Rear axle

The axle supports the wheels as well as the drive shaft. The rear axle serves purposes which can
vary according to vehicle design. They are usually classified into two types:
1. Live axle
It is one that drives the vehicle and consists of a hollow axle casing through which drive is
transmitted from the final drive to the differential, to the half shafts and finally to the road wheels.
The axle rotates with the road wheels and is supported in bearings mounted in or on the axle casing.
2. Dead axle
A dead axle does not rotate. It merely supports the vehicle load and provides a mounting place for
the wheels. The rear axle of a front-wheel drive vehicle is a dead axle, as are the axles used on
trailers.
Rear axle construction
The rear axle is installed to the chassis springs through axle housings. The basic layout of a
conventional live axle used on rear-wheel drive vehicles comprises of the following:
1. Axle housing or casing
2. Final drive
3. Differential
4. Half shaft to each road wheel
5. Support bearings
6. Two hub assemblies
The axle housing is a single-piece construction and has the brakes installed at both ends. The drive
from the propeller shaft is transmitted through the crown wheel and pinion, to both rear wheels by
means of the half shafts. The axle housing itself acts as a beam to support the weight of the rear of
the vehicle and provides a mounting for the final drive and differential gears. Each half shaft is
supported at its inner end by the sun gears and bearing at their outer ends.
The rear axle shafts transfer the torque from the differential to the wheel. One end is splined to the
differential while the other end has the wheel bolted on. An oil seal is provided on the outer end of
each axle shaft to prevent the oil from leaking into the brakes.
On front-wheel drive vehicles, the rear axle is considered a dead axle. In a dead axle, bearings are
used to support the vehicle. However, since there is no differential, and is not used to transmit
power.
Rear axle shaft supporting
The rear live axle shafts have to withstand the following loads:
1. Shear force due to weight of the vehicle
2. Bending moment to weight of the vehicle
3. End thrust caused by the side forces due to side wind, cornering etc.,
4. Bending moment caused by the end thrust
5. Driving torque
In all the methods for axle supporting, the axle shaft has to take driving torque. But the various
designs vary depending upon which of the other loads is taken by the axle shaft. An axle in which the
shaft has to take all the loads is called semi- or non- floating axle and the one in which only driving
torque is taken by the axle shaft is called full- floating axle. In between the two is the three
quarter floating axle.
Semi- floating axle

The road wheel is attached to the wheel hub and the wheel hub is directly connected to the axle
shaft. The inner end of the axle shaft is splined and is supported by the final drive unit whereas the
outer end is flanged or tapered and is supported by a single ball bearing inside the axle casing. In this
all the loads are taken by the axle shaft. The vehicle weight is transmitted to each of the half shafts
through the axle casing and the bearing. This causes a bending load and a tendency to shear at the
point marked ‘A’. Besides, the side forces also cause end thrust and bending moment in the axle
shafts, which have to take driving torque also. It is the simplest and the cheapest of all types,
because of which it is widely used in passenger cars and light trucks.
Full- floating axle

In this, the axle shafts have flanges at the outer ends, which are connected to the flanged sleeve by
means of bolts. There are two taper roller bearings supporting the axle casing in the hub which take
up any side load. In this the axle shafts carry only the driving torque. The weight of the vehicle and
the end thrust are not carried by them, the weight being completely supported by the wheels and
the axle casing. As the axle shafts carry only the driving torque, their failure or removal does not
affect the wheels. Thus the axle shafts can be taken out or replaced without jacking up the vehicle.
For this reason, the vehicle can even be towed with a broken half-shaft.
It is a very robust one and is used for heavy vehicles. It is the costliest of all the types of axle shafts.
Three quarter floating axle

This is a compromise between the robust full-floating type and the simplest semi-floating type. In
this bearing is located between the axle casing and the hub instead of between the axle casing and
the shaft as in the case of semi-floating axle. As is clear from the fig., axle shafts do not have to
withstand any shearing or bending due to the weight of the vehicle, which are taken up by the axle
casing through the hub and the bearing. It still withstand the end loads due to cornering force on the
wheel and,of course, transmit driving torque.
It is widely used for cars and light commercial vehicles but its popularity has declined in favour of the
less costly and simpler semi-floating axles.
Comparison of the different types of axle

Loads Semi-floating Three-Quarter floating Fully floating

Driving Torque Axle Shaft Axle Shaft Axle Shaft

Shearing Force due to Hub bearing and Axle

Axle Shaft Axle Casing
vertical load Casing

Bending moment due to Hub bearing and Axle

Axle Shaft Axle Casing
offset vertical load Casing

End-thrust load due to Hub bearing and Axle

Axle Shaft Axle Shaft
side forces Casing

Bending moment due to Hub bearing and Axle

Axle Shaft Axle Shaft
end-thrust Casing

Rear axle housing

Requirements of axle housing

1. It must be sufficiently rigid to avoid any distortion of the final drive housing under the most
arduous operating conditions and thereby ensure quiet running of the gears.
2. Its rigidity must also be such as to maintain the half shafts in true alignment with the final drive
unit and thus reduce any possibility of their fatigue due to bending.

A housing completely encloses the axle shafts and gears and it protects them from water, dust and
injury. It also accommodates within it the bearing for the axle shafts and acts as a container for the
lubricant. Axle housings are made up of different materials - pressed steel, cast steel, malleable iron,
cast aluminium or steel forging

Types of rear axle housings

1. Split type
It is made in two halves and then bolted together for assembly. The major disadvantage is that in
case of any repair or fault, the whole of the rear axle has to be removed as a unit and then
disassembled. It is obsolete now.
2. Banjo or Separate carrier type
It is of one piece type housing, shaped like a banjo. The complete differential unit is carried in a
separate carrier which is bolted to the axle housing. The two half shafts are put from sides.
Therefore in case of any need for repairs, the half shafts can be taken out directly from the sides.
The differential assembly removed by opening bolts only.
3. Integral carrier type
This is similar in construction to the banjo type expect that the carrier, has permanent housing tubes
pressed and welded in its side. It is also called the unitized carrier housing. This type of housing is
most widely used in case of rear drive cars.
Multi-axle vehicles

For transportation of heavy goods or more passengers, multi axle vehicles are used. In the multi axle
vehicles, power is transmitted to one or more driving axles. Dummy axles are also provided in multi
axle vehicles either to increase the load carrying capacity or because of axle load limitations.

A large flat platform is needed to carry the load. A heavy duty frame supports the main components
of the vehicle as well as the platform which forms the basis of the body and the cab is at the front of
the vehicle. The engine is usually mounted at the front and the whole of the space from engine
rearwards is available to carry the load.
Front wheel drive is used as this not suitable for heavy commercial vehicles because of the
unfavourable distribution of weight on the front axle and the resultant traction difficulties. The
engine can be located above or near to the front axle and in some application in the middle of the
vehicle (underfloor) which gives a more favourable weight distribution.
With multi-axle vehicles, almost all non-steering axles are driven. In the case of all wheel drive all
axles are driven, including the front axle which is being steered.

Multi-axle trucks
To carry extra loads on the same axle, the rear wheels either have twin tyres, fitted side by side or
special wide-section single tyres. Vehicles exceeding a certain total load have 6 wheels carried on 3
axles; whilst even heavier have 8 wheels on each of 4 axles.
When six wheels are used, the two extra wheels may be carried on an additional axle at the rear of
the vehicle as shown in fig. These extra wheels are usually driven but not steered.

Alternatively, the extra axle is placed at the front as shown in fig., in which case the wheels are
steered but not driven.

Eight wheeled vehicles having two front axles steered but not driven and two rear axles driven but
not steered as shown in fig.
Trucks are allowed to tow a trailer on which an additional load can be carried. A four or a six
wheeled tractor to which is attached, the front end of a semi-trailer having two or four wheels at its
rear end by a special turntable coupling (fifth wheel coupling). In this way, some of the weight
carried by the semi-trailer is supported by the tractor. The combination of tractor and semi-trailer is
called an articulated vehicle.

WHEELS
Essential Requirements of Wheels
1. It must be strong enough to take the weight of the vehicle(radial load), transmit the engine
driving torque and braking torque to the tyres (tractive load of the tyre), during turning side load
is placed on the tyre (lateral load) so that the wheel & tyre assembly provide ride quality, load
capacity and vehicle handling characteristics.
2. It should be flexible to absorb the road shocks.
3. It should be perfectly balanced statically as well as dynamically.
4. It should be lightest possible so that the unsprung weight is least.
5. It must be able to grip the road surface
6. It should be mounted or removed easily.
7. Its material of its construction should not deteriorate with weathering and age (to protect
against corrosion, if required, suitable treatment must be given)
8. It should not too expensive.

Types of Automobile Wheels

1. Pressed steel disc wheel
It is used almost universally because of its simplicity, robust construction, lower cost of manufacture
and ease in cleaning. This type of wheels consists of two parts, the rim which is generally well-based
and the flange (disc). The rim and the flange (disc), permanently attached (welded) or attachable
depending upon design. It is secured to a flange of the hub or axle by 4, 5 or 6 bolts or studs.

When the bead of the tyre is resting in the well, it is possible to pass the tyre over the opposite
edges of the rim. The seat of the rim where the tyre rests has a taper (5° or 15°) so that as the tyre is
inflated, the beads are forced up the taper to give a wedge fit.
There are openings (holes) in the disc provide increased air circulation for better cooling of the
brake drum. Further, they break up vibrations transmitted from the rim to the wheel. A hole in the
rim serves to accommodate the tube valve
Disc wheel nomenclatures

A wheel may be inset, zeroset or outset, depending upon the position of the rim in relation to
attachment face of the disc.

In the inset wheel, the centre line of the rim is located inboard of the attachment face of the disc.
‘Inset’ is the distance from the attachment face of the disc to the centre line of the rim.

A zeroset wheel is the one in which the centre line of the rim coincides with the attachment face of
the disc.

In the outset wheel, the centre line of the rim is located outboard of the attachment face of the disc.

Reversible wheel
A wheel whose disc can be mounted on either face to provide inset or outset, thus decreasing or
increasing the wheel track is called reversible wheel.
Divided wheel
A wheel constructed in two parts, which when securely fastened together combine to form a rim
having two fixed flanges, is called a divided wheel.
2. Wire wheel
It has a separate hub, which is attached to the rim through a number of wire spokes. The spokes
carry the weight, transmit the driving and braking torques and withstand the side forces while
cornering, in tension. Spokes are long, thin wires and as such these cannot take any compressive or
bending stresses. All types of loads are sustained by these spokes in tension. The spokes are
mounted in a complicated criss-cross fashion in all the three planes. The initial tension of the spokes
can be adjusted by means of screw nipples which also serve to secure the spokes to the rim. The hub
is provided with internal splines to correspond to the splines provided on the axle shaft.

The advantages of this type of wheel are light weight (with high strength) and lightly springy. They
ensure better airflow around the brakes. They give sporty appearance.

The spoked wheels are too fragile for the job. The spokes would break or strip the threads. It is
difficult to clean the spoked wheels. They are expensive and not possible to fit tubeless tyres. Todays
car have a low C.G and these stipulate a wider and a smaller wheel (reduced distance between the
wheel hub and rim)
3. Light alloy cast or forged wheel

These wheels are produced as a single-piece rim and disc. Generally, car wheels are shaped by
casting or extrusion, but forging is preferred for truck wheels. The major advantage of light-alloy
wheels is their reduced weight which reduces unsprung weight. A magnesium alloy wheel weighs
about 50% of a steel wheel and about 70% of an aluminium alloy wheel for the similar strength are
the two most commonly used.

Moreover light alloys are better conductors of heat which helps the wheels dissipate any heat
generated by the tyres or brakes and thereby run cooler. Further, wider rims are possible which
improves stability on cornering. Though cast or forged wheels have to be machined, yet this helps to
maintain close tolerances and also produce better appearance.

Magnesium alloys have high impact and fatigue strength so that they can withstand vibrations and
shock loads better, however, should be given protective coating to prevent corrosion. Aluminium
alloys do not have such properties but they corrode less readily but relatively easier to cast or forge
and also less prone to corrosion.

Higher cost is the only disadvantage of light alloy wheels.

Specification of a wheel
The wheel is denoted by a code containing the following sequence
i. Width (in inches)
ii. A letter identifying the rim profile
iii. Diameter (in inches)
e.g., 5.50 B-13
Wheels of same W and D may have different offsets(c).

Advantages of smaller wheels

1. Reduced unsprung weight giving better road holding.
2. Lower initial cost
3. Wheel arches project less into passenger space.
4. Smaller wheels cause lower height and C.G
5. Maximum steering lock angle can be increased as smaller wheels require less space when on
lock.
6. Spare wheel requires less storage space.
TYRE
A tyre is a cushion provided with an automobile wheel. It consists of mainly the outer cover i.e., the
tyre proper and the tube inside. The tyre –tube assembly mounted over the rim. It is the air inside
the tube that carries the entire load and provides the cushion.

Functions

1. To support the vehicle load.

2. To cushion the wheel against small road shocks.
3. To transmit driving and braking forces between wheel and road surface.
4. To convert steering effort into directional movement.
5. To provide cornering power for smooth steering.

Desirable tyre properties

1. Non-Skidding
The tread pattern on the tyre must be suitably designed to permit least amount of skidding even on
wet road.
2. Uniform wear
To maintain the non-skidding property, it is very essential that wear on the tyre tread must be
uniform. The ribbed tread patterns help to achieve this.
3. Load-carrying
The tyre is subjected to alternating stresses during each revolution of the wheel. The tyre material
and design must be able to ensure that the tyre is able to sustain these stresses.
4. Cushioning
The tyre should be able to absorb small high frequency vibrations set up by the road surface and
thus provide cushioning effect.
5. Tyre Noise
It may be in the form of definite pattern, a squeal or a loud roar and it is desirable that the noise
should be minimum.
6. Balancing
Being a rotating part, it must be balanced statically as well as dynamically. The absence of balancing
gives rise to peculiar oscillations called wheel tramp and wheel wobble.
7. Power consumption
It absorbs some power due to friction between the tread rubber and road surface and also due to
hysteresis loss on account of the tyre being continuously flexed and released.

TYPES OF TYRES
Conventional Tubed tyre
It encloses a tube. It consists of 2 main parts, viz., the carcass and the tread. The outer portion of the
tyre which rolls on the road is called Tread. The tread is moulded into a series of grooves & ribs. The
ribs provide the traction edges required for gripping the road surface while the grooves provide
passage for quick escape of any foreign matter such as water and mud.
At the inner edges, beads are formed by reinforcing with rings of steel wires. The beads act as strong
shoulders for bearing against the wheel rim.
The Carcass consists of a number of plies wound in a particular fashion from the cords of rayon or
any other suitable material. Each cord in each ply is moulded with resilient rubber compounds and
all the plies are insulated against each other.
Between the bead and the tread, outer rubber covering of the carcass is called the side wall. The
side walls are designed to flex and bend without cracking when subjected to continuous deflection
while running.
The beads and cords give strength to the tyre, the treads provide resistance against slipping and
thicker surface at the outer periphery.
Tubeless tyre
It does not enclose the tube. The air under pressure is filled in the tyre itself, a non-return valve is
fitted to the rim. The inner construction of the tyre is almost the same as that of the tubed tyre
except that it is lined on inside with a special air-retaining line.
The tubeless tyres are lighter and run cooler than tube tyre.

Advantages of Tubeless tyre over tubed tyre

1. Lesser unsprung weight
Being lighter, unsprung weight is reduced, reducing wheel bounce.
2. Better cooling
Since there is no tube in the tubeless tyre, heat can be passed on to the atmosphere directly
resulting in better cooling thereby increasing the tyre life.
3. Slower leakage of air
The inner liner in the tubeless tyre is not stretched like the tube, it retains the air better resulting
in slower leakage.
4. Simpler assembly
Only the tyre has to be fitted over the rim. There is no danger of the tube being punctured
during assembly.
5. Improved safety
Any hole caused in the tubeless tyre can be repaired simply by rubber plugging. A tubeless tyre
retains the air pressure for long periods after being punctured by a nail, provide the same is held
 in place. The chances of sudden tyre puncture leading to accident are reduced and any tyre
damage shows up only as a small leak. Tubeless tyres retain the air pressure by virtue of their
perfect seal with the wheel rim.

CARCASS TYPES
1. Cross ply or bias ply
2. Radial ply
3. Belted- bias ply
CROSS PLY TYRE CONSTRUCTION
Cross ply tyres are usually constructed of plies of rayon or nylon cord fabric and rubber laid at
opposing angles to each other at approximately 30° to 40° to the tyre axis. The cross ply tyre gets its
strength from the many textile cords, criss-cross and embedded in the rubber. These cords are
arranged in layers, usually 2 or 4 layers and are referred to as plies.
These plies perform two jobs:
1. They have to make the walls strong enough to contain the air pressure and yet leave them as
supple as possible for deflection.
2. They have to support and steady the tread.
RADIAL PLY TYRE CONSTRUCTION
Radial ply tyre consists of one, two, three or more plies of textile cords run in the radial direction,
with a breaker strip of several plies laid circumferentially under the tread. The material for the
breaker strips must be flexible but inextensible, so that no change in circumference takes place on
inflation. Without the breaker strip, radial plies would give very soft ride and there won’t be any
lateral stability.
Belted bias tyre construction
This is a combination of the above two of types. The basic construction is the bias-ply over which a
number of breaker belts run. The belts improve the characteristics of the bias-ply to a large extent:
1. The stresses in the carcass are restricted and the tread area stabilized due to belts. This results in
reduction of tyre scrubbing and increase of tyre life.
2. It hold the tread flatter against road surface, thus causing increase of traction and safety, and
3. It increases the resistance of the tyre to cuts and punctures.

Tyre materials
Rubber used in tyres is a blend of natural and synthetic rubber compounded with a large number of
chemicals to obtain desired properties like wear resistance, less internal friction, reduced hysteresis
etc.,
Carcass material
Staple cotton used at the time of second world war.
Rayon is used even today.
Nylon (stronger, more elastic and hence cooler running than rayon, not found in large use because
of its tendency for cold flatting)
Terylene (tough, durable and does not absorb any moisture, also does not have cold flatting
tendency as in nylon but difficult to bond with rubber)
For cords of the stabilizer belts, the materials used are rayon, terylene, glass fibre (very strong and
extra elastic but special techniques are required for spinning it into fibre cord), steel.
Beads
For beads, bronze plated high tensile steel wire is used.
Aspect Ratio
Aspect Ratio = Tyre section height
Tyre section width
and is expressed in percentage.
Initially an aspect ratio of 100 was used, but recently the low aspect ratios are becoming popular.
The advantages of low aspect ratio are better load carrying capacity, less wear, higher cornering
power and better performance at high speeds.
The main disadvantage of low aspect ratio is the uncomfortable ride because of less vertical
flexibility.
For passenger cars, aspect ratio varies from 70 to 50.
In racing cars, it can be even as low as 27.

Factors Affecting Tyre Life

1. Inflation – over inflation, under inflation
2. Vehicle Maintenance – Wheel alignment, Camber, Castor, Brakes adjustment etc.,
3. Manner of driving – Excessive speeding, Quick start and stops, careless parking
4. Miscellaneous factors – Heat, Road conditions, Seasons etc.,

Tyre designation