012). These studies foregrounded site-specific tatives of water management committees and de
differences of water abstraction and distribution, velopment organizations were consulted for their
often based on ingenious and sophisticated de- insights into the historical development of differ
signs. A remarkable persistence, with relatively ent channels and to discuss earlier measures to im
little transformation of land use patterns, was de- prove the irrigation system, for example regarding
tected; in spite of the vagaries of environmental the mobilization of the community for construc
dynamics and challenging socio-economic con- tion, maintenance and restoration of channels. The
ditions (Nüsser 2000, 353; 2001, 253; Dame and database was complemented with photography
Mankelow 2010, 368). and maps from previous expeditions (Paffen et
In this paper, a detailed and historically in- al. 1956; BGIG 1979; Finsterwald
formed case study on the strategies of water man- III). The current operational status
agement in Upper Hunza (also known as Gojal), (desiccated, working, or prone to
located in the Western Karakoram is presented. In their relation to specific water so
order to trace the role of environmental and socio- fied in the field in order to identi
economic dynamics influencing irrigation systems, tation strategies on changing wate
three disparate, yet neighbouring villages, namely: natural hazards. Together with l
Passu, Borith and Ghulkin, are investigated, taking these channels were digitized on
into account the role of different actors in shaping and ortho-rectified Quickbird im
water abstraction and irrigation networks. Here, 2007) for the northern part of the
socio-hydrological interactions are characterised on a KOMPSAT image (23th Mar
by several environmental, social, cultural and his- irrigated area of Ghulkin. In combi
torical aspects, including (a) arid conditions at the information from the interviews
valley floors, where permanent settlements are lo- channels enables a visualization o
cated; (b) snow and ice cover dynamics at higher al- spatial changes of the irrigation sy
titudes, which provide melt water; (c) flexible water
abstraction practices; (d) diverse socio-economic
conditions. The case study departs from a classi- 3 Study area: Upper Hunza
fication of different settlements according to their
site-specific conditions for irrigation, which vary Upper Hunza is located in H
according to topography, melt-water access, local trict of Gilgit-Baltistan. The Hunz
capacity and external development interventions, north to south, and is joined by the
The aim of this paper is to analyse the implications at the northeast part of the study
of glacial fluctuation on irrigation systems, and lo- Batura, Passu, Ghulkin and Gulm
cal adaptation strategies. the west (Fig. 1).

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2015 S. Parveen et al: Irrigation in Upper Hun%a: evolution of socio-hjdrological interactions in the Yiarakoram 71

Stt Irrigated
Irrigated area
area
I Rivers
Rivers

I Lakes
Lakes

— Glacial
Glacial streams
streams

Glaciers

Clean ice

Debris-covered

= Karakoram Highway (KKH)

Submerged part of KKH
— Contour lines

Altitude [m a.s.l.]
■ < 2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
>4500

0 1 km
1 I I

,„S-v/^fkYRGYZSTAN
uzve£-T
•Omkistan, p. R. china

AFGHANiawi?L^;">

Draft & cartography:

Susanne Schmidt, Sitara Parveen
Sources:
Global AsterDEM (Meti & NASA),
KOMPSAT 2011-03-11
Landsat 8 2013-10-09

Fig. 1: Three investigated villages Passu, Borith and Ghulkin in Upper Hunza, Pakistan

The Batura Glacier, which is the largest of the 1935, 39ff.; Paffen et al. 1956, 15—22; BGIG 1979
four glaciers, marks the northern edge of the study Goudie et al. 1984b, 439ff.; Yafeng and Xiangson
site, and covers an area of about 289 km2. The 1984; Xiangsong 1984). Hewitt (2014, 305, 308f
Gulmit Glacier covers an area of 13 km2 and marks analysed the glaciers based on these previous stud
the southern border. All four valley glaciers flow ies and showed a general retreat interrupted by sma
from west to east and are characterized by remark- fluctuations since the end of the 19th century,
ably low positions of their termini, which lie between The study area falls under the Northwe
2560 m a.s.l. and 2620 m a.s.l. These glaciers were Karakoram climatic regime with maximum precip
earlier studied by several researchers (Visser 1928, tation in winter and occasional rainfall in spring an
180ffl; Mason 1930,236ff.; Visser and Visser-Hooft summer (Winiger et al. 2005,2332). Annual preci

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 72 g RDK.U NDË Vol. 69 • No. 1

tation is deposited predomin

5000 m a.s.L, whereas in the
leys the snow contributes n
total. Vertical humidity rat
bottoms to humid mountain
sheds. Thus, in the Batura c
precipitation is as low as 80
terminus and increases to 1
72) or even more than 2500
mean annual temperature at
and -5 °C at 5000 m a.s.l. (B
and Xiangsong 1984, 56). B
the mean annual temperatu
0.6 °C, while the mean sum
a negative trend of approx
communication, U. Börst 2014). (Kreutzmann 1989, 200) in order to improve the
The total population of Upper Hunza is 20,000, farmer's income. Furthermore, in December 198
of which 5,700 people (2010, unpubl. Ismaili Council the developmental organization Aga Khan Rur
Gulmit) live within the three investigated villages — Support Programme (AKRSP) started projects t
Passu, Borith and Ghulkin. By and large, these vil- construct new primary channels and attendant ir
lages are located on fluvial terraces and debris fans gation networks (Kreutzmann 1989,203; Khan a
at altitudes between 2400 and 2800 m a.s.l. On their Hunzai 2000, 136f.).
irrigated fields wheat and potatoes are the domi
nant crops grown. Apricot, apple and cherry trees
are dominantly cultivated in orchards and are in- 4.2 Physical structure of irrigation system and
tercropped with vegetables such as peas, onions, water utilization
tomatoes, carrots, cabbage and other greens. Sea
buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoidei) and poplar trees The main water sources for the cultivated area
(Populus nigra) are important for fodder and fuel, are the melt-runoff of Batura, Passu, Ghulkin an
These woody species, interspersed with grass, grow Gulmit Glaciers. Due to the Hunza Rivers' steep i
near the glacier termini, on slopes steeper than 12°, cision and strong currents, the river discharge is not
adjacent to glacial streams or lining the irrigation used for irrigation - as already described by Cla
channels, and are used to stabilize such locations (1956, 82). The irrigation systems and water use d
(Eberhardt et al. 2007: 107). Land use and cropping fer significantly between and within the three inv
patterns vary between the investigated villages, and tigated villages, depending largely on site-specif
are dependent on topography, water availability, risk potentials and constraints for water abstraction and
of natural hazards and socio-economic conditions, distribution (Tab. 1). Considerable heterogeneity
In addition to crop cultivation the husbandry of cat- ists owing to the location of water sources, whi
tie, yaks, sheep and goats contributes to household reveal a range of spatial and temporal constraint
incomes. Geographical features determine the location of wa
ter intakes, so that in some cases water is abstr
from sub-glacial streams emerging from the gl
4 Irrigation systems snout, whilst in others, supra-glacial discharge has
to be diverted across lateral moraines. Furthermore,
4.1 Historical overview where water sources are located at higher altitudes,
melt water availability is delayed by both daily and
The sophisticated irrigation systems of Upper seasonal temperatures.
Hunza were first described by Visser and Visser- Water usage from the sub-glacial stream
Hooft (1935: 62) and Paffen et al. (1956: 30). The restricted to settlements that are located b
earliest recorded channels in the valley date back the glacier tongues, such as Central Passu
to at least 1780 and diverted water from the Batura Yashvenden. These channels are exposed to glac
Glacier to Zarkhon Passu (Yafeng and Xiangsong lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and periodic ad
1984: 60). Later the irrigation network was extended es of fluctuating glacier tongues, including sur

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2015 S. Parveen et al.: Irrigation in Upper Hun%a: evolution of socio-hydrological interactions in the Karakoram 73

Tab.
Tab.1:1:Physical
Physicalstructure
structure
of irrigation
of irrigation
systems and
systems
water utilization
and water in Upper
utilization
Hunza in Upper Hunza
Source Water availability Limitations and institu
tional arrangement
Glacio-fluvial stream of Passu and Al AI
AI Al AI
Al AI
Al AI
Al AI
Al AI
Al Al Al
A! Al Al A
Batura Glacier dMEE
&
Passu Seasonal
Seasonalsnow cover
snow and perennial
cover and perennial I I I Al
AI Al
AI Al
AI Al
AI Al
AI I I I
snowfield
snowfieldof Prigozof Prigoz

Supra-glacial lake of Ghulkin Glacier III II IlAl

lAlAlAl
AI AII III I I

I I Iand
Supra-glacial melt water of Passu
Ghulkin Glacier
AI
Al AI Al
Al AI Al
AI Al
AI I I I
«»®^E
Borith
Borlth

Ablation valley lake of Passu GlacierI

(dried up in the 1960s)
I I Al Al Al Al Al I I I *
Ablation valley lake of Ghulkin Glacier
(dried up in the 1950s)
I I I AI
AlAl
AI Al
AI Al
AI Al
AI I I I *
Supra-glacial lake of Gulmit Glacier I I I Al
AI Al
AI Al
AI Al
AI Al
AI I I I
o<g4QE
Ghulkin
Glacio-fluvial stream of Ghulkin and I I I Al Al Al Al Al I I I
Gulmit Glacier

Spring I I | A
| » || A
A| «| |4è | è4| | A | | | | o

U
~Wi
1- 1-
water
water
available
available
/ water
/ water
source
source
vanished
vanished
/ no
/ no
water
water
avail
av
degree to which water discharge depends on temperature

fj]§> - water discharge mainly depends on seasonal and peren

^ - water rotation system exists

sediment accumulation in the channels hinders water runoff and requires
permanent channel repair work
water overflows the lateral moraine, human work force is needed to constrain and
maintain the channels and to divert water into the channels; water usage is
restricted to dwellers, who are able to work on the glaciers

f - GLOFs and sudden glacier advances frequently destroy the channels

^ - lake desiccates by overflowing its banks or due to formation of crevasses

^ - high vulnerability against glacier retreat

erosion of channel intakes
E

events. However, this water source is less vulner- to the height of the lateral moraine, in order to
able to glacier retreat compared to channels cross- secure regular water flow. In such cases the water
ing lateral moraines. source is highly vulnerable to changes in the eleva
Settlements situated above the glacier snouts tion of glacier surface. Lowering of the gla
source their water from supra-glacial meltwater face (down-wasting) disconnects the irrigat
which then flow through ablation valleys, located work from its source, and requires consta
beside the glacier. A precondition for this type of tural modifications to the intake and its ch
abstraction is a glacier surface level above or close in the case of Borith.

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 74 6RDRUND6 Vol. 69 ■ No. 1

Other non-glacial
ed agricultural lands sourcesand destroyed houses (Drew of
seasonal snowmelt
1875, 414ff.; Goudie and et al. 1984a,spring
389; Hewitt 1982,
tance. However, 261; Kreutzmannin1994, Khorumab
340; Iturrizaga 2005, 547;
is the dominant Kreutzmann 2012, 59ff.; Hewitt of
source irr
2014, 254£). The
cropping vulnerable to highly
area also witnessed cropland devastation in the 19th
snow fall. Spring
century from the wateradvancing Passu Glacieris (field
lar
mestic use. Only
interviews). in the case
find summer spring
According to local elders, thewater
effects of these us
absence of springs in Borith
natural disasters led villagers to move their homes f
proglacial discharge for house
to higher ground and to attempt to recover and re
habilitate barren land for crop cultivation (see also
Beg 1962). One such example is the move made to
4.3 Passu Village
the elevated Nobod fed by
terrace, which local elders saidglaci
was cultivated and settled later than Central Passu.
Today, Passu has
According a
to them, the populat
channel leading to this ter
(2010, unpubl. race wasIsmaili
built by local initiative toCounci
avoid paying taxes
people settled to Mirin Silum Khan Central
(1790-1824)3'. Another examplePas
whilst Janabad is that of Suronobod
and terrace, located above Nobod,
Khoruma
croplands and wheresummer
attempts were made to developpastur it as an irrigat
largest settlement,
ed cropland during MirCentral Muhammad Nazim Khan's P
ated on three fluvial terraces,
era (1892-1938). This attempt was undertaken as a a
2500 m a.s.l. result of the Sarat Lake flood
These of 1857. It remains un
terraces ar
tato and wheat
clear whether
(20 or not
%) the irrigation
and channel sourcing
are s
(16 %). Grasses water fromand
the Passu Glaciersea-buckt
lateral moraine was in
along the glacio-fluvial valley
operation, as no field patterns are detectable on sat
Glacier and Hunza River and cover 62 % of the set ellite images or in the field (Fig. 2, Photo 1). A fur
tlement area. ther failed attempt to irrigate this terrace was made
Over the past 400 years several natural disasters in the last years of Mir Muhammad Jamal Khan's
have shaped settlement patterns. The earliest re rule (1945-1974). This project was cancelled in 1974
corded settlers were the Wakhi who migrated from by the Finance Minister of Pakistan during the abro
the Wakhan corridor of Afghanistan (Kreutzmanngation of the kingdom.
2012, 53). Local people refer to the village as the A new expansion of irrigable land was carried
"Sih Sad Khona" village (Persian: 300 houses),out by AKRSP in Janabad (2.9 km2) in 1983 and
which spread from Kipghar to Birkati or even up1984. This project sources water from the Batura
to Janabad. The initial fortified and compact settle Glacier, however its utilization is prone to interrup
ment located on the lower terrace was destroyed by tions owing to glacial fluctuations. According to lo
the rising waters of the Sarat Lake2) (field interviews),cal elders, the historical settlement of Zarkhon, sit
which flooded almost all of Passu's arable land in uated in the southern vicinity of Batura Valley, was
1857; Drew 1875, 419f.; Kreutzmann 2012, 58f.).
settled up until the 18th century4'. It was abandoned
as and
In addition, several GLOFs from Batura Glacier the Batura Glacier advanced and destroyed
recurring floods from the Shimshal River have the
erodintakes of all irrigation channels (Yafeng
and Xiangsong 1984, 60; field interviews; Fig 2).
During Mir Mohammad Nazim Khan's (1892-1938)
and Mir Mohammad Jamal Khan's (1945-1974) rule,
l) Yashvenden was fed by a main channel diverting water
from Ghyper Zhui (see Fig. 4) until the mid of the 20th century.
At least until the 1970s, this region was used as Mir's horse pas
ture. Nowadays, it is used as a permanent settlement of Passu. 3> In contrast to local responses, Beg (1962) mentioned
that Nobod was cultivated after the flood during Muhammad
Z) Becher (1859, 223-227) described in his letter a flood,
Nazim Khan's era (1892-1938). As verification, the former
which destroyed many villages downstream the Indus. lake level was virtually modelled using digital elevation data
According to local narratives, the flood was caused by a
with the baseline set to the altitude of a reported partly flood
landslide blocking the Hunza River. This landslide (see also
ed house in Gulmit.
Goudie et al. 1984a, 388) was located almost in the same area
where the Attabad rock avalanche blocked the Hunza River in 4) The foundations of two old houses were given as evi
2010 (Hewitt 2010). dence of this earlier settlement of Zarkhon (field interviews).

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2015 S. Parveen et al: Irrigation in Upper Hun^a: evolution of socio-hydrological interactions in the Yoirakoram 75

Draft and Cartography:

Sitara Parveen & Susanne Schmidt
Data Source:
Quickbird Image 2007-05-27,
Landsat 8 2013-10-09
mi r*

■ | *' : tgff |n
v •* •
If " '
"V? ^ *
\

"«* -Sr2
, *' M/ • "4
: BIS1
Suroriobod

* Nofeod ,';Cj

i 's
flfi

goiacier WI11T - _ . Wr .... ,

terminus 3^ashyenden|

b:pe " mm
käs«

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.2: Irrigation
2:
2:Irrigation
Irrigation
and land use
andin and
Passu
land village
land
use in
use
Passu
in village
Passu village

several attempts had been made to restore these fluvial outlet was located in the inaccessible northern
channels for irrigation of the areas around Zarkhon side of the ice body. It was only after 1973, that the
and Janabad. However, these plans failed as the gla- massive shift (approx. 700 m) of the glacier snout
cier began to down-waste and because the glacio- southwards (Goudie et al. 1984b, 393) opened up the

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 76 GRDKUNDG Vol. 69 ■ No. 1

fc.

Ill®l®sp|

Photo
Photo
1: Failed irrigation
1: channels
channels
Failed to
T" - 1 f
to divert
divertirrigation
water from
water from Passu
Passu Glacier
Glacier to
tochanne
Suronobod Passu.
Suronobod Passu
(Photo:
(Photo:
Sitara Parveen Sitara
2013) Parveen 2013)

possibility for the abstraction o

This new opportunity was tak
1980s through the extension of
over 4 km to newly developed
fluvial terraces. These two terraces are allocated for the relative abundance of water,
crops, orchards and residential use (AKRSP 1985, Though poorly accessible, Khorumabad is
22ff.). According to the project report, each house- an important summer settlement and winter pas
hold received one field on each terrace. The 2007 ture (Kreutzmann 2012, 55£). Smaller areas are
satellite image shows that 53 % of the project area covered by poplars and sea-buckthorn, which are
is transformed to irrigated fields, 19 % are orchards, grown for fuel and fodder. Even smaller irrigated
combined with the cultivation of fodder and vegeta- fields were once cultivated with different fodder
bles, 9 % are potato or wheat fields, and the remain- plants, but this was replaced by potatoes in the
ing areas are a combination of fallow fields, trees 1980s due to the increasing profitability of this
and shrubland (Fig. 3). Despite the large areas of cash crop with improved market accessibility by
non-cultivated croplands, these fields are more in- the KKH (Kreutzmann 1991, 732; 2006, 335). The

Central Passu Janabad Khorumabad

2%2% i%r2% 1%-i

1%., -1%

In IIrrigated
Irrigated fields
fields
20%
Efil
F~1 Orchards
Orchards

■ Meadows, trees,
shrublands

I I Fallow lands
16%

■ Buildings
■ Runway,
Runway, pologround,
pologround,
road workers camp

Fig. 3: Land use pattern in different localities of Passu village (2007)

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2015 J. Parveen et al: Irrigation in Upper Hun^a: evolution of soâo-hydrological interactions in the Yuirakoram 77

productivity of these irrigated fields is limited by The northern part of Borith, which includes
the high variability and low water discharge from Upper Borith, Shahbad, Lup Dur, Jalalabad and
the Prigoz snowfields. This shortage is compound- Sholimol, was up until the 1950s served by Lake
ed by the fact that water is shared with Zarabad, Ghyper Zhui (2900 m a.s.L). This now dry lake was
a settlement belonging to Hussaini, a village east once located in the ablation valley south of Passu
of Ghulkin. Therefore large areas of land are left Glacier, from which melt water flowing over the lat
under fallow. eral moraine was the main recharge (Photo 2). Local
elders stated that in the 1950s water was plentif
underlined by the existence of a large watermill
4.4 Borith: an endangered hamlet still lying at Jalalabad.
The Lake level began to decrease in the 1940s as
Borith hamlet, which is part of Ghulkin vil- the Passu Glacier started to down-waste, this proce
läge, has a population of 115 (2010, unpubl. Ismaili took place concurrently with that of Ghulkin Glac
Council Gulmit) and is located at 2600 m a.s.l., in Several attempts were made to conserve the melt w
the vicinity of the brackish Borith Lake. Their main ter inflow to the lake; with natural channels expande
water sources are the Passu and Ghulkin Glaciers, across the lateral moraine through daily excavat
which border north and south of the hamlet, re- works. Due to an increasing gap between the lat
spectively. Owing to glacier decrease this commu- moraine ridge and the glacier surface these chann
nity has faced many water crises since the 1950s. As dried up between the 1950s and 1960s. Consequen
a result they have made varied and frequent efforts Shahbad, Jalalabad, and Lup Dur had to be ab
to secure access to water (Fig. 4). doned, with the inhabitants then moving to Ghulkin

PP
Passu Glacier

Photo 2: The lake Ghyper Zhui fed by Passu Glacier over the lateral moraine via a number of channels (red arrows).
channels are desiccated due to the down-wasting of the glacier. (Photo: Sitara Parveen 2013)

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 78 GRDKUNDG Vol. 69 • No. 1

Passu Glacier

«ta;»

im
NsVj

B||w
% ,^^11 f
• •. • .: ■ /« i .. , ■.-» ,_• ■ JSgggjSHHff «^pv A'

4i . v-?s5',r,-,:

| ':•
Ghulkin Glacier
74°51'E 74052,E^
i i

Channels (first and second order) Glaciers Land use

constructed
constructed desiccated
desiccated CU
[I] Clean
Clean ice
ice Irrigated
Irrigated fields
— before 1947 — 1940- 1949 1980- 1989 Debris-covered Orchards
— 1960- 1969 — 1950- 1959 1990- 1999 ■ Meadows, trees, shrublands
— 1980- 1989 1960- 1969 — since 2000 Fallow lands
— since 2000 — 1970- 1979 — failed in 1970s Former irrigated fields
H Buildings
■
Draft and Cartography:
Cartography: Sitara
Sitara Parveen
Parveen and
and Susanne
Susanne Schmidt
Schmidt 00 0.25
0.250.5
0.5km
km/\s\s\_i\
/ixi/i_i\
Data Source: Quickbird 2007-05-27, KOMPSAT2011-03-23
KOMPSAT2011-03-23 || i| I| Karakoram Highway (KKH)
Fig. 4: Irrigation and land use in Borith
Borith village
village

or Jamalabad Morkhoon. Only a few fields in Upper water from Ghulkin Glacier at 2880 m a.s.l. However,
Borith could be maintained owing to a community this effort was futile, as the glacial runoff prove
constructed 5 km long channel - which diverted melt be insufficient and the land returned to a barren st

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2015 .I . Parveen et al.: Irrigation in Upper Hun^a: evolution of sodo-hydrological interactions in the Karakoram 79

In 1973 the Government of Pakistan attempted elevation of the intake and therefore shorter period
to preserve Upper Borith's irrigated fields, as well for melt, and the rather limited runoff means that
as to re-develop the agricultural fields in Shahbad water only reaches the cultivated fields in the late
and Lup Dur. This project sought to tap water from afternoon. This reduces the success of local re-de
above the former lake Ghyper Zhui through exci- velopment efforts. Figure 4 shows that of the for
sions made in the lateral moraine at 3380 m a.s.l. mer 0.9 km2 of utilized land, only about 0.3 km2 are
However, as the glacier continued to down-waste, currently used as cultivated fields and orchards,
this channel dried out after a few years, and the Lower Borith, located in the northern proxim
project failed. A similar attempt was carried out ity of Ghulkin Glacier, sources all of its water from
with the support of AKRSP ten years later, be- this glacier. Since 1960 many channels have been
tween 1983 and 1984. An underground pipeline was constructed to divert water from across the lateral
installed to extend the previous channel by another moraine, in response to the continuous down-wast
1.7 km to a new intake5' situated at 3500 m a.s.l. ing of the glacier. Villagers cut or relocate intakes
(Photo 3). and channels across the lateral moraines on a daily

- :
-r ~. -?5S
]?*%& - £l "\ • ' •
j. £ a f— ,- '4"t- ■'
■vs-i ^fWJ -SfiS •,' „
I i>sr~ fas'* '*-'£•**- 4
■-«,'; ^KSP6.^- ->-*'" #*-f ■
<■ -
-• M C ;3fr83 * "* i4
j, - '"I
SmSS
- P 5185 I
HmPi -ik "*"

Photo 3: Currently working (blue) and desiccated (red arrows) water diversion channels sourced
water intake is more than 5 km upwards from the settlements and has to pass through landslid
derground pipelines have been used (yellow line) to protect the channel against mass movemen

By 2007, with an accelerated down-wasting of basis, as they try to secure

the glacier, the water discharge declined. Today, demand for man-hours me
villagers impound and divert glacial melt-water by strategies are also sought
infilling the gap between the glacier and the lateral reduction in the irrigatio
moraine with stones, sacks and cloths. The higher pansion of tree cultivatio
been devised where each household is allocated a

5> The intake

5) The intake is
is off
off the
the map,
map,further
furtherupslope
upslopeand along
and time slot to work on the maintenance of in
along
the
the glacier.glacier. channels. The majority of households have escaped

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 80 eRDKUNDe Vol. 69 • No. 1

this drudgery by migrat

cipally Gilgit town. As a
Lower Borith decreased f
between 1998 and 2013. F
that between March and
tive channel intakes were built (Photo 4). poplar trees, and which cover up to 70 % of the
Fields in the western part of Lower Borith that village area. Compared to Passu, orchards are less
were in use in 2007 (Fig. 4), were observed to be idle prominent (3 %), and 25 % of the irrigated area are
in 2012. Local elders confirmed that this was be- used as crop fields.
cause of a decrease in water volume. A new AKRSP Different to Passu, but similar to Borith,
funded pipeline, installed in 2013, and which sources Ghulkin village sources its water from supra-gla
its water from an ice cliff situated at an altitude of cial runoff crossing the lateral moraines of Ghulkin
2920 m a.s.l. promises a more secure flow. Pipelines and Gulmit. This source is supplemented by sum
have the advantage of needing less maintenance mer spring water from Rawd Yupk. As with the
when compared to open channels, and can also be other villages, water availability is sensitive to gla
routed more easily over undulating terrain. However, cier down-wasting, and the community has had to
at this altitude melt water is only available in the late face shortages since the 1940s. Access to water has
spring and summer periods, and, as confirmed by been compounded by contestations over use rights
local people, the problem of shifting sources of wa- between the original inhabitants and the relatively
ter means that the intake to be relocated on several new in-migrants7'.
occasions. Up until the first half of the last century, su
pra-glacial melt-water crossing the lat
fed three adjacent lakes. This water, s
the Ghulkin Glacier, was diverted into
main channel to the village. With
Outlet (2012) down-wasting in the 1940s water supp
and the three lakes began to dry out.
secure the irrigation system, the inta
ed from Ghulkin to a supraglacial l
Gulmit Glacier. This project was sup
Mir Mohammad Jamal Khan (1945—19
had to preside over a 20-year negotiat
rights between the earlier and later settl
the project, water shortages became m
as population numbers increased an
Photo
Photo 4: Lateral
4: Lateral moraine
moraine of Ghulkin of Ghulkin
Glacier with one of 6 Glacier with one of 6 decreased,
outlets
outlets inyear
in the the year
2012. 2012.
(Photo: Sitara(Photo: Sitara
Parveen 2012) Parveen 2012) To ensure an equ
source, a water management committe
tuted to schedule a new distribution ar
called nobat (turn/rotation). However, th
4.5 Ghulkin: irrigation water from supra glacial residents (southern G
lakes across lateral moraines tional schedule based on their perceived ownership
of water as the original settlers. As a consequence,
Ghulkin, the third case study village, has a the downstream inhabitants (northern Ghulkin) not
population of 1278 (2010, unpubl. Ismaili Council only lost their water source from Ghulkin Glacier
Gulmit) and is situated at an altitude of 2600 m a.s.l. but also became dependent on the upstream villag
between the two glaciers Ghulkin and Gulmit (Fig. ers for access to water.
5). The village is divided into two parts, the old
er southern and a smaller younger northern part, 6) 6) During
DuringMir
Mirsilum
Silum Khan>s regime
Khan's Upper
regime Borith
Upper be_
Borith
which includes Chutghust. The northern part was longed
longed to to Ghulkin
Ghulkin village.
village.
first settled by in-migrants under Mir Silum Khan's 7)
7) In
Indifferent
differentphases,
phases,
Ghulkin
Ghulkin
was settled
was settled
by people
byfrom
people from
rule (1790 1824). Under his reign, this land was al Yasin,
Yasin,Central
CentralHunza
Hunzaand other
and otherareas, mostly
areas, supported
mostly by
supported
located to the new migrants and brought into irri- the
the Mir.
Mir.These
Thesepeople
peopleare still
are considered
still non-local.
considered non-local.

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2015 S. Parveen et al.: Irrigation in Upper Hurnça: evolution of socio-hydrological interactions in the Yairakoram 81

GulmiP
ra.

Channels (first and second order) Land use

constructed desiccated Glacial stream Irrigated fields
— before 1947 — 1950- 1959 ©Spring Orchards
— 1970- 1979 — 1960- 1969 Dried lakes H Meadows, trees, shrublands
1980-
1980- 1989
1989 1980-
1980- 1989
1989' Fallow
Fallow lands
lands
— 1990-
1990- 1999
1999 Glaciers
Glaciers ■
| Buildings
Buildings
□ Debris-covered
Debris-covered H
H Polo
Pologround
ground
n n
n _
9 tm
. = Karakoram
= Karakoram
Highway
Highway
(KKH)
(KKH)
Draft
Draft and
and Cartography:
Cartography:Sitara
SitaraParveen
Parveen&&Susanne
SusanneSchmidt u u u
Schmidt ^ Km
^ Km
Satellite imagery: kompsat 2011-03-11 I 1 Submerged part of KKH
Fig. 5: Irrigation and land use in Ghulkin village

The third part of the village called Chutghust to irrigate these fields. The villagers cons
is located in close proximity to the Ghulkin new irrigation channels and different cro
Glacier snout. Here water supply has been affect- cultivated until 2008. In that year a glacie
ed by glacier fluctuations and periodic GLOF- caused several GLOFs which overflowe
events since the 1960s. Until then, two channels minal moraine and destroyed their fie
diverted melt-water to the fields, but these des- rigation networks. Since then, the glacier
iccated because of glacier-down-wasting (Fig. 5). treated, and the glacio-fluvial stream
Local respondents reported that, at that time, become the sole water source for Chu
crop fields were suspended above the new water Owing to their vulnerability to varyi
source, and became underutilized. However, in availability, many farmers have turned t
the 1980s the retreat of the glacier terminus en- fields to more drought tolerant sea-b
abled the usage of the main glacio-fluvial stream and poplar trees.

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 82 gRDKU ND6 Vol. 69 ■ No. 1

5 Discussion and conclusions Cultivated fields fed by discharge from main gla
cio-fluvial streams are less prone to the impacts
The study illustrates the diversity of socio-hy- of glacier retreat, as water flow from the large val
drological interactions in Upper Hunza over the ley glaciers is regular and sufficient to meet the
past three centuries. One underlying common- agricultural demand. Where glacier tongues reach
ality of all villages is the dominance of glacial relatively low elevations, glacier and snowmelt co
fluctuations and glacio-fluvial hazards in shaping incides with the onset of the growing season,
local adaptation and land use practices. With low However, sudden shifts of glacier snouts or
and variable amounts of precipitation in the set- glacio-fluvial streams interrupt the flow of wa
tlement zone, melt water becomes the prerequi- ter to intakes, whilst in some cases, as with the
site for human habitation. However, variations in Ghulkin Glacier, advancing or surging glaciers
the supply of water from glaciers and snowfields as well as GLOFs destroy agricultural fields and
as well as the labour and capital intensive na- infrastructure. Agricultural fields located on ter
ture of irrigation network maintenance, are ma- races above the glaciers are highly exposed to gla
jor constraints in the three presented villages of cier fluctuations because melt water is diverted
Upper Hunza. Great effort is expended to ensure across the side-moraines. Even small down-wast
water inflow to the channels and eventually to ing rates can severely hamper the functionality of
the irrigated fields. These exertions range from irrigation systems, as exceedingly large gaps open
daily excavation works to align intakes and chan- up between glacier surfaces and channel intakes,
nels, to complete restructuring of the irrigation Whether these problems can be managed strongly
system. In this context, fast and slow processes depends on the available workforce, and in some
of different frequencies and magnitudes, such cases, on the support of external development
as retreat of the glacial tongue, lowering of the actors. All three villages lack sufficient man
ice surface, and episodic events of surges and power to maintain the irrigation systems and ag
GLOFs call for a constant effort to secure irriga- ricultural fields, partly as a result of high rates of
tion water supply. young emigrants from the area, leaving an elderly
Both, the topographical position of the chan- population behind; as in the pron
nels and the location of the settlements expose Borith. As a consequence, many
the irrigation system to varying degrees of risk, tive fields have altered to fallows. I
After glacio-hydrological events, experienced Ghulkin village, changes in the irr
as natural disasters, limited local capacity re- owing to glacial down-wasting reign
suits in considerable time lags before irrigation disputes between two neighbourin
systems can be re-established. Such limitations highlighting the importance for appro
in socio-hydrological systems are characteristic tutional regulations to manage th
for most of the upper Indus Basin. However, tribution of a scarce resource,
some site-specific peculiarities temper the im- Over the past centuries all co
pact of these events, for example the location Upper Hunza have been subject t
of Upper Hunza within the economic corridor external development intervention
of the Karakoram Highway improves access to rule of the Mirs, arable land was s
non-farm opportunities (labour and market) and veloped, often by coercive means. Af
provides easier access for external development Government of Pakistan and since
actors (Kreutzmann 1991, 731 f.; 2006, 352). AKRSP as well as other NGOs initia
The social and hydrological systems appear to be jects, including the relocation of
closely coupled, as a result of the sole reliance on and of piped irrigations systems. Th
glacier-fed irrigation and consequent vulnerabil- derived from this study may be usef
ity of mountain communities. This can be seen ing future interventions that seek to
in changing social status of villages as a result gation systems in this high mountain a
of dessication of channels, increased emigration other hand, the historical record of r
and social conflicts. However, these connections gation intakes and channels can be tak
require closer examination. indicators for glacial dynamics. Lessons can also
The structure and vulnerability of the ir- be learned regarding the adaptation capacities of
rigation networks are partly determined by the high mountain communities in coping with the
location of channel intakes and irrigated areas, adverse outcomes of climate change.

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2015 S. Parveen et al: Irrigation in Upper Hun^a: evolution of sodo-hjdrological interactions in the Karakoram 83

Acknowledgements century. In: Nature Geoscience 5 (5), 322—325. DOI:

This research was generously funded by
Schlumberger Foundation under the Faculty for the
Future Program. The authors thank the two anony
mous reviewers for helpful comments and sugges
10.1038/ngeol 450
George, K. and Stratford, E. (2005): Oral history and
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tions. We would like to express our gratitude to the Goudie, A. S.; Brunsden, D.; Collins, D. N.; Derbyshire,
interview partners in Flunza for their most valuable E.; Ferguson, R. I.; Hashmet, Z.; Jones, D. K. C; Per
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of this paper. We would like to thank the European B. (1984a): The geomorphology of the Hunza Valley,
Space Agency (ESA) for providing satellite images. Karakoram Mountains, Pakistan. In: Miller, K. J. (ed.):
Paul Roden (Heidelberg) helped with proof-reading The International Karakoram Project Vol. 2. Cam
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Authors

Sitara Parveen

Prof. Dr. Matthias Winiger

Department of Geography
University of Bonn
Meckenheimer Allee 166
53115 Bonn

Germany
parveen@uni-bonn.de
winiger@uni-bonn.de

Dr. Susanne Schmidt

Prof. Dr. Marcus Nüsser
South Asia Institute
Universität Heidelberg
Im Neuenheimer Feld 330

69120 Heidelberg
Germany
s.schmidt@sai.uni-heidelberg.de
marcus.nuesser@uni-heidelberg.de

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