aerospace

Article
Electro-Actuation System Strategy for a
Morphing Flap
Maurizio Arena 1, *, Francesco Amoroso 1 , Rosario Pecora 1, * and Salvatore Ameduri 2
1 Department of Industrial Engineering (Aerospace Division), University of Naples “Federico II”,
Via Claudio, 21, 80125 Napoli (NA), Italy; francesco.amoroso@unina.it
2 Adaptive Structures Division, CIRA—Centro Italiano Ricerche Aerospaziali, 81043 Capua, Italy;
s.ameduri@cira.it
* Correspondence: maurizio.arena@unina.it (M.A.); rosario.pecora@unina.it (R.P.);
Tel.: +39-081-768-3573 (R.P.)




Received: 5 November 2018; Accepted: 20 December 2018; Published: 28 December 2018


Abstract: Within the framework of the Clean Sky-JTI (Joint Technology Initiative) project, the design
and technological demonstration of a novel wing flap architecture were addressed. Research activities
were carried out to substantiate the feasibility of morphing concepts enabling flap camber variation
in compliance with the demanding safety requirements applicable to the next generation green
regional aircraft. The driving motivation for the investigation on such a technology was found in
the opportunity to replace a conventional double slotted flap with a single slotted camber-morphing
flap assuring similar high lift performances—in terms of maximum attainable lift coefficient and stall
angle—while lowering emitted noise and system complexity. The actuation and control logics aimed
at preserving prescribed geometries of the device under variable load conditions are numerically and
experimentally investigated with reference to an ‘iron-bird’ demonstrator. The actuation concept is
based on load-bearing actuators acting on morphing ribs, directly and individually. The adopted
un-shafted distributed electromechanical system arrangement uses brushless actuators, each rated
for the torque of a single adaptive rib of the morphing structure. An encoder-based distributed
sensor system generates the information for appropriate control-loop and, at the same time, monitors
possible failures in the actuation mechanism. Further activities were then discussed in order to
increase the TRL (Technology Readiness Level) of the validated architecture.

Keywords: actuation; morphing; wing flap; smart system; ground tests; static test; bench test

1. Introduction
Air transport contribution to climate change represents the 3% of manmade CO2 emissions and
12% of all transport sources with flights producing 628 MTonnes of CO2 yearly. Worldwide, it is
estimated that the equivalent of 1300 new international airports will be required by 2050 with a
doubling in commercial aircraft fleets. The aviation industry is therefore facing the challenge to meet
the predicted growth in demand for air travel increasing (4–5% per annum over the next 20 years)
while avoiding detrimental impacts on the environment. The Advisory Council for Aeronautics
Research in Europe (ACARE) sets the reduction of environmental impact for aeronautics as one of its
main targets, thus requiring new technological solutions for reducing CO2 emissions, by 50% between
2000 and 2020, NOx emissions by 80% and noise by 50%. Moreover, it specified that the aircraft
lifecycles should be taken into account in order to reduce the environmental impact of manufacturing,
maintenance, and recycling. In 2007, the European Union founded the Clean Sky Joint Undertaking
with the main purpose to bring aeronautics research and innovation stakeholders closer together,
working on ambitious projects in technologies aimed at reducing, by 2020, the global environmental

Aerospace 2019, 6, 1; doi:10.3390/aerospace6010001 www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 2 of 20

impact of the aircraft [1]. From this perspective, regional aviation is a key factor for creating resources
and an efficient air transport system that respects the environment, ensuring safe and seamless mobility,
whilst reinforcing Europe’s aero-industrial leadership. A substantial contribution to Clean Sky derives
from Regional Air Transport that, to drastically reduce the environmental impact, adopts innovative
solutions across several technology domains. Clean Sky was divided into different subprograms,
one of them specifically directed to adaptive architectures, [2]. Advanced architectures have been
already or will be developed to be adaptive as wing control surfaces for loads control function
and/or innovative high-lift devices (smart droop nose, morphing flap) in order to achieve lighter and
simplified actuation/kinematic systems including relevant electronic control. Morphing structures
have been investigated within a large number of research activities over recent decades. Morphing
wings matching the optimal aerodynamic shape at any flight condition is the most challenging
aeronautical application. Current projects will provide technology maturation (TRL, Technology
Readiness Level 4/5) for the structural-mechanics and materials aspects, including full-scale limited
experimental validations. The adoption of morphing control surfaces and their validation in an
operational environment through fly testing therefore represent a step forward, looking at potential
application of such technology to innovative green airliners. More in detail, the change in shape of
the metal wing structures has always attracted the scientific community. In this regard, based on
specific application needs, multiple unconventional architectures have been idealized and built up.
A first remarkable distinction within the adaptive systems can be made according to two macro-groups
of interest: mechanized and compliant architectures. The first one implements morphing through
rigid roto-translation of linkages interconnected by kinematic chains, [3–18]. The sizing is led so
that each kinematic sub-component withstands the external stresses foreseen in the real operating
conditions; the actuators and the transmission lines must allow the correct kinematic behavior of the
system, ensuring the achievement of target shape-configurations. The available mechanical torques
are chosen to balance the aerodynamic loads while minimizing power consumption [5,7,8,19–21].
On the other hand, the compliant mechanisms, [22–36], reach the required shapes through the
deformation of structural elements. In this case, in order to guarantee a more uniform shape change,
the mechanical resistance characteristics must be appropriately distributed throughout the system.
Compared to compliant mechanisms, ‘robotized’ architectures provide a more practical solution to
the paradox of morphing a structure which has to be considerably stiff to safely withstand external
loads and—at same time—enough flexibility to accommodate different shapes with a small amount
of actuation energy. Fewer actuators are typically required to control the morphing process which
expected benefit expected at system level drives the definition of additional mass, volume, force,
and power required by the actuation system. In force of this consideration, it naturally follows that
the adoption of mechanized structures becomes quite mandatory when dealing with large aircraft
applications [3,4,6,8] and/or when multi-modal morphing functionalities have to be assured, [17].
European research projects such as JTI (Joint Technology Initiative)-Clean Sky [2] and GRA-ITD
(Green Regional Aircraft—Integrated Technological Demonstration) have been important occasions to
demonstrate technological achievements to be integrated into future green open-rotor aircraft (EASA,
European Aviation Safety Agency, CS-25 category, [37]). In particular, the authors were involved in
research aimed at the design and technological validation of a smart articulated architecture: the key
insight was to replace a standard configuration of double slotted flap with a single slotted morphing
flap. The main challenge was to enhance aircraft high lift performance—as maximum achievable lift
coefficient and stall angle—in addition to the reduction of the noise levels released by the high lift
system. The investigations were addressed with reference to the outer portion of the flap segment
(b = 3.60 m, cr = 1.20 m, ct = 0.90 m) (Figure 1), [14]. The Regional Aircraft IADP will focus on
demonstrating and validating key technologies that will enable a 90-seat class turboprop aircraft to
deliver breakthrough economic and environmental performance and superior passenger experience.
Regional aircraft are a key element of Clean Sky 2, providing essential building blocks towards an
air transport system that respects the environment, ensures safe and seamless mobility, and builds
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industrial leadership in Europe. The Regional Aircraft IADP (Innovative Aircraft Demonstrator
Platform) will bring technologies to a further level of integration and maturity than currently pursued
technologies to a further level of integration and maturity than currently pursued in Clean Sky. The 
in Clean Sky. The goal is to integrate and validate, at aircraft level, advanced technologies for regional
goal is to integrate and validate, at aircraft level, advanced technologies for regional aircraft so as to 
aircraft so as to drastically de-risk their integration into future products. The control of the shape of
drastically de‐risk their integration into future products. The control of the shape of adaptive devices 
adaptive devices has the potential to improve the aerodynamic performance of the wings with respect
has the potential to improve the aerodynamic performance of the wings with respect to off‐design 
to off-design situations. A possible way to achieve this goal is to implement specific technologies
situations. A possible way to achieve this goal is to implement specific technologies for morphing 
for morphing
trailing  trailing
edge aimed  at edge aimedthe 
modifying  at modifying the in 
airfoil  camber  airfoil camber
flight. As  in of 
part  flight. As part
the  Clean  Sky ofproject, 
the Cleanan 
Sky project, an innovative actuation system has been developed that comprises
innovative  actuation  system  has  been  developed  that  comprises  electro‐mechanical  modules.  A  electro-mechanical
modules. A challenging key aspect is the ability to get and preserve desired target wing shapes
challenging key aspect is the ability to get and preserve desired target wing shapes within a certain 
within a certain
tolerance,  tolerance,
allowing  optimal  allowing optimal
aerodynamic  aerodynamic
performance  in performance in operative
operative  conditions  (and  conditions
loads).  In (and
this 
loads). In this paper, the strategies followed to define the electro-actuation
paper, the strategies followed to define the electro‐actuation and control system of a morphing flap and control system of a
morphing flap are outlined with emphasis on both numerical and experimental
are  outlined  with  emphasis  on  both  numerical  and  experimental  methodologies  that  have  been  methodologies that
have been implemented.
implemented. 
In 2014, the European Commission officially launched Clean Sky 2, the second phase of the most
In 2014, the European Commission officially launched Clean Sky 2, the second phase of the most 
important  aeronautics
important aeronautics  research andand 
research  innovation program
innovation  ever undertaken
program  in Europe.in 
ever  undertaken  TheEurope. 
continuation
The 
of Clean Sky will allow Europe to develop environmentally friendly, efficient aircraft
continuation of Clean Sky will allow Europe to develop environmentally friendly, efficient aircraft  solutions intended
for the worldwide
solutions  intended  marketplace and meeting
for  the  worldwide  society’s
marketplace  and expectations. Beyondexpectations. 
meeting  society’s  industrial examples
Beyond 
such as cabin technologies, manufacturing, maintenance, hybrid propulsion
industrial examples such as cabin technologies, manufacturing, maintenance, hybrid propulsion and  and others, many major
research efforts are being launched or planned in Clean Sky 2. In the framework of the Clean Sky
others, many major research efforts are being launched or planned in Clean Sky 2. In the framework 
2—Airgreen
of  the  Clean 2Sky project, a novel multi-functional
2—Airgreen  morphing
2  project,  a  novel  flap technology
multi‐functional  was investigated
morphing  to improve
flap  technology  was 
the aerodynamic performances of the next Turboprop regional aircraft along its flight path, Figure 2.
investigated to improve the aerodynamic performances of the next Turboprop regional aircraft along 
Within such research scenario, an un-shafted distributed electro-mechanical arrangement represents
its flight path, Figure 2. Within such research scenario, an un‐shafted distributed electro‐mechanical 
an attractive solution for the actuation system of the morphing flap, in full agreement with the current
arrangement represents an attractive solution for the actuation system of the morphing flap, in full 
needs for awith 
agreement  ‘more electrical
the  current  aircraft’. Despite
needs  for a  ‘more the progress achieved
electrical aircraft’.  in smart
Despite  materials technology,
the progress achieved  in 
smart  materials  technology,  their  high  power  consumption,  requiring  a  heavy their
their high power consumption, requiring a heavy power system, has limited power application
system,  has in
aerospace. Consequently, the aviation industry is moving towards well established
limited their application in aerospace. Consequently, the aviation industry is moving towards well  electro-mechanical
actuation solutions
established  for rapid application
electro‐mechanical  in flight.
actuation  Lightweight
solutions  for  rapid  actuators are part
application  in  of the trend
flight.  in green
Lightweight 
aviation. Maximizing the integration of electrical systems in future aircraft will
actuators are part of the trend in green aviation. Maximizing the integration of electrical systems in  reduce their weight.
The adoption
future  aircraft ofwill 
electrical
reduce actuators, such asThe 
their  weight.  DC adoption 
(Direct Current) motors,
of  electrical  will bringsuch 
actuators,  multiple benefits
as  DC  in
(Direct 
addition to those gained by morphing, because such actuators are lightweight,
Current) motors, will bring multiple benefits in addition to those gained by morphing, because such  can be easily integrated
into a structural system, and need less power than smart materials. The paper deals with the design of
actuators are lightweight, can be easily integrated into a structural system, and need less power than 
the electro-mechanical actuation system for a full-scale flap as an alternative solution to the standard
smart materials. The paper deals with the design of the electro‐mechanical actuation system for a full‐
hydraulic actuation based mechanisms. Design activities and experimental validation (ground test) of
scale flap as an alternative solution to the standard hydraulic actuation based mechanisms. Design 
the proposed arrangements are both covered.
activities and experimental validation (ground test) of the proposed arrangements are both covered. 

Winglet 
Kink section 

ct 

Outer morphing flap region 
cr
   
(a) Open Rotor configuration  (b) Investigation domain 

Figure 1. Reference wing for Clean Sky‐JTI outer flap. 
Figure 1. Reference wing for Clean Sky-JTI outer flap.

 
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Figure 2. Reference turboprop aircraft for Clean Sky 2—Airgreen 2 morphing flap. 
Figure 2. Reference turboprop aircraft for Clean Sky 2—Airgreen 2 morphing flap.

2. Robotized System Architecture

2. Robotized System Architecture 

2.1. Mechanical Constraints

2.1. Mechanical Constraints 
A multi-disciplinary design approach aimed at creating a fully robotic system was followed by
A multi‐disciplinary design approach aimed at creating a fully robotic system was followed by 
the authors. Obviously, the demand for augmented functionality, inevitably leads to more complex
the authors. Obviously, the demand for augmented functionality, inevitably leads to more complex 
design arrangements. In the current application, a rigid links based mechanism has been tailored
design arrangements. In the current application, a rigid links based mechanism has been tailored as 
as a potential solution allowing for the reversible transition from a basic flap shape to a family of
a  potential  solution  allowing  for  the  reversible  transition  from  a  basic  flap  shape  to  a  family  of 
possible configurations. More in detail, each of the eight flap ribs was assumed to be articulated; it was
possible configurations. More in detail, each of the eight flap ribs was assumed to be articulated; it 
segmented into four consecutive blocks (B0, B1, B2, and B3) connected to each other by means of
was segmented into four consecutive blocks (B0, B1, B2, and B3) connected to each other by means of 
cylindrical hinges displayed on the airfoil camber line (H1, H2, H3) in a ‘finger-like’ configuration.
cylindrical hinges displayed on the airfoil camber line (H1, H2, H3) in a ‘finger‐like’ configuration. In 
In this way, consecutive blocks can rotate relatively. The conceptual layout of the adaptive rib has
this way, consecutive blocks can rotate relatively. The conceptual layout of the adaptive rib has been 
been properly adapted to fit the geometry of the flap device in correspondence of eight span-wise
properly adapted to fit the geometry of the flap device in correspondence of eight span‐wise sections 
sections suitably defined according to well-known structural design criteria. The adaptation included
suitably defined according to well‐known structural design criteria. The adaptation included only a 
only a slight reshaping of the rib boundary and the extension of the chord-wise length of blocks B0
slight reshaping of the rib boundary and the extension of the chord‐wise length of blocks B0 and B3 
and B3 while moving from the root to the tip section. The chord-wise length of blocks B1 and B2 has
while moving from the root to the tip section. The chord‐wise length of blocks B1 and B2 has been 
been kept equal for all flap sections thus obtaining hinge lines perpendicular to rib reference planes.
kept equal for all flap sections thus obtaining hinge lines perpendicular to rib reference planes. In 
In Figure 3, a single-bay assembly is shown. Moreover, non-consecutive rib plates are connected by
Figure  3,  a  single‐bay  assembly  is  shown.  Moreover,  non‐consecutive  rib  plates  are  connected  by 
means of a link (L) that forces the camber line segments to rotate according to specific gear ratios.
means of a link (L) that forces the camber line segments to rotate according to specific gear ratios. The 
The ribs kinematic was transferred to the overall flap structure by means of a multi-box arrangement.
ribs kinematic was transferred to the overall flap structure by means of a multi‐box arrangement. The 
The implementation of multi-block ribs as internal movable articulation of the flap skeleton allowed
implementation of multi‐block ribs as internal movable articulation of the flap skeleton allowed for 
for achieving the shape transition, Figure 4. An internal leverage (K12) is hosted by block B1 and
achieving the shape transition, Figure 4. An internal leverage (K12) is hosted by block B1 and links 
links blocks B1 to B2. Such leverage amplifies the torque which comes from the external actuator (M1).
blocks B1 to B2. Such leverage amplifies the torque which comes from the external actuator (M1). The 
The architecture of the rib is designed in such a way that the position of both the connection L and the
architecture of the rib is designed in such a way that the position of both the connection L and the 
pivots of the levers allow the motion of all the blocks around the hinges according to the predetermined
pivots  of  the  levers  allow  the  motion  of  all  the  blocks  around  the  hinges  according  to  the 
shapes, as a consequence
predetermined  of the
shapes,  as  rotations imposed
a  consequence  of  the byrotations 
the actuators. In fact,
imposed  by by analysing
the  theIn 
actuators.  morphing
fact,  by 
mode, the rotation induced by M1 causes the lever K12 to move and therefore modifies the relative
analysing the morphing mode, the rotation induced by M1 causes the lever K12 to move and therefore 
position
modifies ofthe 
block B1 with
relative  respectof toblock 
position  blockB1 
B3.with 
The respect 
internal to 
linkage
block therefore
B3.  The  allows the
internal  rigid transfer
linkage  of
therefore 
motion to the blocks B0 and B2, mutually interconnected to the others. The rotation of the actuator
allows the rigid transfer of motion to the blocks B0 and B2, mutually interconnected to the others. 
M2 drives instead another leverage (namely K23) which connects B3 to B2. The second chain K23
The rotation of the actuator M2 drives instead another leverage (namely K23) which connects B3 to 
makes it possible to amplify the available torque especially when the flap is stowed and the flap tab
B2. The second chain K23 makes it possible to amplify the available torque especially when the flap 
has to be deflected for cruise load control. The morphing rib arrangement was suitably adjusted to fit
is stowed and the flap tab has to be deflected for cruise load control. The morphing rib arrangement 
the
was  suitably geometry
flap-like adjusted with respect
to  fit  to each span-wise
the  flap‐like  geometry  section: the adaptation
with  respect  included only
to  each  span‐wise  a slight
section:  the 
remodelling of the upper and lower limits and the extension of the chord length
adaptation included only a slight remodelling of the upper and lower limits and the extension of the  of the B0 and B3
blocks as it moved from the internal to the outer section. The chord dimension of the blocks B1 and B2
chord length of the B0 and B3 blocks as it moved from the internal to the outer section. The chord 
has been kept the same for all the sections of the flap thus obtaining hinge lines perpendicular to the
dimension of the blocks B1 and B2 has been kept the same for all the sections of the flap thus obtaining 
reference
hinge  lines planes of the ribs.to 
perpendicular  Two the C-shaped
reference (continuous)
planes  of  the  spars (supposed
ribs.  to be made
Two  C‐shaped  of aluminium
(continuous)  spars 
alloy Al2024-T351) were placed at 5% and 70% of the local wing profile chord to
(supposed to be made of aluminium alloy Al2024‐T351) were placed at 5% and 70% of the local wing  connect all blocks B0
and B3 along the span.
profile chord to connect all blocks B0 and B3 along the span. 

 
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Figure 3. Actuated morphing bay. 
 
Figure 3. Actuated morphing bay.
Figure 3. Actuated morphing bay. 

 
(a) 

 
(a) 

 
(b) 
Figure 4. Bi‐modal morphing rib: ‘5 bar‐linkage’ to enable the shape modification (a) and leverage 
Figure 4. Bi-modal morphing rib: ‘5 bar-linkage’ to enable the shape modification (a) and leverage
 
kinematic scheme (b). 
kinematic scheme (b). (b) 
Figure 4. Bi‐modal morphing rib: ‘5 bar‐linkage’ to enable the shape modification (a) and leverage 
The spars have been appropriately designed to provide the maximum stiffness contribution in
The spars have been appropriately designed to provide the maximum stiffness contribution in 
kinematic scheme (b).  ensuring adequate deformation levels for the whole device. A multi-box
absorbing external loads while
absorbing external loads while ensuring adequate deformation levels for the whole device. A multi‐
configuration comprising both transversal spars and longitudinal stringers (in Al2024-T351) has been
box configuration comprising both transversal spars and longitudinal stringers (in Al2024‐T351) has 
The spars have been appropriately designed to provide the maximum stiffness contribution in 
conceived to be elastically stable under bending and twisting. Both the ribs and the longitudinal
been conceived to be elastically stable under bending and twisting. Both the ribs and the longitudinal 
absorbing external loads while ensuring adequate deformation levels for the whole device. A multi‐
stiffening components
stiffening  components have
have been suitably
been  shaped
suitably  to allow
shaped  the installation
to  allow  of a segmented
the  installation  skin solution
of  a  segmented  skin 
box configuration comprising both transversal spars and longitudinal stringers (in Al2024‐T351) has 
characterized
solution  by four shells
characterized  in Al2024-T4
by  four  shells  in which slide which 
Al2024‐T4  on eachslide 
otheron 
during
each morphing (armadillo-like
other  during  morphing 
been conceived to be elastically stable under bending and twisting. Both the ribs and the longitudinal 
skin). Rubber seals were used to prevent friction between adjacent skin segments and to prevent airflow
(armadillo‐like skin). Rubber seals were used to prevent friction between adjacent skin segments and 
stiffening  components  have  been  suitably  shaped  to  allow  the  installation  of  a  segmented  skin 
losses. The outline of the seals has been defined according to the actual kinematic evolution of the
to prevent airflow losses. The outline of the seals has been defined according to the actual kinematic 
solution  characterized  by  four  shells  in  Al2024‐T4  which  slide  on  each  other  during  morphing 
complete flap. These considerations also allowed for the verification of the assembly tolerances
(armadillo‐like skin). Rubber seals were used to prevent friction between adjacent skin segments and 
 implemented while demonstrating the absence of interpenetration between adjacent secondary
to prevent airflow losses. The outline of the seals has been defined according to the actual kinematic 

 
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evolution of the complete flap. These considerations also allowed for the verification of the assembly 
evolution of the complete flap. These considerations also allowed for the verification of the assembly 
tolerances 
Aerospace implemented 
2019, 6, 1 while  demonstrating  the  absence  of  interpenetration  between  adjacent 
6 of 20
tolerances  implemented  while  demonstrating  the  absence  of  interpenetration  between  adjacent 
secondary components in relative motion. The final arrangement of the device is shown in Figure 5 
secondary components in relative motion. The final arrangement of the device is shown in Figure 5 
while the skin segments in Figure 6. Silicon seals (chemically stable in the range of temperature (−50 
components in relative motion. The final arrangement of the device is shown in Figure 5 while
while the skin segments in Figure 6. Silicon seals (chemically stable in the range of temperature (−50 
°C; +80 °C) were glued along the contact region between consecutive skin segments, thus preventing 
the skin segments in Figure 6. Silicon seals (chemically stable in the range of temperature (−50 ◦ C;
°C; +80 °C) were glued along the contact region between consecutive skin segments, thus preventing 
airflow penetration inside the structure. 
◦ C) were glued along the contact region between consecutive skin segments, thus preventing
+80
airflow penetration inside the structure. 
airflow penetration inside the structure.

 
Figure 5. Bi‐modal morphing flap layout: skeleton and systems (hidden skin).   
Figure 5. Bi‐modal morphing flap layout: skeleton and systems (hidden skin). 
Figure 5. Bi-modal morphing flap layout: skeleton and systems (hidden skin).

(a)  (b) 
(a)  (b) 
Figure 6. Morphing flap skin arrangement: global architecture (a) and detail of sliding parts (b).
Figure 6. Morphing flap skin arrangement: global architecture (a) and detail of sliding parts (b). 
Figure 6. Morphing flap skin arrangement: global architecture (a) and detail of sliding parts (b).
2.2. Actuation Design  
2.2. Actuation Design 
On the basis of preliminary addressed analysis, several load conditions were considered to
2.2. Actuation Design 
sizeOn the basis of preliminary addressed analysis, several load conditions were considered to size 
the distributed actuation system of the morphing device. After evaluating the most severe
the  On the basis of preliminary addressed analysis, several load conditions were considered to size 
distributed  actuation  system  of  the 
aerodynamic hinge moment, the torque tomorphing  device. 
be provided by the After  evaluating 
actuation the  derived:
system was most  severe 
direct
the  distributed  actuation  system  of  the  morphing  device.  After  evaluating  the  most  severe 
aerodynamic hinge moment, the torque to be provided by the actuation system was derived: direct 
current (DC) actuators were located in correspondence of three bays thus assuring a more controllable
aerodynamic hinge moment, the torque to be provided by the actuation system was derived: direct 
current  (DC)  actuators  were the
located  in  correspondence  of  three  bays  thus  assuring 
morphing shape along both span-wise and chord-wise direction. The attainment of thea required
more 
current  (DC)  actuators  were  located  in  correspondence  of  three  bays  thus  assuring  a  more 
controllable morphing shape along both the span‐wise and chord‐wise direction. The attainment of 
torque is ensured by speed reducers (Harmonic Drive, HD® , https://harmonicdrive.de), keyed on
controllable morphing shape along both the span‐wise and chord‐wise direction. The attainment of 
the required torque is ensured by speed reducers (Harmonic Drive, HD ®, https://harmonicdrive.de), 
the motor shafts; HD® represents a typical gear widely used in mechatronic applications. Among its
the required torque is ensured by speed reducers (Harmonic Drive, HD
keyed on the motor shafts; HD ® ®, https://harmonicdrive.de), 
 represents a typical gear widely used in mechatronic applications. 
main advantages: no backlash, compactness and light weight, high gear ratios (in such application
keyed on the motor shafts; HD® represents a typical gear widely used in mechatronic applications. 
Among its main advantages: no backlash, compactness and light weight, high gear ratios (in such 
120:1), reconfigurable ratios within a standard housing, good resolution, and excellent repeatability
Among its main advantages: no backlash, compactness and light weight, high gear ratios (in such 
application 120:1), reconfigurable ratios within a standard housing, good resolution, and excellent 
when repositioning inertial loads and high torque capability. The key aspects of the design method
application 120:1), reconfigurable ratios within a standard housing, good resolution, and excellent 
implemented for the actuation system are reported in Figure 7.
 
 
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    7  of  21 
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    7  of  21 
repeatability  when  repositioning  inertial  loads  and  high  torque  capability.  The  key  aspects  of  the 
repeatability 
2019, 6,when  repositioning  inertial  loads  and  high  torque  capability.  The  key  aspects  of 
design method implemented for the actuation system are reported in Figure 7. 
Aerospace 1 7 ofthe 
20
design method implemented for the actuation system are reported in Figure 7. 

 
 
Figure 7. Actuation design process. 
Figure 7. Actuation design process.
Figure 7. Actuation design process. 
Sensitivity studies were carried out to find out the minimum number of actuators required to
Sensitivity studies were carried out to find out the minimum number of actuators required to 
morph Sensitivity studies were carried out to find out the minimum number of actuators required to 
the flap under the action of design aerodynamic loads. Relying upon the available space and
morph the flap under the action of design aerodynamic loads. Relying upon the available space and 
taking in account specific constraints in terms of efficiency, power, and reliability, the Kollmorgen® ®
morph the flap under the action of design aerodynamic loads. Relying upon the available space and 
taking in account specific constraints in terms of efficiency, power, and reliability, the Kollmorgen
taking in account specific constraints in terms of efficiency, power, and reliability, the Kollmorgen
(https://www.kollmorgen.com)
(https://www.kollmorgen.com)  brushlessmotor 
brushless  motorKBMS‐14 
KBMS-14was wasselected 
selected(Table 
(Table 1). 
1). The  actuation® 
The actuation 
(https://www.kollmorgen.com) 
solution—arranged brushless been
in four groups—has motor  KBMS‐14 
considered was  selected 
satisfactory (Table 
to move
solution—arranged in four groups—has been considered satisfactory to move the structure under  the 1).  The  actuation 
structure under
solution—arranged in four groups—has been considered satisfactory to move the structure under 
the action of aerodynamic loads. They were respectively linked to the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th bay and
the action of aerodynamic loads. They were respectively linked to the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th bay and 
duly coupled to Harmonic Drive®® gearboxes (model HFUC–17–120–2UH–SP2983, Table 2), hosted 
the action of aerodynamic loads. They were respectively linked to the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th bay and 
duly coupled to Harmonic Drive gearboxes (model HFUC–17–120–2UH–SP2983, Table 2), hosted by
duly coupled to Harmonic Drive
ribs
by  blocks
ribs  andand 
blocks  acting
acting  ® gearboxes (model HFUC–17–120–2UH–SP2983, Table 2), hosted 
as amplifiers of the
as  amplifiers  of actuation torque
the  actuation  (and reducers
torque  of the of 
(and  reducers  shaft
the rotation speed).
shaft  rotation 
by 
In ribs 
Figure blocks 
8 the and  acting 
actuator andas  amplifiers 
gearbox of 
models the 
are actuation 
roughly torque 
depicted.
speed). In Figure 8 the actuator and gearbox models are roughly depicted.  (and  reducers  of  the  shaft  rotation 
speed). In Figure 8 the actuator and gearbox models are roughly depicted. 

 
   
(a) Kollmorgen KBMS14®  (b) Harmonic Drive® torque amplificatory 
 
(a) Kollmorgen KBMS14®  (b) Harmonic Drive® torque amplificatory 
Figure 8. Actuation and transmission components.
Figure 8. Actuation and transmission components. 
Figure 8. Actuation and transmission components. 
Table 1. Actuator main features.
Table 1. Actuator main features 
Table 1. Actuator main features 
Specification/Actuator Model KBMS-14
Specification/Actuator Model  KBMS‐14 
Continuous Stall Torque
Specification/Actuator Model Nm 2.11
KBMS‐14 
PeakContinuous Stall Torque 
Stall Torque Nm Nm  2.11  5
Maximum Speed
Continuous Stall Torque  RPM Nm  8000
2.11 
Peak Peak Stall Torque 
Current ArmsNm  5  10
Weight
Peak Stall Torque  Kg Nm  5  2.5
Number of Poles
Maximum Speed  - RPM  8000  8
Maximum Speed  RPM  8000 
Peak Current  ®
Table 2. HD main features.Arms  10 
Peak Current  Arms  10 
SpeedWeight 
Reducer Model Kg  2.5 
HFUC-17-2UH
Weight  Kg  2.5 
Gear Ratio - 120
Maximum Number of Poles 
Torque Nm ‐  8  54
Maximum Number of Poles 
Speed RPM ‐  8  60
Moment stiffness Nm/rad 16 × 103
Table 2. HD® main features 
Weight Kg 0.64
Table 2. HD® main features 
◦C
Temperature range 0–60
Speed Reducer Model  HFUC‐17‐2UH 
Speed Reducer Model  HFUC‐17‐2UH 
Such actuation system Gear Ratio 
allowed each rib mechanism ‐  120 a total output torque (T
to produce OUT )
Gear Ratio  ‐  120 
equal to
Maximum Torque  Nm  54 
TOUT = MT ·RHDNm 
Maximum Torque  ·KMA ·CfHD 54  (1)

where MT is the motor torque assumed constant and equal to half of the stall torque (0.6 Nm) in
with the operational speed (ω = 400 rpm); RHD = 120 is the Harmonic Drive® constant
  correspondence
 
 Such actuation system allowed each rib mechanism to produce a total output torque (TOUT) equal 
to 
TOUT = MT∙RHD KMA CfHD  (1) 
 

where 2019,
Aerospace MT  6,
is 1the  motor  torque  assumed  constant  and  equal  to  half  of  the  stall  torque  (0.6  Nm) 
8 of 20in 
correspondence with the operational speed (ω = 400 rpm); RHD = 120 is the Harmonic Drive® constant 
torque amplification factor; KMA is the kinematic mechanical advantage, assumed to be equal to the 
torque amplification factor; KMA is the kinematic mechanical
minimum torque amplification factor of about 5; C advantage, assumed to be equal to the
fHD represents a torque correction factor that was 
minimum torque amplification factor of about 5; C represents a torque correction factor that wasfHD 
conservatively assumed equal to 0.75. Actuation total output torque (1) (with and without the C
fHD
conservatively assumed equal to 0.75. Actuation total output torque (1) (with and without the CfHD
correction factor) and H3 hinge torque trends are reported in Figure 9 (logarithmic scale) as function 
correction factor) and H3 hinge torque trends are reported in Figure 9 (logarithmic scale) as function
of the H3 hinge rotation angle. From Figure 9, it is evident that the actuation system is capable of 
ofovercoming the resistant hinge torque with high margins. In Figure 10, the assembly sequence of the 
the H3 hinge rotation angle. From Figure 9, it is evident that the actuation system is capable of
overcoming the resistant hinge torque with high margins. In Figure 10, the assembly sequence of the
actuators, gearbox, and rib blocks is roughly depicted. 
actuators, gearbox, and rib blocks is roughly depicted.

Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW   
  9  of  21 
Figure 9. Actuation total output and H3 hinge torque trends vs. H3 hinge rotation angle.
Figure 9. Actuation total output and H3 hinge torque trends vs. H3 hinge rotation angle. 

 
  Figure 10. Actuation torque application.
Figure 10. Actuation torque application. 
3. Morphing Flap Overview
3. Morphing Flap Overview 
Target Shapes and Specifications
Target Shapes and Specifications 
The articulated mechanism for flap camber morphing was designed with reference to the most
severeThe articulated mechanism for flap camber morphing was designed with reference to the most 
load condition expected in service; from an accurate comparison of the solicitations induced by
severe load condition expected in service; from an accurate comparison of the solicitations induced 
more than 20 different load cases, the enveloping limit condition was found as the climb case related
by uncambered
to more  than  20  different 
flap deployedload 
atcases,  the =enveloping 
35◦ , δflap 35◦ , flight limit 
speedcondition 
V ∞ = 95.2was 
m/s,found 
angleas ofthe  climb 
attack α =case 
6◦ ,
related to uncambered flap deployed at 35°, δ flap = 35°, flight speed V∞ = 95.2 m/s, angle of attack  = 
sea level and max zero fuel weight. The highest resisting hinge torque (HT = 150 Nm) occurred in
6°, sea level and max zero fuel weight. The highest resisting hinge torque (H
correspondence of the hinge axis connecting blocks B2 and B3, indicated with T = 150 Nm) occurred in 
H3 in Figure 11 [17].
correspondence of the hinge axis connecting blocks B2 and B3, indicated with H3 in Figure 11 [17]. 
This led to the choice of such resistant hinge torque as the designing one for all the actuation kinematic
This  led  to  the  choice  of  such  resistant  hinge  torque  as  the  designing  one  for  all  the  actuation 
kinematic mechanism. However, in order to deal with a high entity design torque, it was mandatory 
to introduce some suitable torque amplifiers devices into the actuation system. 
severe load condition expected in service; from an accurate comparison of the solicitations induced 
by  more  than  20  different  load  cases,  the  enveloping  limit  condition  was  found  as  the  climb  case 
related to uncambered flap deployed at 35°, δflap = 35°, flight speed V∞ = 95.2 m/s, angle of attack = 
6°, sea level and max zero fuel weight. The highest resisting hinge torque (HT = 150 Nm) occurred in 
correspondence of the hinge axis connecting blocks B2 and B3, indicated with H3 in Figure 11 [17]. 
Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 9 of 20
This  led  to  the  choice  of  such  resistant  hinge  torque  as  the  designing  one  for  all  the  actuation 
kinematic mechanism. However, in order to deal with a high entity design torque, it was mandatory 
mechanism. However, in order to deal with a high entity design torque, it was mandatory to introduce
to introduce some suitable torque amplifiers devices into the actuation system. 
some suitable torque amplifiers devices into the actuation system.

 
Figure 11. Morphing ring and hinges stations.
Figure 11. Morphing ring and hinges stations. 
A first phase of the work involved the determination of optimized airfoil shapes at a several flight
A first phase of the work involved the determination of optimized airfoil shapes at a several 
conditions. The scenario of the project was very broad and involved both academic and industrial
flight  conditions.  The  scenario 
partners. The aerodynamic of  the  project 
requirements were was  very 
in fact broad 
defined byand  involved 
Leonardo both  academic  and 
Finmeccanica—Aircraft
industrial partners. The aerodynamic requirements were in fact defined by Leonardo Finmeccanica—
Division. 2D CFD optimization simulations were addressed to assess the design morphed shapes, as
Aircraft Division. 2D CFD optimization simulations were addressed to assess the design morphed 
outlined in [33]. These results were used as input data to design a structural concept that guaranteed
shapes, as outlined in [33]. These results were used as input data to design a structural concept that 
the reversible transition of the flap from the nominal configuration (baseline) to the target shapes. These
guaranteed the reversible transition of the flap from the nominal configuration (baseline) to the target 
optimized shapes were used as a starting point for the actuation system design; in correspondence of
shapes.  These  optimized  shapes  were  used  as  a  starting  point  for  the  actuation  system  design;  in 
these shapes the aerodynamic loads to be counteracted by the actuation kinematics were evaluated
correspondence of these shapes the aerodynamic loads to be counteracted by the actuation kinematics 
together with the strain/stress field induced all over the structure. Table 3 recaps the rotations angles
were evaluated together with the strain/stress field induced all over the structure. Table 3 recaps the 
of flap rib blocks useful to reproduce the flap target shapes.
rotations angles of flap rib blocks useful to reproduce the flap target shapes. 
Table 3. Relative rotations between rib blocks (design values).
Table 3. Relative rotations between rib blocks (design values). 
Relative Rotations Between: Camber Morphing Mode Tip Deflection
Relative Rotations Between:  Camber Morphing Mode  Tip Deflection 
Rib blocks B0 and B1 ◦
3 3°  ◦
Rib blocks B0 and B1  ◦
0°  0◦
Rib blocks B1 and B2 10.5 0
Rib blocks B1 and B2  10.5°  0°  ◦
Rib blocks B2 and B3 3◦ +10 ; −10◦
Rib blocks B2 and B3  3°  +10°; −10° 

  4. Control Logic Strategy and Lab Test on Iron Bird

4.1. System Arrangement

The transmission chain along the chord-wise direction consisted basically of a kinematic
mechanism, driven by load-bearing brushless actuators that acted directly on morphing ribs. The
absence of a transmission shaft along the span, and the distributed arrangement of electromechanical
actuators (EMAs) derived from the very demanding size and weight constraints the system has to
comply with. Moreover, a distributed sensor system based on relative encoder generated the signals
for the appropriate feedback actions and, at the same time, monitored possible faults inside the
actuation mechanism. Eight controllers (ServoOne Jr. by LTI® motion, https://www.lti-motion.com,
Figure 12a, [14,15]) were mounted in the first four bays of the leading edge in order to drive the
actuation groups. Encoders for relative rotation measurement were placed at the hinges H1, H2,
and H3 of the ribs at stations 1, 4, and 8. The measured rotations were then used to rationally drive
the actuators and to preserve the commanded flap shape in case of variation induced by external
perturbations (including aero-loads). The electric connection among all control units, was realized
by means of a proper shielded routing, guaranteeing the logic correspondence between servo-drivers
plugs and terminal pins. Such connection arrangement enabled the synchronized trigger of the
actuators according to the master-and-slave-based logic depicted in Figure 12b.
H3 of the ribs at stations 1, 4, and 8. The measured rotations were then used to rationally drive the 
actuators  and  to  preserve  the  commanded  flap  shape  in  case  of  variation  induced  by  external 
perturbations (including aero‐loads). The electric connection among all control units, was realized by 
means of a proper shielded routing, guaranteeing the logic correspondence between servo‐drivers 
plugs  and  terminal  pins.  Such  connection  arrangement  enabled  the  synchronized  trigger  of  the 
Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 10 of 20
actuators according to the master‐and‐slave‐based logic depicted in Figure 12b. 

   
(a) Controller  (b) Actuators bench test 

Figure 12. Control units of brushless motors.

Figure 12. Control units of brushless motors. 
The transmission ratios imposed between the slave and master EMAs were set as 1:8 and
The transmission ratios imposed between the slave and master EMAs were set as 1:8 and to 1:1 
to 1:1 respectively for the first row (Block 1) and for the second row of actuators (Block 2) in
respectively for the first row (Block 1) and for the second row of actuators (Block 2) in chord‐wise 
chord-wise direction. A value of speed equal to 400 rpm was set for all the actuators and an
direction.  A  value  of  speed 
acceleration/deceleration equal  was
of 100 rpm/s to  implemented
400  rpm  was  set  for 
to obtain all  the  actuators 
a quasi-static and  an 
morphing evolution
acceleration/deceleration of 100 rpm/s was implemented to obtain a quasi‐static morphing evolution 
(15 s duration) without dynamic oscillations due to inertial effects. As shown in Figure 13, the control
(15 s duration) without dynamic oscillations due to inertial effects. As shown in Figure 13, the control 
loop of the actuator position used the motor encoder position as feedback signal. The bench test
loop  of  the  actuator  position  used  the  motor  encoder  position  as  feedback  signal.  The  bench  test 
provided a first experimental validation of the designed controller and its hardware integration
provided  a  first  experimental  validation  of  the  designed  controller  and  its  hardware  integration 
architecture; moreover, it was possible to appreciate the reproducibility of the theoretical reference and
architecture; moreover, it was possible to appreciate the reproducibility of the theoretical reference 
optimized airfoil shapes. On the other hand, the test offered the opportunity to make some adjustments
and  optimized  airfoil  shapes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  test  offered  the  opportunity  to  make  some 
in the mechanical part of the model and some tunings of the encoder transducers zero positions. When
adjustments in the mechanical part of the model and some tunings of the encoder transducers zero 
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    11  of  21 
the controller was tested on the bench two steps were performed:
positions. When the controller was tested on the bench two steps were performed: 
(1) Stand‐alone verification of each actuator; 
(2) Simultaneous testing of the actuators controlled by the central servo‐drive, Figure 13. 
This logical scheme enabled the synchronized activation of actuators according to the master 
and slave multi‐axis strategy. 

 
Figure 13. Architecture of the loop control: centralized logic.
Figure 13. Architecture of the loop control: centralized logic. 

The morphing flap prototype was used as mechanical demonstrator to prove the adequacy of 
the  adopted  solutions  with  respect  to  design  requirements  and  system  specifications.  Three  test 
campaigns were carried out: 
 functionality test campaign; 
 static test campaign; 
 Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 11 of 20

(1) Stand-alone verification of each actuator;

(2) Simultaneous testing of the actuators controlled by the central servo-drive, Figure 13.
This logical scheme enabled the synchronized activation of actuators according to the master and
slave multi-axis strategy.
The morphing flap prototype was used as mechanical demonstrator to prove the adequacy of the
adopted solutions with respect to design requirements and system specifications. Three test campaigns
were carried out:

• functionality test campaign;

• tatic test campaign;
• ground resonance test.

The main objectives of each campaign have been outlined in the following subparagraphs together
with a general description of performed pre-test activities and test outcomes. In order to visually check
the status of the inner structure
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    and embedded equipment, skin modules were removed12  during
of  21  all
tests. For static tests, the applied load was reduced in order to compensate for the increased structural
elasticity due to the absence ofTable 4. Functionality test protocol 
the skin.

Camber Morphing Mode 
4.2. Functionality Test Tip Deflection Mode 
Voltage actuators activation; 
These tests were carried out to demonstrate thatControl switch to desired mode; 
the device was able to reproduce target
morphed shapes in a controlled and repeatable manner
Voltage actuators activation;  (Figure 14). The target morphed shapes were
Actuation up to the tip down configuration; 
considered successfully achieved if the angles between
Control switch to desired mode;  adjacent rib blocks—obtained upon actuators
Actuators stop and acquisition of rib blocks relative 
activation—matched the design values pertinent to each morphing rotations; 
Actuation up to the target configuration;  mode (Table 4) with a precision of
0.5◦ . According to the general layout presented inActuation reverse up to the baseline configuration; 
Actuators stop and acquisition of rib blocks relative  Figure 5, the first and the last sections of the flap were
rotations;  Actuation up to the tip up configuration; 
then equipped with additional high precision encoders measuring—in LabVIEW® environment—the
Actuation reverse, up to the baseline configuration;  Actuators stop and acquisition of rib blocks relative 
relative rotations between blocks B0 and B1 and between blocks B2 and B3 (Figure 15); due to the
Actuators stop, flap power off, check of the encoders  rotations; 
mechanical link between B0 and B2 it
displays for full rotation recovery. 
was considered un-relevant to place an additional encoder also
Actuation reverse up to the baseline configuration; 
between B2 and B3. Additional encoders were Actuators stop, flap power off, check of the encoders 
equipped with digital displays for real-time measure
reading. Test protocols (Table 4) were repeated 20 times and at each cycle the measured angles resulted
displays for full rotation recovery. 
  fully compliant with the design expectations at both inner and outer flap sections, Figure 16.

   

(a) Baseline  (b) Camber morphing 

   

(c) Tab up  (d) Tab down 
Figure 14. Flap configurations functionality test.
Figure 14. Flap configurations functionality test. 
 Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 12 of 20

   
Table 4. Functionality test protocol.
(a) Baseline  (b) Camber morphing 
Camber Morphing Mode Tip Deflection Mode
Voltage actuators activation;
Control switch to desired mode;
Voltage actuators activation; Actuation up to the tip down configuration;
Control switch to desired mode; Actuators stop and acquisition of rib blocks
Actuation up to the target configuration; relative rotations;
Actuators stop and acquisition of rib blocks Actuation reverse up to the baseline configuration;
relative rotations; Actuation up to the tip up configuration;
Actuation reverse, up to the baseline configuration;
  Actuators stop and acquisition of rib blocks
 
Actuators stop, flap power off, check of the relative rotations;
encoders displays for full rotation recovery. Actuation reverse up to the baseline configuration;
(c) Tab up  Actuators stop, flap(d) Tab down 
power off, check of the
encoders displays for full rotation recovery.
Figure 14. Flap configurations functionality test. 

   
(a)  (b) 
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    13  of  21 
Figure 15. Sensing strategy: (a) hinge encoder (b) and rotations displays. 
Figure 15. Sensing strategy: (a) hinge encoder (b) and rotations displays.

(a) Camber morphing: root rib  (b) Tab deflection: root rib 

(c) Camber morphing: tip rib  (d) Tab deflection: tip rib 

Figure 16. Flap configurations functionality test. 
Figure 16. Flap configurations functionality test.

4.3. Static Test with Powered Actuators

4.3. Static Test with Powered Actuators 
Static test was carried out to demonstrate the flap’s capability to withstand limit loads without
Static test was carried out to demonstrate the flap’s capability to withstand limit loads without 
permanent deformations, failures or buckling (as per part C of EASA airworthiness requirements
permanent deformations, failures or buckling (as per part C of EASA airworthiness requirements CS‐
CS-25, [37]). The flap was constrained in correspondence of the blocks B1 belonging to the third and the
25, [37])). The flap was constrained in correspondence of the blocks B1 belonging to the third and the 
sixth rib (from the root section) thus simulating a joint with a potential (and ideally rigid) deployment
sixth rib (from the root section) thus simulating a joint with a potential (and ideally rigid) deployment 
track. The pressure distribution related to the limit load condition (uncambered flap deployed at 35°, 
δflap = 35°, flight speed V∞ = 95.2 m/s, angle of attack  = 6°, sea level and max zero fuel weight, see 
Section 2.1) was converted into an equivalent set of lumped forces acting at the centre of rib blocks 
B0, B2, B3. (Figure 17) and easily reproducible during tests through a whiffle‐tree (Figure 18). The 
maximum  vertical  force  to  be  applied  at  the  top  of  the  whiffle  tree  to  reproduce  the  limit  design 
Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 13 of 20

track. The pressure distribution related to the limit load condition (uncambered flap deployed at 35◦ ,
δflap = 35◦ , flight speed V ∞ = 95.2 m/s, angle of attack α = 6◦ , sea level and max zero fuel weight,
see Section 2.1) was converted into an equivalent set of lumped forces acting at the centre of rib
blocks B0, B2, B3. (Figure 17) and easily reproducible during tests through a whiffle-tree (Figure 18).
The maximum vertical force to be applied at the top of the whiffle tree to reproduce the limit design
condition (1650 Kg) was reduced by the 10% in order to account for the absence of the skin during test
(The skin was not installed in order to allow for a quick inspection of the inner flap structure during
the test. The 10% reduction of the maximum load was evaluated on the base of pre-test simulations
showing that the induced displacement field along the unskinned flap would have been the same of
that induced by the full limit load along the skinned flap). Fifteen load steps of 100 Kg each, with a
loading speed of 10 Kg/s, were considered adequate to avoid any dynamic amplification.
A pause of 10 s at the achievement of each load step was moreover set to check data acquisition;
load levels were measured through a load cell installed between the hydraulic jack and the whiffle-tree.
All the actuators were turned on (powered) during the test in order to provide adequate (electrical)
torque to counteract applied loads.
The schematization of the whiffle-tree and the details of the constraints implemented during
the test are shown in the Figure 19. A Free-Body Diagram (FBD) is represented in Figure 20, clearly
showing where the lumped forces and how the test rig is reacting the load (flap fully clamped in
correspondence of blocks B1 belonging to bay 3 and bay 5). Each component of constraint forces and
moments are highlighted according to the main reference frame.
Actuation system capability to preserve the baseline flap shape under the action of aerodynamic
loads was positively verified with a maximum deviation that resulted lower of 0.5◦ (Figure 21). No
jamming of the actuation system occurred during the static test; after load removal, the flap was
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    14  of  21 
repeatedly morphed, thus proving the full functionality of the actuation lines.
Load [kN]

(a) 

 
(b)  (c) 

Figure 17.
Figure  (a) pressure 
17.  (a)  pressure distribution 
distribution at 
at limit 
limit design 
design condition; (b) lumped 
condition;  (b)  lumped forces 
forces distribution along
distribution  along 
blocks B0, B2, B3 equivalent to the pressure distribution at limit design load condition; (c) histogram
blocks B0, B2, B3 equivalent to the pressure distribution at limit design load condition; (c) histogram  of
the equivalent lumped forces distribution applied during tests (blocks B1, constrained).
of the equivalent lumped forces distribution applied during tests (blocks B1, constrained). 
 Figure  17.  (a)  pressure  distribution  at  limit  design  condition;  (b)  lumped  forces  distribution  along 
blocks B0, B2, B3 equivalent to the pressure distribution at limit design load condition; (c) histogram 
of the equivalent lumped forces distribution applied during tests (blocks B1, constrained). 
Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 14 of 20

 
 
(a) Iso view  (b) Lateral view 
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    15  of  21 
Figure 18. Whiffletree and rig for static test.
Figure 18. Whiffletree and rig for static test. 

The schematization of the whiffle‐tree and the details of the constraints implemented during the 
test  are  shown  in  the  Figure  19.  A  Free‐Body  Diagram  (FBD)  is  represented  in  Figure  20,  clearly 
showing where the lumped forces and how the test rig is reacting the load (flap fully clamped in 
correspondence of blocks B1 belonging to bay 3 and bay 5). Each component of constraint forces and 
moments are highlighted according to the main reference frame. 

(a) 

(b) 
Figure 19. Detail of the load application (a) and constraints (b) (aft view). 
Figure 19. Detail of the load application (a) and constraints (b) (aft view).
  

(b) 
Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 Figure 19. Detail of the load application (a) and constraints (b) (aft view).  15 of 20

Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    16  of  21 

Actuation system capability to preserve the baseline flap shape under the action of aerodynamic 
loads was positively verified with a maximum deviation that resulted lower of 0.5° (Figure 21). No 
jamming  of  the  actuation  system  occurred  during  the  static  test;  after  load  removal,  the  flap  was 
repeatedly morphed, thus proving the full functionality of the actuation lines. 
Figure 20. FBD representation: applied loads and constraints forces and moments.
Figure 20. FBD representation: applied loads and constraints forces and moments. 
The levels of electrical power absorbed by the actuators during the static test resulted within the 
The levels of electrical power absorbed by the actuators during the static test resulted within the
nominal target values, thus ensuring the compliance of the system with safety‐related aspects related 
nominal target values, thus ensuring the compliance of the system with safety-related aspects related
to power supply (Figure 22a). As expected, the obtained power absorption distribution (Figure 22b) 
to  power supply (Figure 22a). As expected, the obtained power absorption distribution
recalls the trend of the applied load outlined in Figure 17c. The absorbed power (P (Figure 22b)
ABS) was estimated 

recalls the trend of the applied load outlined in Figure 17c. The absorbed power (PABS ) was estimated
by Equation (2), 
by Equation (2),
PABS = VDC Irms  (2) 
PABS = VDC ·Irms (2)
where VDC represents the DC link voltage (220 V) and Irms the actual current (Arms). The results show 
where VDC represents the DC link voltage (220 V) and Irms the actual current (Arms). The results
that  the  current  levels  absorbed  by  the  actuators  are  well  below  the  saturation  limits  indicated  in 
show that the current levels absorbed by the actuators are well below the saturation limits indicated in
Table 1, thus proving the robustness of the electrical system with respect to possible jamming events 
Table 1, thus proving the robustness of the electrical system with respect to possible jamming events at
at the contingent load condition. 
the contingent load condition.

Figure 21. Deviation from the baseline configuration at rest: static load of 1520 N.  

Figure 21. Deviation from the baseline configuration at rest: static load of 1520 N. 
  

Figure 21. Deviation from the baseline configuration at rest: static load of 1520 N. 
Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 16 of 20

 
 
(a) Global electric power  (b) Contour at maximum load 

Figure 22. Absorbed power under static load.

Figure 22. Absorbed power under static load. 
4.4. Dynamic Test
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    17  of  21 
4.4. Dynamic Test 
At high speed, only the first three segments of the morphing flap are stowed in the wing while
standpoint, the tab behaves as a large aileron and detrimental flutter instability may arise from the 
the tabAt high speed, only the first three segments of the morphing flap are stowed in the wing while 
remains exposed to the aerodynamic flow and used for load control. From the aeroelastic
coupling of the first wing bending mode with the tab harmonic (elastic oscillation of the tab around 
the  tab  remains 
standpoint, the tabexposed 
behavesto asthe  aerodynamic 
a large aileron and flow  and  used flutter
detrimental for  load  control.  From 
instability
its hinge axis). Aeroelastic analyses based on numerical models [38,39] proved however that the flap 
the  aeroelastic 
may arise from the
coupling
  of the first wing bending mode with the tab harmonic (elastic oscillation of the tab around
tab design was safe from the flutter stand point considering also the functioning of the electric line 
its hinge axis). Aeroelastic analyses based on numerical models [38,39] proved however that the flap
feeding the actuators; in order to give experimental evidence of this result, ground resonance tests 
tab design was
were  carried  out  safeto 
from the flutter
validate  stand
the  flap  point considering
dynamic  model  used  also
for the functioning
theoretical  of the
flutter  electric line
analyses.  This 
feeding the actuators; in order to give experimental evidence of this result, ground resonance tests were
validation was performed by correlating numerical and experimental generalized parameters related 
carried out to validate the flap dynamic model used for theoretical flutter analyses. This validation was
to the only flap mode proved to be relevant for flutter stability [39]: the tab harmonic at powered 
performed by correlating numerical and experimental generalized parameters related to the only flap
actuators. The flap was suspended to a test rig through soft springs in order to reproduce a free‐free 
mode proved to be relevant for flutter stability [39]: the tab harmonic at powered actuators. The flap
condition, Figure 23; all the actuators were shut down. The ‘Normal Mode’ method was then used to 
was suspended to a test rig
detect  the  generalized  through soft
parameters  springs
of  the  flap  in order
tab  to reproduce
harmonic  mode  in  a free-free condition,
correspondence  of Figure
powered  23;
all the actuators were shut down. The ‘Normal Mode’ method was then used to detect the generalized
actuators. The procedure for acquiring modal parameters is generally long and expensive: it requires 
parameters of the flap tab harmonic mode in correspondence of powered actuators. The procedure
advanced load control systems and a dense sensing network. In such context, a hand‐controlled force 
for
was  applied, modal
acquiring parameters
isolating  is generally
and  acquiring  the long and expensive:
dynamic  response it of requires advanced
tab  modes  load
with  control
only  few 
systems and a dense sensing network. In such context, a hand-controlled force was applied, isolating
accelerometers. The experimentally identified tab harmonic (3.358 Hz) resulted well in line with the 
and acquiring the dynamic response of tab modes with only few accelerometers. The experimentally
theoretical expectations (3.350 Hz, see Figure 24). No further modes were detected in the frequency 
identified tab harmonic
range  (0–100  (3.358 to 
Hz)  considered  Hz) be resulted well relevance 
of  practical  in line with the
for  theoretical
aeroelastic  expectations
stability  (3.350 Hz,
phenomena.  The 
see Figure 24). No further modes were detected in the frequency range (0–100 Hz)
generalized  mass  of  the  mode  was  calculated  by  applying  the  complex  power  method,  [40].  considered toThe 
be
of practical relevance for aeroelastic stability phenomena. The generalized mass
control of force level is crucial during this phase, Figure 25a. An active (imaginary and proportional  of the mode was
calculated by applying the complex power method, [40]. The control of force level is crucial during
to viscous damping) and a reactive (real and proportional to mass and stiffness) powers components 
this phase, Figure 25a. An active (imaginary and proportional to viscous damping) and a reactive (real
are applied to the system by means of the shakers in the frequency range very close to the measured 
and proportional to mass and stiffness) powers components are applied to the system by means of the
mode, Figure 25b. With the aim to guarantee that the forces are constant in the considered range of 
shakers in the frequency range very close to the measured mode, Figure 25b. With the aim to guarantee
frequency, the measurements are carried out in closed loop. The comparison between numerical and 
that the forces are constant in the considered range of frequency, the measurements are carried out in
experimental values of tab harmonic generalized mass is summarized in Figure 26; also in this case a 
closed loop. The comparison between numerical and experimental values of tab harmonic generalized
very good correlation level was obtained. 
mass  is summarized in Figure 26; also in this case a very good correlation level was obtained.

   
      (a) Test rig and suspension configuration          (b) Detail of the exciter 

Figure 23. Boundary conditions of the GVT.

Figure 23. Boundary conditions of the GVT. 
    
      (a) Test rig and suspension configuration          (b) Detail of the exciter 

Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 Figure 23. Boundary conditions of the GVT.  17 of 20

Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    18  of  21 

(a) Numerical mode, f = 3.350 Hz 
Aerospace 2018, 5, x FOR PEER REVIEW    (b) Experimental mode, f = 3.358 Hz  18  of  21 

Figure 24. Tab normal mode in power on configuration.

Figure 24. Tab normal mode in power on configuration. 

   
(a) Input force level              (b) Complex Power 
   
(a) Input force level              (b) Complex Power 
Figure 25. Frequency swept close to the resonance frequency (f = 3.358 Hz). 
Figure 25. Frequency swept close to the resonance frequency (f = 3.358 Hz).
Figure 25. Frequency swept close to the resonance frequency (f = 3.358 Hz). 

 
Figure 26. Generalized mass comparison.  
Figure 26. Generalized mass comparison. 
5. Conclusions Figure 26. Generalized mass comparison. 
5. Conclusions 
In the framework of the Clean Sky-JTI project, authors investigated a high TRL solution for an
5. Conclusions 
In the framework of the Clean Sky‐JTI project, authors investigated a high TRL solution for an 
innovative flap element tailored for regional transportation aircraft end application. The conceived
innovative flap element tailored for regional transportation aircraft end application. The conceived 
device was designed in order to enable two different shape morphing modes depending on aircraft
In the framework of the Clean Sky‐JTI project, authors investigated a high TRL solution for an 
device was designed in order to enable two different shape morphing modes depending on aircraft 
flight condition and flap setting. Geometrical dimensions and design loads related to a true-scale
innovative flap element tailored for regional transportation aircraft end application. The conceived 
flight condition and flap setting. Geometrical dimensions and design loads related to a true‐scale flap 
flap segment of 3.6 m span were considered for the definition and validation of the morphing flap
device was designed in order to enable two different shape morphing modes depending on aircraft 
segment system.
actuation of  3.6  m  span  were  considered  for  the  definition  and  validation  of  the  morphing  flap 
flight condition and flap setting. Geometrical dimensions and design loads related to a true‐scale flap 
actuation system. 
A fullof 
scale
segment  3.6 prototype was finally
m  span  were  manufactured
considered  and testedand 
for  the  definition  to: validation  of  the  morphing  flap 
A full scale prototype was finally manufactured and tested to: 
actuation system. 
• demonstrate the morphing capability of the conceived structural layout;
• demonstrate the morphing capability of the conceived structural layout; 
A full scale prototype was finally manufactured and tested to: 
• demonstrate the capability of the actuation system to withstand static loads representative 
• demonstrate the morphing capability of the conceived structural layout; 
of the limit aerodynamic pressures expected in service. 
• demonstrate the capability of the actuation system to withstand static loads representative 
Rational approaches were implemented in an efficient test campaign providing the necessary 
of the limit aerodynamic pressures expected in service. 
database for the mechanical demonstration of the morphing structure. Test outcomes showed that 
Rational approaches were implemented in an efficient test campaign providing the necessary 
reliable,  controllable,  and  stable  morphing  compliant  with  design  requirements  is  assured  by  the 
database for the mechanical demonstration of the morphing structure. Test outcomes showed that 
Aerospace 2019, 6, 1 18 of 20

• demonstrate the capability of the actuation system to withstand static loads representative of the
limit aerodynamic pressures expected in service.

Rational approaches were implemented in an efficient test campaign providing the necessary
database for the mechanical demonstration of the morphing structure. Test outcomes showed that
reliable, controllable, and stable morphing compliant with design requirements is assured by the device
for both morphing modes. The encouraging outcomes have led to the design of a new architecture of
morphing flap. Relying upon the already assessed concept, an innovative and more advanced flap
device is going to be designed in order to enable up to three different morphing modes on the basis
of the A/C flight condition/flap setting. The third operative mode consists in twisting the flap tab
segment (±5◦ along the outer flap span): it is supposed to be activated in cruise condition only when
the flap is stowed in the wing. This additional mode will enable new load control functionalities to
enhance wing aerodynamic efficiency.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: M.A., R.P. and F.A.; Methodology: M.A. and R.P.; Software: M.A. and
F.A.; Validation: M.A. and F.A.; Formal analysis: F.A. and S.A.; Investigation: M.A., F.A., R.P. and S.A.; Resources:
F.A. and R.P.; Data curation: M.A.; Writing—original draft preparation: M.A.; Writing—review and editing: R.P.;
Visualization: F.A. and S.A.; Supervision: R.P.; Project administration: R.P.; Funding acquisition: R.P.
Funding: Part of the research described in this paper has been carried out in the framework of
AIRGREEN2 Project, which gratefully received funding from the Clean Sky 2 Joint Undertaking, under the
European’s Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation Programme, Grant Agreement No. 807089—REG
GAM 2018—H2020-IBA-CS2-GAMS-2017.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Leonardo Aircraft, for having provided the industrial
guidelines and the necessary support to the research work addressed by this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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