51r

TECHNICAL NOTES

FlRST-TIME SLIDES lN OVER-CONSOLIDATED CLAYS

A. W. SKEMPTON,F.R.S.*

INTRODUCTION
In the Fourth Rankine Lecture (Skempton, 1964) the íollowing points were made relating
to long-term slope stability in over-consolidated elays.

(a) After a slide has taken place the strength on the slip surface is equal to the residual
value. The residual strength is associated with strong reorientation of the elay
partieles and is represented by an angle oí shearing resistance 4>' r which in most elays
is considerably smaller than the value of 4>' at peak strength (Fig. 1).
(b) First-time slides in slopes in non-fissured elays correspond to strengths only slightly c
less than the peak. r
(c) First-time slides in fissured elays correspond to strengths well below the peak.
(d) Some form of progressive failure must be operative to take the elay past the peak.
This could be simply the result of a non-uniform ratio of stress to strength along
the potential slip surface; but probably the fissures play an important role as stress
concentrators and in leading to softening of the elay mass.
(e) Granted a progressive failure mechanism the limiting strength would be residual,
and it is therefore reasonable to express the actual strength at the time oí failure
as a function of the upper (peak) and lower (residual) limits, i.e. by the residual
factor.
(f) In natural slopes of London Clay the strength has fallen approximately to the
residual value.
(g) The residual strength obtains on pre-existing shear surfaces, whether these are the
result of tectonic shearing or old landslides.

All these points except (e) are still believed to be valido In (e) the argument short-circuits
the 'critical state', and it fails to take into account the comparatively small magnitude of the
displacements which typically precede a first-tirne slide in over-consolidated clays.!

DISCUSSION

As defined by Roscoe et alo (1958) a saturated elay is at its critical state, in a drained test, if
any further increment in shear distortion will not result in any change in water content. In
the ideal case a clay, whatever its original condition, will expand or contract during (drained)
shear until the critical state is reached, when it continues to deform under constant stress and at

* Professor of Civil Engineering, Imperial College of Science and Technology.

1 The term 'first-time slide' is used (Skempton and Hutchinson, 1969) to distinguish slides in previously
unsheared material from those due to reactivation of movement along a pre-existing shear surface.
320
 TECHNICAL NOTES 321
steer Shcor
stress _-LPcQk O-_C st"~h ~

FuUysoft.ncd ~ i~
_/ L:k~ T~~ Fig. 1 Shear characteristics
of clays
e; -. r

Residual l!é""-------'---:---
Displocemcnt O Effectivc normo.l prcssurc <T~

Shcar
Shecr
stress
strcngt"

Effcctive normal prlSSll'"c

Watcr
contcnt

Disptaccmcnt Fig.2 Critical state in drained shear tests on ideal clay

constant volume (Fig. 2). In particular the critical state corresponds to the strength of a
normally consolidated c1ay and, by defmition, the water content in this state is equal to that
attained ultimately by the over-consolidated c1ay due to expansion (dilatancy) during shear.
For real c1ays exhibiting sensitivity, bonding and preferred partic1e orientation the be-
haviour pattern is more complex, and the determination (and even the definition) of critical
state is not an easy matter. Schofield and Wroth (1968) consider that the peak strength of a
normally consolidated remoulded c1ay occurs just before the critical state is reached and sug-
gests a value of ""c=22tO for London Clay. This may be compared with ""s =200 for the no r-
mally consolidated peak. Since the latter strength can readily be determined it may be taken
as a practical approximation to the critical state," and hence to the fully softened strength of
an over-consolidated c1ay. Thus we may say that the fully softened strength parameters
c' s and ",'sare equal numerically to the peak strength parameters of the normally consolidated
c1ay.
e It may be noted that the peak strength of normally consolidated remoulded c1ay is also the
theoreticallimiting strength of stiff fissured c1ay which has undergone complete softening as a
result of lateral stress release in a cutting, following the process described by Terzaghi (1936)
s (see Appendix).
e The displacement required to reduce an over-consolidated c1ay to the fully softened condi-
tion, or approximately to this condition, is several times greater than the displacement at peak
strength but is nevertheless not large, and is considerably less than that corresponding to
residual strength. Moreover it seems probable that when the strength has fallen to the fully
softened value, or close to it, there is as yet no principal shear surface but instead a complex of
minor shears such as the Riedel, thrust and displacement shears (Skempton, 1966) which have
if
not been linked into a smooth continuous suríace." Partic1e re-orientation will have occurred
11

l) From a diagram given by Schofield (1967) it seems that he accepts this approximation .
2
.t Observations reported by Watson (1956) at Uxbridge are of interest in this connexion.
3 Until emergency
remedial measures became effective the retaining wall at this site (in London Clay) had moved rather more
than 18 in. Slip surfaces up to about 6 ft long were noted in the shear zone, but these surfaces apparently
had not then joined up throughout the entire length of the zone. On the other hand movements of the order
3-5 ft were sufficient to generate a continuous slip surface in the brown London Clay at Northolt (James,
ly
1970).
322 TECHNICAL NOTES
1000,------------------------, 13 Lcb. peck
Brown lol"ldon e tay 300
• First- tim •. slidn
Sheer M k -----
• Post-stip movtments ass p.~
•••.•••.
~ »> c'
strCl"9th ~

Ib/,~ft
SOO

_____
_____
------ __~
~

e ._
------

•...-
_
...---. ~ ---\.:" -
Residual
--
...:-- ...---
,...........• ........-<FUll)' softcncd

lo}

D 0....-· ..
.-s:---
.. . lobo peak

--?~ Mas5 pcok

);-----'S'*00,-----;1,,;OOO.,----- ••
,S'.ii00,---------2-:;d,OOO
Sh••r
FuUy s~fttn.d
Effectivl normal pressure cr~: lb/sq..;t 5trcngth First-time 51i~ _---.L_
Residual
Ib}

DisploCllmlEnt : ft;

Fig. 3 (above). Relation between average shear strength

and normal pressure along slip surface for cuttings in Lob. peok

brown London Clay SOO Moss pcok

Shecr
slrcngth:

Ib/'9oft

Fig. 4 (right). Strength changes with time and displace-

ment in stifi fissured clay cuttings (the nurnerical values «)
are illustrative of London Clay) Time ctter cxcQvation : y_ors 50

along these minor shears, as demonstrated by Morgenstern and Tchalenko (1967), but the effect
of such a fabric is already built in to the fully softened strength.
Thus in a simplified manner the post-peak changes may be considered to be composed of
two successive stages: (a) dilatancy and the opening of fissures leading to increases in water
content and culminating in a drop in strength to the fully softened value, at which stage there
is a softened shear zone with numerous discontinuous shears; (b) development of principal
shears of appreciable length some of which eventually link together and form a continuous
shear, when the residual strength is reached along the entire slip surface.
There is no break or point of inflexion in the post-peak stress strain curves corresponding
to the change from stage (a) to (b), but sufficient field evidence now exists (Fig. 3) to show that
the strength in first-time slides in London Clay cuttings tends towards, and does not fall
significantly below, the fully softened value." Hence it seems that the end of stage (a)
represents a more realistic limit than the residual for the ultimate drop in strength preceding a
first-time slide in London Clay.
This is almost certainly due to the comparatively small magnitude of the strains occurring
before a first-time slide takes place; movements measured in inches, rather than in feet as
for the post-slide movements in which the strength falls to the residual (Fig. 4).
The chief purpose of this Note is to affirm that we can accept the fully softened strength
(representing a practical approximation to the critical state) as the limit of strength reduction
in first-time slides in London Clay and probably in many other stiff fissured clays. If this is
correct it is sufficient to design against failure using the fully softened strength, since the
residual will only be reached after a slip has occurred.

4 This evidence has been collected and analysed mainly by DeLory (1957) and James (1970) working
under the direction of Dr D. J. Henkel, Professor N. R. Morgenstern and myself. The slips have taken
place at periods ranging from 16 to 81 years after excavation of the cutting.
 TECHNICAL NOTES 323
These statements are in general agreement with the views of Schofield and Wroth (1968),
while the recommendation that the fully softened strength can be used as a limiting value in
design is a return to the opinion expressed on several occasions (e.g. Henkel, 1956; Skempton,
1961) and adopted in making recommendations for the design of cuttings and retaining walls
in London Clay, e.g. on the southern extension of the Ml motorway near Edgware.

However, there are important reservations in terms of a general acceptance of this limit for
all over-consolidated clays.
First, analyses of the slides at Lodalen (Sevaldson, 1956), Selset (Skempton and Brown,
1961) and Kimola (Kankare, 1969) indicate that, although the clays at these sites are over-
consolidated, the strength at failure is close to the undisturbed peak value. This is not sur-
prising at Lodalen and Kimola since the clays are non-fissured and lightly over-consolidated,
and there is probably little if any dilatancy during shear. In contrast, at Selset the clay is
heavily over-consolidated and expands strongly during shear. Hence the absence of any
appreciable softening is presumably due to the lack of any mechanism for progressive
failure leading to post-peak strains, and this may be accounted for by the absence of fissures or
other structural discontinuities in this intact clay till. 5
In all three cases the use of the fully softened strength (taking this as represented by c' = O
and 4>'s = 4; p) leads to an error of about 30% in ca1culating the strength at the time the slides
occurred.
Second, natural slopes in London Clay (Skempton, 1964) and in Lias clay (Chandler, 1970)
accord well with the residual strength and are appreciably flatter than would be the case if the
strength had not falIen below the fully softened values. However, in the light of the foregoing
comments and observations it may be supposed that the residual strength in natural slopes is
attained as a result of multiple or successive slipping of the type described by Hutchinson
(1967), or as a consequence of solifluction under periglacial conditions (Skempton and Petley,
1967; Weeks, 1969). Weathering could also play apart.
Last, it would be unsafe in the present state of knowledge to generalize too widely from the
London Clay experience. Clays with a higher degree of over-consolídation or a greater ten-
dency to expand, folIowing stress release, may suffer a greater drop in strength even before a
first-time slide occurs. In such materials the residual may indeed be the relevant 1imiting
sttength, as suggested by Bjerrum (1967). This would also be the case if, over an appreciable
proportion of its 1ength, the slip surface could follow a bedding plane or other discontinuities
along which tectonic shearing has taken place.

CONCL USIONS
First, there are some over-consolidated clays (notably those without fissures) in which the
strength appropriate to first-time slides is nearly equal to the undisturbed peak value and in-
cludes an important c' termo The use of a fully softened or critical state strength in such clays
would lead to excessively low factors of safety. Second, the London Clay and probably many
other stiff fissured clays undergo a loss in strength in cuttings tending towards the fully
softened value, more or 1essin accordance with critical state concepts. In such clays there must
be a mechanism of progressive failure andfor softening which takes them past the peak, and
just before a first-time slide occurs there is a softened shear zone with many minor shears.
Third, it is possible that some over-consolidated clays may exhibit a more aggressive reduction
in strength before a first-time slide takes place. Fourth, in all clays the residual strength will

5 Tests which have now been in progress for more than three years (Bishop and Lovenbury, 1969) indicate
that clay samples will not cross the peak when kept at stresses lower than the peak but which are nevertheless
higher than the critical or residual strength. This experimental result emphasizes the necessity for a pro-
gressive failure process if a clay is to fail at strengths well below the undisturbed peak value.
324 TECHNICAL NOTES

be reached after a continuous principal shear surface has developed and, in the field, this state
appears to be attained typically after mass movements of the order of several feet. Fifth, the
angle of ultimate stability of c1ay slopes is probably controlled by the residual strength and
this may result from successive slipping or solifluction movements.

APPENDIX
As mentioned, fissures can act as stress concentrators and they can also lead to softening of the elay
mass. The latter process was explained by Terzaghi (1936). He suggested that the lateral stress release
consequent upon excavating a cutting could cause some fissures to open. ln stiff elays the strength is
sufficient to allow a fissure to remain open at depth. Softening will then take place from the face of an open
fissure, under zero effective stress. This leads to further deformations, the opening of more fissures etc.
It follows (although Terzaghi did not draw this conelusion) that, unless a slip intervenes, the end product
of such a softening process must be a elay reduced essentially to its normally consolidated condition, for as
deformation proceeds fissures which once were open must sooner or later be elosed (in order to transmit the
overburden loads) and the elay which had softened under zero stress will be reconsolidated under the weight
of overlying material. Thus again we find that the strength in the fully softened condition can be represented
by the strength of normally consolidated elay.
This point was apprecated by Henkel and Skempton (1955) and accounts for the use of the expression
'fully softened strength' as an alternative, obviously better than speaking of the normally consolidated
strength of an over consolidated elay. The term was introduced in exactly the present context by Skempton
(1948) but in relation to undrained strength. The numerical values proposed then for London Clay corre-
spond elosely with the strengths deduced from effective stress parameters.

REFEREKCES
BISHOP, A. 'vV. & LOVENBURY,H. T. (1969). Creep characteristics of two undisturbed clays. Proc. 7th Tnt,
Conj. Soil Mech., Mexico 1, 29-37.
BJERRUM, L. (1967). Progressive failure in slopes in over-consolidated plastic elay and clay shales. J. Soil
Mech. Fdn Div. Am. Soco civ. Engrs 93, SM5, 3-49.
CHANDLER,R. J. (1970). A shallow slab slide in the Lias elay near Uppingham, Rutland. Géotechmique 20,
No. 3, 253-260.
DELoRY, F. A. (1957). Long-terrn stability of slopes in over-consolidated elays. Ph.D. thesis, University
of London.
HENKEL, D. J. (1956). Discussion on Earth movements affecting L.T.E. railway in deep cutting east of
Uxbridge. Proc: Tnstn civ. Engrs 5, Part 2, 320-323.
HENKEL, D. J. & SKEMPTON,A. W. (1955). A landslide at Jackfield, Shropshire, in a heavily over-con-
solidated elay. Géotechnique 5, No. 2, 131-137.
HUTCHINSON,J. N. (1967). The free degradation of London Clay eliffs. Proc, Geotech, Conj., Oslo 1, 113-
118.
KANKARE, E. (1969). Failures at Kimola fioating canal in southern Finland. Proc. 7th Lni, Con]. Soil
Mech., Mexico 2, 609-616.
JAMES, P. M. (1970). Time effects and progressive failure in elay slopes. Ph.D. thesis, University of
London.
MORGENSTERN,N. R. & TCHALENKO,J. S. (1967). Microscopic structures in kaolin subjected to direct shear.
Géotechnique 17, No. 4, 309-328.
ROSCOE, K. H., SCHOFIELD,A. N. & WROTH, C. P. (1958). On the yielding of soils. Géotechnique 8, No. 1,
22-53.
SCHOFIELD,A. N. (1967). Discussion on Shear strength of stiff elay. Proc, Geotech. Conf., Oslo 2, 180.
SCHOFIELD,A. N. & WROTH, C. P. (1968). Critical state soil mechanics. London: McGraw-Hill.
SEVALDSON,R. A. (1956). The slide at Lodalen, October 6th, 1954. Géotechnique 6, No. 4, 167-182.
SKEMPTON,A. W. (1948). The rate of softening in stiff fissured elays, with special reference to London Clay.
Proc. 2nd Int. Conj. Soil Mech., Rotterdam 2, 50-53.
SKEMPTON,A. W. (1961). Discussion on Earth dams, slopes and open excavations. Proc. 5th Int. Conj.
Soil Mech., Paris 3, 349-350.
SKEMPTON,A. W. (1964). Long-term stability of elay slopes. Géotechnique 14, No. 2, 77-101.
SKEMPTON,A. W. (1966). Some observations on tectonic shear zones. Proc, 1st Int. Conj. Rock Mech.,
Lisbon 1, 329-335.
SKEMPTON,A. W. & BROWN, J. D. (1961). A landslide in boulder elay at Selset, Yorkshire. Géotechnique
11, No. 4, 280-293.
SKEMPTON,A. W. & HUTCHINSON,J. N. (1969). Stability of natural slopes. Proc. 7th Int. Conj. Soil Mech.,
Mexico 3, 291-340.
SKEMPTON, A. W. & PETLEY, D. J. (1967). The strength along structural discontinuities in stiff elays.
Proc. Geotech. Conj., Oslo 2, 29-46.
TERZAGHI, K. (1936). Stability of slopes of natural elay. Proc, 1st Int. ConJ. Soil Mech., Haruard 1,
161-165.
VI ATSON,J. D. (1956). Earth movements affecting L.T.E. railway in deep cutting east of Uxbridge. Proc.
Instn civ. Engrs 5, Part 2, 302-316.
WEEKS, A. G. (1969). The stability of natural slopes in south-east England as affected by periglacial
activity. Q. fi Engng Geol. 2, 49-61.