applied

sciences
Article
Design of a Solenoid Actuator for a Cylinder Valve in
a Fuel Cell Vehicle
Hyo Ryeol Lee 1 , Jung Hwan Ahn 1 and Hwa Young Kim 2, *
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, 2, Busandaehak-ro 63beon gil, Geumjeong-gu,
Busan 46241, Korea; hong30140@pusan.ac.kr (H.R.L.); jhwahn@pusan.ac.kr (J.H.A.)
2 Research Institute of Mechanical Technology, Pusan National University, 2, Busandaehak-ro 63beon gil,
Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Korea
* Correspondence: hyokim@pusan.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-51-510-2861

Academic Editor: Chien-Hung Liu

Received: 26 August 2016; Accepted: 28 September 2016; Published: 12 October 2016

Abstract: Green vehicles include electric vehicles, natural gas vehicles, fuel cell vehicles (FCV),
and vehicles running on fuel such as a biodiesel or an ethanol blend. An FCV is equipped with
a cylinder valve installed in an ultra-high pressure vessel to control the hydrogen flow. For this
purpose, an optimum design of the solenoid actuator is necessary to ensure reliability when driving
an FCV. In this study, an electromagnetic field analysis for ensuring reliable operation of the solenoid
actuator was conducted by using Maxwell V15. The electromagnetic field analysis was performed
by magneto static technique, according to the distance between magnetic poles, in order to predict
the attraction force. Finally, the attraction force was validated through comparison between the
Maxwell results and measurement results. From the results, the error of attraction force ranged
from 2.33 to 3.85 N at testing conditions.

Keywords: fuel cell vehicle; cylinder valve; solenoid actuator; electromagnetic field analysis; heat
transfer analysis

1. Introduction
In recent years, growing concerns regarding environmental pollution have recently increased
the demand for green vehicles. Green vehicles include electric vehicles, natural gas vehicles, fuel cell
vehicles (FCV), and vehicles running on fuels such as a bio diesel or an ethanol blend. Fuel cell vehicles
are driven by electric power made through electrochemical reactions between hydrogen and oxygen
that generate water. These vehicles do not emit any contaminants such as CO2 , HC and NOx since the
operation principles of fuel cells do not include any combustion reaction. These vehicles show very
high energy conversion efficiency because they do not use any driving part that makes reciprocating
motions, such as pistons in engines. However, to extend their range and secure their competitiveness
against other fuels, the storage capacity of hydrogen gas needs to be increased by compressing it up to
an ultra-high pressure of 700 bar [1,2].
When storing and using fuel at ultra-high pressure, securing the safety of the cylinder and cylinder
valves is very important. For the safety of the cylinder, a high-strength aluminum liner used as an
internal vessel, was produced by extrusion and auto frettage processes and then laminated with carbon
fiber on the outer wall [3]. The cylinder valve is the main component of the cylinder in the fuel control
system of the FCV. It is composed of a manual manipulation device for opening and closing the flow
path, a solenoid actuator, a temperature sensitized pressure relief device, and an overflow blocking
device to secure safety against leakage and fire.
Solenoid actuators are energy conversion devices that first convert electric input signals into
electromagnetic energy through a coil and output mechanical kinetic energy to open and close the flow

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288; doi:10.3390/app6100288 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288  2 of 16 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 2 of 16

flow path through a magnetic pole formed by a core and plunger [4]. Solenoid actuators have been 
widely  used  afor 
path through their  good 
magnetic poleperformance 
formed by a coreof  simple  structure, 
and plunger fast  response, 
[4]. Solenoid energy 
actuators haveconservation, 
been widely
economic  feasibility,  and  favorable  stability.  As  an  emerging  process  in  the 
used for their good performance of simple structure, fast response, energy conservation, economic automobile  industry, 
electronic  and
feasibility, fuel favorable
injection  stability.
systems  As
of  internal 
an emergingcombustion 
process inengine  are  using industry,
the automobile solenoid electronic
actuators fuel
for 
reduction of fuel consumption and hazardous exhaust emissions [5,6]. There are growing demands 
injection systems of internal combustion engine are using solenoid actuators for reduction of fuel
for high frequency response, reduction of actuation forces, and strong anti‐pollution capabilities of 
consumption and hazardous exhaust emissions [5,6]. There are growing demands for high frequency
electro hydraulic control system [7,8]. 
response, reduction of actuation forces, and strong anti-pollution capabilities of electro hydraulic
In  system
control the  case  of  solenoid  actuators,  for  the  cylinder  valve  of  the  FCV  has  to  work  in  an 
[7,8].
environment 
In the case of ofultra‐high  pressure  for
solenoid actuators, and  have 
the reliability 
cylinder valveof 
of motion 
the FCVfor hasthe  fuel  supply. 
to work Designing 
in an environment
solenoid actuators for cylinder valve applications has been the focus of research recently, and it is 
of ultra-high pressure and have reliability of motion for the fuel supply. Designing solenoid actuators
one cylinder
for of  the  key  technologies 
valve of  FCV 
applications has [9]. Solenoid actuator design requires the necessary maximum 
been the focus of research recently, and it is one of the key
attractive force considering safety factors, magnetic flux density analysis, the shape of the solenoid 
technologies of FCV [9]. Solenoid actuator design requires the necessary maximum attractive force
actuator, and the calculation of the number of windings while considering temperature rises [10]. In 
considering safety factors, magnetic flux density analysis, the shape of the solenoid actuator, and the
the  present ofstudy, 
calculation a  solenoid 
the number actuator while
of windings was  designed 
considering while  considering 
temperature risesmobility  under 
[10]. In the ultra‐high 
present study,
pressure conditions and temperature increase using heat transfer analysis and electromagnetic field 
a solenoid actuator was designed while considering mobility under ultra-high pressure conditions
analysis. Performance evaluation tests were also conducted to validate the actuator. 
and temperature increase using heat transfer analysis and electromagnetic field analysis. Performance
evaluation tests were also conducted to validate the actuator.
2. Structure of the Double Plunger Type Solenoid Actuator 
2. Structure of the Double Plunger Type Solenoid Actuator
The single plunger type solenoid actuators are commonly used to open and close the flow path 
at low pressure. According to EU 406/2010 Annex IV, which is the first standard for hydrogen fuel 
The single plunger type solenoid actuators are commonly used to open and close the flow path
cell cars presented in Europe, the maximum permissible pressure of a cylinder valve should be 875 
at low pressure. According to EU 406/2010 Annex IV, which is the first standard for hydrogen
bar, which is 1.25 times the rated pressure. In the case of ultra‐high pressure of 875 bar, however, it 
fuel cell cars presented in Europe, the maximum permissible pressure of a cylinder valve should
can 
be hardly 
875 control 
bar, which the  flow 
is 1.25 timespath  because 
the rated the  force 
pressure. In theneeded 
case ofto  pull  up  the single 
ultra-high pressure ofplunger is higher 
875 bar, however,
than the electromagnetic force exerted by the actuator. So the double plunger type solenoid actuator 
it can hardly control the flow path because the force needed to pull up the single plunger is higher
which controls the flow path in two consecutive stages, even with a little bigger force than usual, is 
than the electromagnetic force exerted by the actuator. So the double plunger type solenoid actuator
suggested shown in Figure 1. The solenoid actuator structure consists of a coil for the formation of 
which controls the flow path in two consecutive stages, even with a little bigger force than usual, is
electromagnetic fields; a disk and a case that constitute a magnetic circuit; a core that is magnetized 
suggested shown in Figure 1. The solenoid actuator structure consists of a coil for the formation of
by  the  electromagnetic 
electromagnetic fields; a field  generated 
disk and by  the 
a case that coil  to adraw 
constitute the  plunger; 
magnetic circuit; a plungers  A magnetized
core that is and  B,  which 
by
open and close the flow path with mechanical movement; guides for the movements of the plungers; 
the electromagnetic field generated by the coil to draw the plunger; plungers A and B, which open and
springs that restore the plungers; and O‐rings to maintain of air‐tightness under ultra‐high pressure 
close the flow path with mechanical movement; guides for the movements of the plungers; springs that
conditions. 
restore the plungers; and O-rings to maintain of air-tightness under ultra-high pressure conditions.

 
Figure 1. Construction of solenoid actuator. 
Figure 1. Construction of solenoid actuator.

When a voltage is applied to a solenoid actuator, the core is magnetized and draws plunger B. 
When a voltage is applied to a solenoid actuator, the core is magnetized and draws plunger B.
The  hydrogen  in  the  cylinder  escapes  through  a  fine  hole  in  plunger  A.  Due  to  the  escaping 
The hydrogen in the cylinder escapes through a fine hole in plunger A. Due to the escaping hydrogen,
hydrogen, a state of pressure equilibrium is achieved, in which the pressure in the solenoid actuator 
a state of pressure equilibrium is achieved, in which the pressure in the solenoid actuator and the
and the pressure in the flow path connecting to the fuel cell stack become the same. Plunger A is 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 3 of 16

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288  3 of 16 
pressure in the flow path connecting to the fuel cell stack become the same. Plunger A is attached
to plunger B and moves so that the flow path connecting to the fuel cell stack is completely opened.
attached to plunger B and moves so that the flow path connecting to the fuel cell stack is completely 
The attractive force of the solenoid actuator required to open the flow path should be larger than the
opened. The attractive force of the solenoid actuator required to open the flow path should be larger 
force imposed on plunger B in the initial closed state, in which voltage is not applied to the solenoid
than the force imposed on plunger B in the initial closed state, in which voltage is not applied to the 
actuator, as shown in Figure 2. The horizontal component (X-direction) of the force applied to plunger
solenoid actuator, as shown in Figure 2. The horizontal component (X‐direction) of the force applied 
B is offset because the shape of the plunger is symmetric across the central axis, and the vertical
to plunger B is offset because the shape of the plunger is symmetric across the central axis, and the 
component (Z-direction)
vertical  component  maintains maintains 
(Z‐direction)  as much ofas 
themuch 
area of
of the actuator
the  area  of inthe 
contact with in 
actuator  plungers
contact Awith 
and
B as possible.
plungers A and B as possible. 

 
Figure 2. Distribution of pressure at initial state. 
Figure 2. Distribution of pressure at initial state.

3. Design of Double Plunger Type Solenoid Actuator 
3. Design of Double Plunger Type Solenoid Actuator

3.1. Calculation of Required Attractive Force 
3.1. Calculation of Required Attractive Force
The attractive force needed to open the plunger that closes the flow path should be calculated 
The attractive force needed to open the plunger that closes the flow path should be calculated
before a voltage is applied to a solenoid actuator. The force applied by the pressure of the hydrogen 
before a voltage is applied to a solenoid actuator. The force applied by the pressure of the hydrogen
in the vessel to the plunger is F
in the vessel to the plunger is Fff,, and the preliminary load on the spring is F
and the preliminary load on the spring is Fss.. The allowance rate to 
The allowance rate to
secure the reliability of actuator motions is c. The attractive force F of the actuator that is necessary 
secure the reliability of actuator motions is c. The attractive force FR of the actuator that is necessary to
R

to open the flow path can be expressed as follows: 
open the flow path can be expressed as follows:

FFRR= cc F


Fff +


 FFss   (1)
(1)

where the preload Fss of the spring can be expressed as: 

where the preload F of the spring can be expressed as:

FF


 l l K  

s s= l ff − lss K
 (2)
(2)

where the free length of the spring is lff,, the set length is l

where the free length of the spring is l the set length is lss, and the spring constant is K. 
, and the spring constant is K.
 
3.2. Calculation of Magnetomotive Force [11]
The magnetomotive force is the product of the number of windings N of the coil and the current I
flowing through the coil:
U = NI (3)

Figure 3 shows a simplified diagram of the solenoid coil bobbin and the coil wound around it.
The inner diameter of the coil bobbin is Bi , the diameter is Bo , the height is h, and the diameter of the
enamel wire is Cd . The number of axial laminations of the coil bobbin nc and the number of radial
I flowing through the coil: 

U  NI   (3)

Figure 3 shows a simplified diagram of the solenoid coil bobbin and the coil wound around it. 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 4 of 16
The inner diameter of the coil bobbin is Bi, the diameter is Bo, the height is h, and the diameter of the 
enamel wire is  Cd. The number of axial laminations of the coil bobbin nc and the number of radial 
laminations of the coil bobbin m
laminations  are obtained using Equations (4) and (5), respectively. The number 
of the coil bobbin mc care obtained using Equations (4) and (5), respectively. The number of
of coil windings N is the product of the numbers of radial and axial laminations. 
coil windings N is the product of the numbers of radial and axial laminations.

 
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of coil bobbin. 
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of coil bobbin.

 h 
nc   h   1  
nc =  Cd  − 1
(4)
(4)
Cd
Bo − B ww  
mcm=  Bo  Bii =  (5)
(5)
2C CCdd
c
2Cdd
N = nc mc (6)
N  nc mc   (6)ρ,
The current flowing through the coil can be expressed by Equation (7) using the specific resistance
the average length of one winding lca , the number of windings N, and the root mean square (RMS)
The 
voltage current 
V RMS flowing 
according through 
to the the  coil 
duty ratio of the can  be  width
pulse expressed  by  Equation 
modulation (PWM)(7)  using 
power the  specific 
source.
resistance , the average length of one winding  lca, the number of windings N, and the root  mean 
V
square(RMS) voltage VRMS according to the duty ratio of the pulse width modulation (PWM) power 
I = RMS (7)
source.  ρlca N
lca = π ( Bi + w)
V
I  RMS   (7)
VRMS = Vmaxρ× lca Dutyratio
N

lca  π  Bi  w  
3.3. Calculation of Temperature Increase
In general, when a current is applied to the coil, the temperature gradually increases and saturates
at a constant level. Temperature increases  Vmaxtoincreases
VRMS lead Dutyratio in  coil resistance and decreases in the
attractive force of the solenoid. It is important to compare the required attractive force of the solenoid
with a reduction in the attractive force due to the temperature increase. The resistance value Rs of
3.3. Calculation of Temperature Increase 
the coil at the saturation temperature can be expressed as Equation (8) using the coil resistance R20
at 20 ◦In 
C general, 
and the saturation temperature
when  a  current  Ts [12].
is  applied  to  the  coil,  the  temperature  gradually  increases  and 
saturates at a constant level. Temperature increases lead to increases in coil resistance and decreases 
 
234.5 + Ts
Rs = R20 ×
in the attractive force of the solenoid. It is important to compare the required attractive force of the  (8)
234.5 + 20
solenoid  with  a  reduction  in  the  attractive  force  due  to  the  temperature  increase.  The  resistance 
Figure 4 shows a graph of the experiment results of heat dissipation coefficients and average
temperature increases according to the types of contact of the solenoid coil by Roters [13]. Using these
results, changes in the heat dissipation coefficient according to the temperature rises were obtained
using Equation (9). Equation (10) provides the temperature rises in the solenoid coil using the applied
voltage V RMS , the duty ratio Drs of the applied voltage, resistance Rs at the saturation temperature,
heat dissipation coefficient λ on the coil surface, and the surface area Awire of the enameled wire.
temperature 
temperature increases 
increases according 
according to to the 
the types 
types of  of contact 
contact of 
of the 
the solenoid 
solenoid coil 
coil by 
by Roters 
Roters [13]. 
[13]. Using 
Using 
these 
these  results,  changes  in  the  heat  dissipation  coefficient  according  to  the  temperature  rises were 
results,  changes  in  the  heat  dissipation  coefficient  according  to  the  temperature  rises  were 
obtained using Equation (9). Equation (10) provides the temperature rises in the solenoid coil using 
obtained using Equation (9). Equation (10) provides the temperature rises in the solenoid coil using 
the 
the applied 
applied voltage 
voltage VVRMS
RMS, 
, the 
the duty 
duty ratio 
ratio DDrsrs of 
of the 
the applied 
applied voltage, 
voltage, resistance 
resistance RRss  at 
at the 
the saturation 
saturation 
temperature,  heat  dissipation  coefficient  λ  on  the  coil  surface,  and  the  surface  area 
temperature,  heat  dissipation  coefficient  λ  on  the  coil  surface,  and  the  surface  area  Awire  of  A wire of the 
the 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 5 of 16
enameled wire. 
enameled wire. 

  
Figure 4. Heat dissipation coefficient with rising temperature. 
Figure 4. Heat dissipation coefficient with rising temperature. 
Figure 4. Heat dissipation coefficient with rising temperature.

λλ  aaTT bb   (9)

(9)
λ = a∆T + b (9)
22
DrsVVRMS
TT TTs TTi  D D rs V
rs
RMS2    (10)
(10)
∆T = Ts − s
Ti i = λλRRssAAwire
RMS
(10)
λRs Awire wire
Figure 5 shows the heat dissipation area of the solenoid coil used in Equation (10), which can be
Figure 5 shows the heat dissipation area of the solenoid coil used in Equation (10), which can be 
Figure 5 shows the heat dissipation area of the solenoid coil used in Equation (10), which can be 
expressed by Equation (11). Equation (12) shows the results of substituting Equations (8) and (9) into
expressed by Equation (11). Equation (12) shows the results of substituting Equations (8) and (9) into 
expressed by Equation (11). Equation (12) shows the results of substituting Equations (8) and (9) into 
Equation (10) to calculate the solenoid’s temperature increase.
Equation (10) to calculate the solenoid’s temperature increase. 
Equation (10) to calculate the solenoid’s temperature increase. 

  
Figure 5. Heat dissipation area on coil winding. 
Figure 5. Heat dissipation area on coil winding. 
Figure 5. Heat dissipation area on coil winding.

π (nc − 1) Cd
Awire = × {π ( Bi + Cd (2mc − 1)) + π ( Bi + Cd )} + πCd mc lca (11)
2
  2
Drs (234.5 + 20) VRMS
b
a∆T 3 + a 234.5 + Ti + ∆T 2 + b (234.5 + Ti ) ∆T − =0 (12)
a R20 Awire

3.4. Calculation of Attractive Force by the Probable Flux Paths Method [14,15]
Since the ferromagnetic substance used in the solenoid actuator has much higher permeability
than the surrounding space, the generated magnetic flux does not escape and instead mostly passes
through the ferromagnetic substance. Therefore, the magnetic flux forms a magnetic circuit. The
3.4. Calculation of Attractive Force by the Probable Flux Paths Method [14,15] 
Since the ferromagnetic substance used in the solenoid actuator has much higher permeability 
than the surrounding space, the generated magnetic flux does not escape and instead mostly passes 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 6 of 16
through  the  ferromagnetic  substance.  Therefore,  the  magnetic  flux  forms  a  magnetic  circuit.  The 
magnetic  flux  Φ  generated  in  the  solenoid  can  be  expressed  by  Equation  (13)  using  the 
magnetomotive force U and total magnetic resistance R
magnetic flux Φ generated in the solenoid can be expressedm.  by Equation (13) using the magnetomotive

force U and total magnetic resistance Rm .

U  
 (13)
RU
Φ= m (13)
Rm
The  total
The total  magnetic
magnetic  resistance
resistance  can
can  be
be  obtained
obtained  by by  calculating
calculating  the
the  magnetic
magnetic  resistance
resistance  of
of  each
each 
component  of  the  solenoid  using  the  length  (l )  of  the  magnetic  path,  the  area  (S
component of the solenoid using the length (li ) of the magnetic path, the area (Si ) passed by the
i i )  passed  by  the 
magnetic flux, and the permeability (μ) of the component material. Each of the individual magnetic 
magnetic flux, and the permeability (µ) of the component material. Each of the individual magnetic
resistances are then connected in series or in parallel. This method is called the probable flux paths 
resistances are then connected in series or in parallel. This method is called the probable flux paths
method. Figure 6 shows the split magnetic path used to obtain the total magnetic resistance of the 
method. Figure 6 shows the split magnetic path used to obtain the total magnetic resistance of the
solenoid. The total resistance can be obtained using Equation (14) for the individual split magnetic 
solenoid. The total resistance can be obtained using Equation (14) for the individual split magnetic
resistances connected in series. 
resistances connected in series.

 
Figure 6. Probable flux path. 
Figure 6. Probable flux path.

l1 l1 ll9 xx1 x x2
m 
RmR= +·  µ 9S + µ 1S + µ2 S  
··+ (14)
(14)
µ1μS1S μ 2S 9 μ 0S 10 μ S0 11
1 1 2 9 0 10 0 11
The attractive force FA of the solenoid can be expressed by Equations (15) and (16) using
magnetic flux density
The  attractive  B ofFAthe
force    of magnetic pole,can 
the  solenoid  air be 
permeability
expressed  µ 0 , and
by  cross-sectional
Equations  (16) Susing 
(15)  and area 10 of
the magnetic pole.
magnetic flux density B of the magnetic pole, air permeability μ 0, and cross‐sectional area S10 of the 

magnetic pole. 
Φ
B= (15)
S10
B2 S10
FA = (16)
2µ0

3.5. Optimal Design of Solenoid Actuator

The attractive force at the saturation temperature is very important because fuel cell electric
vehicles may be started again immediately after the motor has been turned off when the vehicle
has stopped. Since the solenoid actuator is not sufficiently cooled in such cases, the attractive force
necessary for the flow path opening must be obtainable at temperatures close to the saturation
temperature. Table 1 shows the variables and their values necessary to design solenoid actuators
that can provide the attractive force required for opening the flow path at the saturation temperature.
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 7 of 16

The force Ff imposed on plunger B by the vessel pressure is 6.19 N based on the maximum permissible
pressure, and the spring preload Fs becomes 6.51 N based on Equation (2). When the allowance rate
for securing reliability is set to 20%, the attractive force of the actuator necessary to open the flow
path is 15.2 N according to Equation (1). The solenoid actuator coil was made using polyamide-imide
enameled round copper wire (AIW), which has excellent chemical resistance and heat resistance.
The diameter and the resistance per unit length of the enameled wire were selected by referring to the
manufacturer’s specifications.

Table 1. Design parameters of solenoid actuator.

Parameters Symbols Values

Distance between magnetic poles x1 0.9 mm
Magnetic pole area S10 57.0 mm2
Inner diameter of coil bobbin Bi 16.7 mm
Height of coil bobbin h 12–40 mm
Width of coil bobbin w 3–5 mm
Bare copper wire diameter Nd 0.3, 0.32, 0.35, 0.37, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55 mm
Enameled wire diameter Cd 0.36, 0.38, 0.41, 0.43, 0.46, 0.52, 0.57, 0.62 mm
245.6, 215.9, 180.5, 161.5, 138.2, 109.2, 87.81,
Enameled wire resistance per unit length ρ
72.57 Ω/km
Initial state duty ratio Dri 100%
Steady state duty ratio Drs 40%
Voltage V max 12 V
Permeability of free space µ0 4π × 10−7 H/m
Permeability of STS430FR µ1 0.003407 H/m
Permeability of SUM24L µ2 0.00117 H/m
Saturation temperature Ts <100 ◦ C
Slope of heat dissipation coefficient a 0.039
Intercept of heat dissipation coefficient b 8.83
Allowance coefficient c 1.2
Required attraction force for opening
FR >15.2 N
(Saturation temperature)

The slope and intercept of the heat dissipation coefficient were obtained based on the conditions
in which the coil would be in good contact with the metal component. The solenoid actuator uses
PWM signals to reduce power consumption, and the temperature rises after applying power with a
duty ratio of 100% to the solenoid for 2 s for the initial flow path opening. Therefore, a smaller force
than that for the flow path opening is required to maintain an open flow path, and the duty ratio of
the force applied to the actuator is changed to 40%. The design variables were calculated using the
presented design equations.
The purpose of optimal design for the solenoid actuator is to determine design parameters like
coil bobbin shape and enameled wire diameter, which produce the minimize power consumption
under given attraction force and saturation temperature. Once the coil resistance is determined for
power consumption, number of turns in a coil and average length of one winding can be obtained by
(4) through (7). The temperature rise, change resistance of a coil, magnetomotive force, magnetic flux
density, and attraction force at saturation temperature are obtained by (8) through (16) sequentially,
as shown in Figure 7. Table 2 shows the resulting values that minimize power consumption while
satisfying the saturation temperature and attractive force criteria at that temperature.
by (4) through (7). The temperature rise, change resistance of a coil, magnetomotive force, magnetic 
flux  density,  and  attraction  force  at  saturation  temperature  are  obtained  by  (8)  through  (16) 
sequentially,  as  shown  in  Figure  7.  Table  2  shows  the  resulting  values  that  minimize  power 
consumption 
Appl. Sci. 2016,while 
6, 288 satisfying  the  saturation  temperature  and  attractive  force  criteria 
8 ofat 
16 that 
temperature. 

 
Figure 7. Procedure of optimal design 
Figure 7. Procedure of optimal design.

Table 2. Optimization results. 
Table 2. Optimization results.

Parameters
Parameters Symbols Symbols Values
Values 
Height of coil bobbin 
Height of coil bobbin h
h  30 mm 
30 mm
Width Width of coil bobbin 
of coil bobbin w w  4.44.4 mm 
mm
Bare copper wire diameter
Bare copper wire diameter  Nd Nd  0.45 mm
0.45 mm 
Enameled wire diameter Cd 0.52 mm
Enameled wireEnameled wire diameter 
resistance per unit length ρ Cd  109.20.52 mm 
Ω/km
Enameled wire resistance per unit length 
Saturation temperature Ts  97 ◦ C
109.2 Ω/km 
Number of turns in a coil
Saturation temperature  N Ts  456
97 °C 
Coil resistance at 20 ◦ C R20 3.2 Ω
Coil resistanceNumber of turns in a coil 
at saturation temperature Rs N  4.17 Ω456 
Attraction force Coil resistance at 20 °C 
at saturation temperature FA R20  23.13.2 Ω 
N
Power consumption at saturation temperature
Coil resistance at saturation temperature  Ps Rs  5.534.17 Ω 
W

Attraction force at saturation temperature  FA  23.1 N 

4. Analysis of Solenoid Actuator
Power consumption at saturation temperature Ps  5.53 W 
4.1. Thermal Analysis
For more accurate prediction of the saturation temperature of the solenoid actuator, steady-state
heat transfer analysis was conducted using ANSYS WORKBENCH (V15, ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg,
PA, USA). Internal heat generation conditions were applied to the actuator coil, and 5.53 W of power
was applied at the saturation temperature. Convection conditions were applied to the plane where
the actuator comes in contact with air and convection occurs due to temperature differences. The
convection heat transfer coefficient was assumed to be 5 W/m2 ·◦ C. Heat conduction was assumed
between actuator components due to contact [16,17].
 For  more  accurate  prediction  of  the  saturation  temperature  of  the  solenoid  actuator, 
steady‐state heat transfer analysis was conducted using ANSYS WORKBENCH (V15, ANSYS  Inc., 
Canonsburg, PA, USA). Internal heat generation conditions were applied to the actuator coil, and 
5.53 W of power was applied at the saturation temperature. Convection conditions were applied to 
the plane where the actuator comes in contact with air and convection occurs due to temperature 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 9 of 16
differences. The convection heat transfer coefficient was assumed to be 5 W/m2∙°C. Heat conduction 
was assumed between actuator components due to contact [16,17]. 
Radiation
Radiation conditions were
conditions  applied
were  to the
applied  to plane wherewhere 
the  plane  convective heat transfers
convective  from the outermost
heat  transfers  from  the 
surface to the atmosphere, and the air temperature was designated as 25 ◦ C. Figure 8 shows the
outermost  surface  to  the  atmosphere,  and  the  air  temperature  was  designated  as  25  °C.  Figure  8 
convection and radiation conditions applied to the actuator. Table 3 shows the density, specific heat
shows the convection and radiation conditions applied to the actuator. Table 3 shows the density, 
capacity, and capacity, 
specific  heat  thermal conductivity
and  thermal coefficient of the
conductivity  solenoidof actuator
coefficient  component
the  solenoid  material
actuator  used
component 
in the heat transfer analysis, as well as the emissivity used in the radiation conditions.
material used in the heat transfer analysis, as well as the emissivity used in the radiation conditions.  The heat
transfer
The  heat  analysis
transfer was conducted
analysis  was using tetrahedron
conducted  using elements, and 558,984
tetrahedron  nodes
elements,  and and 362,091
558,984  elements
nodes  and 
were generated.
362,091 elements were generated. 

 
Figure 8. Conditions for thermal analysis. 
Figure 8. Conditions for thermal analysis.

Table 3. Thermal properties of materials. 
Table 3. Thermal properties of materials.
Material  Properties Values 
Material Properties Values
Density (kg/m3)  8930 
Density (kg/m3 )
Specific heat capacity (J/kg∙°C) 385 8930
Copper  Specific heat capacity (J/kg·◦ C) 385
Copper Reference temperature (°C)  20 
Reference temperature (◦ C) 20
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙°C)
Thermal conductivity (W/m·◦ C) 401 401
Density (kg/m3)  7610 7610
Density (kg/m3 )
Specific heat capacity (J/kg∙°C)
·◦ C) 460 460
STS430FR  Specific heat capacity (J/kg
STS430FR ◦
Reference temperature (°C) 
Reference temperature ( C) 20  20
Thermal conductivity (W/m·◦ C)
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙°C) 24.9 24.9
Density (kg/m3 ) 3) 
Density (kg/m 8000 8000
Specific heat capacity (J/kg·◦ C)
Specific heat capacity (J/kg∙°C) 500 500
STS316L Reference temperature (◦ C) 20
STS316L  Reference temperature (°C)  20 
Thermal conductivity (W/m·◦ C) 14.0
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙°C)
Emissivity 14.0 0.28
Emissivity  0.28 
Density (kg/m3 ) 7700
Density (kg/m
Specific heat capacity (J/kg) ·◦ C)
3 7700 472
SUM24L Reference temperature (◦ C)
Specific heat capacity (J/kg∙°C) 472  20
SUM24L  Thermal conductivity (W/m·◦ C)
Reference temperature (°C)  20  51.9
Emissivity
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙°C) 51.9 0.75
Density (kg/m3 )
Emissivity  0.75 1410
Specific heat capacity (J/kg·◦ C) 1500
PA66+G35% Reference temperature (◦ C) 20
Thermal conductivity (W/m·◦ C) 0.35
Emissivity 0.95
Density (kg/m3 ) 1310
Specific heat capacity (J/kg·◦ C) 320
PEEK1000
Reference temperature (◦ C) 20
Thermal conductivity (W/m·◦ C) 0.25
 Density (kg/m3)  1310 
Density (kg/m 3) 
Specific heat capacity (J/kg∙°C) 1310 
320 
PEEK1000  Specific heat capacity (J/kg∙°C) 320 
PEEK1000  Reference temperature (°C)  20 
Reference temperature (°C) 
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙°C) 20 
0.25 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 Thermal conductivity (W/m∙°C) 0.25  10 of 16
Figure  9  shows  the  results  of  the  actuator  heat  transfer  analysis.  The  steady‐state  coil 
Figure  9  shows  the  results  of  the  actuator  heat  transfer  analysis.  The  steady‐state  coil 
temperature is 79.9 °C, which is approximately 18 °C lower than the temperature of 97.0 °C obtained 
Figure 9 shows the results of the actuator heat transfer analysis. The steady-state coil temperature
temperature is 79.9 °C, which is approximately 18 °C lower than the temperature of 97.0 °C obtained 
using 
is Equation 
79.9 ◦ C, which(12).  This  difference  is 
is approximately 18attributable  to  the 
◦ C lower than fact  that  the ofheat 
the temperature 97.0transfer  characteristics 
◦ C obtained using
based on the shape and material of the actuator cannot be accurately reflected when obtaining the 
using  Equation  (12).  This  difference  is  attributable  to  the  fact  that  the  heat  transfer  characteristics 
Equation (12). This difference is attributable to the fact that the heat transfer characteristics based on
saturation temperature of the coil through Equation (12). 
based on the shape and material of the actuator cannot be accurately reflected when obtaining the 
the shape and material of the actuator cannot be accurately reflected when obtaining the saturation
temperature of the coil through Equation (12).
saturation temperature of the coil through Equation (12). 

 
Figure 9. Thermal analysis results. 
 
4.2. Analysis of Attractive Force  Figure 9. Thermal analysis results. 
Figure 9. Thermal analysis results.

To check whether the designed actuator provides the attractive force required for opening the 
4.2. Analysis of Attractive Force 
4.2. Analysis of Attractive Force
flow  path  at  the  saturation  temperature,  changes  were  made  in  the  attractive  force  based  on  the 
To check whether the designed actuator provides the attractive force required for opening the flow
To check whether the designed actuator provides the attractive force required for opening the 
distance between magnetic poles. The attractive force analysis conditions were a power duty ratio of 
path at the saturation temperature, changes were made in the attractive force based on the distance
flow  path  at  the  saturation  temperature,  changes  were  made  in  the  attractive  force  based  on  the 
100% for flow path opening at ambient temperature and the saturation temperature, as well as an 
between magnetic poles. The attractive force analysis conditions were a power duty ratio of 100% for
experimental frequency of 25 kHz and duty ratio of 40% for maintenance of the opened flow path. 
distance between magnetic poles. The attractive force analysis conditions were a power duty ratio of 
flow path opening at ambient temperature and the saturation temperature, as well as an experimental
Electromagnetic fields were analyzed using the commercial software ANSYS Maxwell (V15, ANSYS 
100% for flow path opening at ambient temperature and the saturation temperature, as well as an 
frequency of 25 kHz and duty ratio of 40% for maintenance of the opened flow path. Electromagnetic
Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA). The simplified 2D model of the actuator for the analysis is shown in 
experimental frequency of 25 kHz and duty ratio of 40% for maintenance of the opened flow path. 
fields were analyzed using the commercial software ANSYS Maxwell (V15, ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg,
Figure 10 [18]. 
Electromagnetic fields were analyzed using the commercial software ANSYS Maxwell (V15, ANSYS 
PA, USA). The simplified 2D model of the actuator for the analysis is shown in Figure 10 [18].
Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA). The simplified 2D model of the actuator for the analysis is shown in 
Figure 10 [18]. 

 
Figure 10. 2D model for electromagnetic field analysis.

The magnetomotive force of the coil must be calculated  for the analysis. The magnetomotive force
of the coil was obtained using Equations (3)–(8) at ambient temperature and the saturation temperature
of the coil obtained through the heat transfer analysis. The resulting magnetomotive forces at ambient
force  of  the  coil  was  obtained  using  Equations  (3)–(8)  at  ambient  temperature  and  the  saturation 
temperature  of  the  coil  obtained  through  the  heat  transfer  analysis.  The  resulting  magnetomotive 
forces  at  ambient  temperature  and  the  saturation  temperature  were  1677.02  and  1383.74  AT, 
respectively. For the analysis at 40% duty ratio, the inductance of the coil was calculated as 1.849 mH 
using Equation (17) [19]. Table 4 shows the magnetic properties of the actuator components used in 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 11 of 16
the analysis. The self‐weight of the plunger and the elastic force of the spring were not considered, 
tetrahedron elements were used and 52,296 were generated. 
temperature and the saturation temperature were 1677.02 and 1383.74 AT, respectively. For the analysis
at 40% duty ratio, the inductance of the coil was calculated as 1.849 mH using Equation (17) [19].
Table 4 shows the magnetic properties of the actuator0.8 ra2 N 2   used in the analysis. The self-weight
components
L[μH ]  (17)
6ra  not
of the plunger and the elastic force of the spring were 9h considered,
10w tetrahedron elements were used
and 52,296 were generated.

0.8r2a N 2
Table 4. Magnetic properties of components. 
L[µH ] = (17)
6r a + 9h + 10w
Components  Material Relative Permeability
Connector  PA66+G35% 1 
Table 4. Magnetic properties of components.
Disc  SUM24L  B H nonlinear characteristic 
Core 
Components STS430FR 
Material B H nonlinear characteristic 
Relative Permeability
Case 
Connector SUM24L 
PA66+G35% B H nonlinear characteristic 
1
Disc
Coil winding  SUM24L
Copper  B H nonlinear
1  characteristic
Core STS430FR B H nonlinear characteristic
Plunger A 
Case
PEEK1000 
SUM24L
1 
B H nonlinear characteristic
Plunger B 
Coil winding STS430FR 
Copper B H nonlinear characteristic 
1
Plunger A PEEK1000
Coil bobbin  PA66+G35% 1  1
Plunger B STS430FR B H nonlinear characteristic
Screw 
Coil bobbin
STS316L 
PA66+G35%
1  1
ScrewGuide  STS316L 
STS316L 1  1
Guide Ball  STS316L
PEEK1000  1  1
Ball PEEK1000 1

Figures 11 and 12 show the results for different distances between the magnetic poles and the 
Figures 11 and 12 show the results for different distances between the magnetic poles and the
distribution of magnetic flux lines. The attractive forces when the distance was 0.9 mm at ambient 
distribution of magnetic flux lines. The attractive forces when the distance was 0.9 mm at ambient
temperature and the saturation temperature were 25.84 and 21.81 N, respectively, which satisfy the 
temperature and the saturation temperature were 25.84 and 21.81 N, respectively, which satisfy the
requirement of 15.2 N  for flow  path  opening.  To  maintain  the  opened flow  path  at  the  saturation 
requirement of 15.2 N for flow path opening. To maintain the opened flow path at the saturation
temperature, the attractive force of the actuator should be 17.28 N due to the increased elastic force 
temperature, the attractive force of the actuator should be 17.28 N due to the increased elastic force
of the spring. When the core and plunger were in contact with a PWM frequency of 25 kHz and 40% 
of the spring. When the core and plunger were in contact with a PWM frequency of 25 kHz and 40%
duty ratio, the attractive force was 43.15 N, which satisfies the requirement. 
duty ratio, the attractive force was 43.15 N, which satisfies the requirement.

 
Figure 11. Attraction force for different distances between magnetic poles.
Figure 11. Attraction force for different distances between magnetic poles. 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 12 of 16
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288  12 of 16 

Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288  12 of 16 

   
Figure 12. Contour of magnetic flux lines at ambient temperature and 100% duty ratio.
Figure 12. Contour of magnetic flux lines at ambient temperature and 100% duty ratio. 
Figure 12. Contour of magnetic flux lines at ambient temperature and 100% duty ratio. 

5.5. Performance Test 
Performance Test
5. Performance Test 
Figure 1313 
Figure 
Figure  shows
13  shows a picture
shows  of anof 
a  picture 
picture  actuator
of  an  prototype
an actuator 
actuator  and an
prototype 
prototype  instrument
and 
and  an an  for measuring
instrument 
instrument  for for  the attractive
measuring 
measuring  the the 
force. The instrument consists of a solenoid actuator (YOUNGDO Ind. Co., Ltd.,
attractive force. The instrument consists of a solenoid actuator (YOUNGDO 
attractive force. The instrument consists of a solenoid actuator (YOUNGDO  Busan,
Ind. 
Ind.  Co., 
Co.,  Korea), load
Ltd., Busan, 
Ltd., Busan, 
cell (FUTEK,
Korea), 
Korea), load  Irvine,
load cell  CA,
cell (FUTEK,  USA), laser
Irvine, CA, 
(FUTEK,  Irvine,  displacement
CA, USA), 
USA), laser  sensor (Keyence,
laser displacement 
displacement  Osaka,
sensor 
sensor  Japan),
(Keyence, 
(Keyence,  thermocouple
Osaka, 
Osaka,  Japan), 
Japan), 
(OMEGA Engineering
thermocouple 
thermocouple  (OMEGA 
(OMEGA  Inc., Seoul, Korea),
Engineering 
Engineering  Inc., linear
Inc.,  Seoul,  stage (SCIENCETOWN,
Korea), 
Seoul,  linear 
Korea),  stage 
linear  Incheon, Korea),
(SCIENCETOWN, 
stage  (SCIENCETOWN,  power
Incheon, 
Incheon, 
supply (Tektronix Inc., Beaverton,Inc., Beaverton, OR, USA) and data acquisition system (National 
Korea), power supply (Tektronix 
Korea), power supply (Tektronix  OR, USA) and data acquisition system (National Instruments,
Inc., Beaverton, OR, USA) and data acquisition system (National 
Instruments, Austin, TX, USA). Before the test, the solenoid was fixed to the linear stage, which can 
Austin, TX, USA). Before the test, the solenoid was fixed to the linear stage, which can move vertically
Instruments, Austin, TX, USA). Before the test, the solenoid was fixed to the linear stage, which can 
move vertically to adjust the distances between magnetic poles [20]. 
tomove vertically to adjust the distances between magnetic poles [20]. 
adjust the distances between magnetic poles [20].

 
Figure 13. Experimental setup for attraction force and saturation temperature.   
Figure 13. Experimental setup for attraction force and saturation temperature.
Figure 13. Experimental setup for attraction force and saturation temperature. 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288  13 of 16 

To measure the attractive force of the plunger generated by the magnetization of the core, the 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 13 of 16
load cell was placed on the same central axis as the fixed solenoid, and plunger A was fastened to the 
load  cell  to  measure  the attractive force.  Then,  the linear  stage was  moved at  intervals  of 0.1  mm 
To measure the attractive force of the plunger generated by the magnetization of the core, the
from the point where plunger B and the corer are in complete contact with each other. The actual 
load cell was placed on the same central axis as the fixed solenoid, and plunger A was fastened to
shift  displacement 
the load cell to was  checked 
measure using force.
the attractive the  laser 
Then,displacement 
the linear stage sensor. 
was moved When  the  distance 
at intervals of 0.1 mmbetween 
magnetic 
frompoles 
the pointwas  completely 
where plunger B adjusted, 
and the corervoltage  was  applied 
are in complete to  the 
contact with eachactuator 
other. Theusing 
actual the 
shift power 
supply, and the attractive force was measured from the load cell using the data collection system. To 
displacement was checked using the laser displacement sensor. When the distance between magnetic
compare the results of the experiment and electromagnetic field analysis, the spring was removed to 
poles was completely adjusted, voltage was applied to the actuator using the power supply, and the
attractive force was measured from the load cell using the data collection system. To compare the
measure only the attractive force. Sufficient time was given between measurements to maintain the 
results of the experiment and electromagnetic field analysis, the spring was removed to measure only
temperatures of the two coils at the same level, and the measured temperatures were checked using 
the attractive force. Sufficient time was given between measurements to maintain the temperatures of
the thermocouple to ensure reliability of the data. 
the two coils at the same level, and the measured temperatures were checked using the thermocouple
Figure 14 shows the measurements of coil temperatures at intervals of 30 s with 40% duty ratio 
to ensure reliability of the data.
applied.  The Figurecoil 14temperature  was  saturated 
shows the measurements at temperatures
of coil approximately  77.7  °C, 
at intervals of which 
30 s withwas 
40%different 
duty by 
approximately 
ratio applied.2.2 The°C  coil
from  the  results 
temperature wasof  heat  transfer 
saturated analysis. 77.7
at approximately The ◦ C,power  consumption 
which was different by in  the 
approximately 2.2 ◦ C from the results of heat transfer analysis. The power consumption in the analysis
analysis was calculated for 97.0 °C (the theoretical saturation temperature), which is smaller than the 
was calculated for 97.0 ◦ C (the theoretical saturation temperature), which is smaller than the power
power consumption obtained in experiments. The measured saturation temperature of the coil was 
consumption obtained in experiments. The measured saturation temperature of the coil was 82.8 ◦ C.
82.8 °C. The reason for the differences is that the assumed convection heat transfer coefficient and 
The reason for the differences is that the assumed convection heat transfer coefficient and emissivity
emissivity values are different from the actual values. 
values are different from the actual values.

 
Figure 14. Measured results of coil temperature.
Figure 14. Measured results of coil temperature. 

Table Table 5 and Figure

5 and Figure  15 15show 
show the 
the measured
measured results of attractive
results  forces and the analysis
of  attractive forces and  results withresults 
the analysis 
respect to temperature. The force cannot be measured when the distance between magnetic
with  respect  to  temperature.  The  force  cannot  be  measured  when  the  distance  between  polesmagnetic 
is
0 mm, because the plunger and the core are in complete contact with each other, so this point was
poles is 0 mm, because the plunger and the core are in complete contact with each other, so this point 
excluded. At 100% duty ratio and ambient temperature, the minimum, maximum, and average errors
was excluded. At 100% duty ratio and ambient temperature, the minimum, maximum, and average 
between the measured and analytical results were 3.21, 3.71, and 3.56 N respectively. At the saturation
errors between the measured and analytical results were 3.21, 3.71, and 3.56 N respectively. At the 
temperature, they were 2.96, 3.60, and 3.33 N, while at 40% duty ratio at the saturation temperature,
saturation temperature, they were 2.96, 3.60, and 3.33 N, while at 40% duty ratio at the saturation 
they were 2.33, 3.85, and 3.17 N. These errors occurred because the 2D model was only the left part of
temperature, they were 2.33, 3.85, and 3.17 N. These errors occurred because the 2D model was only 
the solenoid, so the magnetic flux leakage in the connector area could not be reflected. In addition, the
self-weight of the plunger was reflected in the measured values but not the analysis.
the left part of the solenoid, so the magnetic flux leakage in the connector area could not be reflected. 
In addition, the self‐weight of the plunger was reflected in the measured values but not the analysis. 

Table 5. Attraction force with respect to distance between magnetic poles. 

Distance  Duty Ratio = 100% Duty Ratio = 40%, 25 kHz 

between 
Maxwell  Experiment  Maxwell  Experiment  Maxwell  Experiment 
Magnetic  Error  Error  Error 
(25 °C)  (25 °C)  (79.9 °C) (77.7 °C)  (79.9 °C)  (77.7 °C) 
Poles 
0.1 mm  53.3 N  50.09 N  3.21 N 51.74 N  48.53 N  3.21 N 32.03 N  29.25 N  2.78 N
0.2 mm  48.46 N  44.95 N  3.51 N 46.52 N  43.30 N  3.22 N 22.29 N  19.20 N  3.09 N
0.3 mm  44.1 N  40.44 N  3.66 N 41.2 N  37.62 N  3.58 N 16.27 N  12.42 N  3.85 N
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 14 of 16

Table 5. Attraction force with respects to distance between magnetic poles and duty ratio.

Duty Ratio = 100% Duty Ratio = 40%, 25 kHz

Distance between
Magnetic Poles Maxwell Experiment Error Maxwell Experiment Maxwell Experiment
Error Error
(25 ◦ C) (25 ◦ C) (79.9 ◦ C) (77.7 ◦ C) (79.9 ◦ C) (77.7 ◦ C)
0.1 mm 53.3 N 50.09 N 3.21 N 51.74 N 48.53 N 3.21 N 32.03 N 29.25 N 2.78 N
0.2 mm 48.46 N 44.95 N 3.51 N 46.52 N 43.30 N 3.22 N 22.29 N 19.20 N 3.09 N
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 
0.3 mm 44.1 N 40.44 N 3.66 N 41.2 N 37.62 N 3.58 N 16.27 N 12.42 N 14 of 16 
3.85 N
0.4 mm 39.94 N 36.23 N 3.71 N 36.43 N 33.01 N 3.42 N 12.47 N 8.68 N 3.79 N
0.5 mm 36.4 N 32.71 N 3.69 N 32.4 N 28.80 N 3.60 N 9.79 N 6.13 N 3.65 N
0.6 mm 
0.6 mm 33.27 N 
33.27 N 29.61 N 
29.61 N 3.66 N
3.66 N 29.08 N 
29.08 N 25.71 N 
25.71 N 3.37 N
3.37 N 7.97 N 
7.97 N 4.54 N 
4.54 N 3.43 N
3.43 N
0.7 mm
0.7 mm  30.46 N
30.46 N  26.91 N
26.91 N  3.55 N
3.55 N 26.28 N
26.28 N  23.32 N
23.32 N  2.96 N
2.96 N 6.60 N
6.60 N  3.71 N
3.71 N  2.89 N
2.89 N
0.8 mm 28 N 24.48 N 3.52 N 23.88 N 20.90 N 2.98 N 5.59 N 2.82 N 2.77 N
0.8 mm 
0.9 mm 28 N 
25.84 N 24.48 N 
22.28 N 3.52 N
3.56 N 23.88 N 
21.81 N 20.90 N 
18.21 N 2.98 N
3.60 N 5.59 N 
4.87 N 2.82 N 
2.54 N 2.77 N
2.33 N
0.9 mm  25.84 N  22.28 N  3.56 N 21.81 N  18.21 N  3.60 N 4.87 N  2.54 N  2.33 N

(a)  (b)

(c)
Figure 
Figure 15.15.  Comparison 
Comparison of  attraction 
of attraction force  between 
force between analysisanalysis  and  experiment: 
and experiment: (a) Ambient (a)  Ambient 
temperature,
temperature, 
duty duty  ratio 
ratio = 100%; =  100%;  (b) 
(b) Saturation Saturation  temperature, 
temperature, duty ratio = duty 
100%;ratio  =  100%;  (c) temperature,
(c) Saturation Saturation 
temperature, duty ratio = 40%. 
duty ratio = 40%.

6. Conclusions 
6. Conclusions
A solenoid actuator was designed for hydrogen storage cylinder valves used in FCV, and its 
A solenoid actuator was designed for hydrogen storage cylinder valves used in FCV, and its
performance was evaluated. For the design of the solenoid actuator with reliability of the motions 
performance was evaluated. For the design of the solenoid actuator with reliability of the motions
under ultra‐high pressure, we must consider many factor such as coil resistance, temperature rise, 
under ultra-high pressure, we must consider many factor such as coil resistance, temperature rise,
magnetic  flux  density,  magnetomotive  force,  attraction  force  at  saturation  temperature,  etc.  The 
magnetic flux density, magnetomotive force, attraction force at saturation temperature, etc. The optimal
optimal design of an actuator based on electromagnetic and heat transfer theories so that it satisfies 
design of an actuator based on electromagnetic and heat transfer theories so that it satisfies the required
the required attraction force at the saturation temperature was designed analytically. Heat transfer 
attraction
analysis  force
was  at the saturation
conducted  temperature
to  check  was designed
the  validity  analytically.
of  the  calculated  Heat transfer
saturation  analysisand 
temperature,  was
conducted to check
electromagnetic  theanalysis 
field  validity was 
of the calculated
done  saturation
to  evaluate  temperature,
the  attractive  force and electromagnetic
at  this  temperature. field
To 
analysis was done to evaluate the attractive force at this temperature. To validate
validate  the  results  of  the  analyses,  a  prototype  was  fabricated,  and  the  attractive  the results
force  of the
was 
analyses, a
measured.  prototype was fabricated, and the attractive force was measured.
The confirmed results are as follows: 
(1)  The  structure  of  double  plunger  type  solenoid  actuator  is  introduced  to  obtain  worked  in 
environment of cylinder valve for FCV such as ultra‐high pressure. 
(2)  In  this  study  we  derived  the  temperature  rise  formula  of  solenoid  actuator  based  on  heat 
dissipation coefficient and heat dissipation area on a coil. Formula have significant effects on 
Appl. Sci. 2016, 6, 288 15 of 16

The confirmed results are as follows:

(1) The structure of double plunger type solenoid actuator is introduced to obtain worked in
environment of cylinder valve for FCV such as ultra-high pressure.
(2) In this study we derived the temperature rise formula of solenoid actuator based on heat
dissipation coefficient and heat dissipation area on a coil. Formula have significant effects
on the prediction for temperature increase of coil and attraction force of solenoid actuator at
saturation temperature.
(3) The finite element analysis was used to simulate the attraction force of the solenoid actuator.
The results of the comparison indicated that coil temperature and duty ratio of input voltage
were crucial to the solenoid actuator attraction force. Therefore, coil temperature is one of the
most important design parameters of solenoid actuators for cylinder valves.
(4) The optimal design and finite element analysis procedure for minimizing power consumption
of PWM control solenoid actuators was proposed. The results of the finite element analysis and
thermal and electromagnetic experiments indicate good matches.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Human Resource Training Program for Regional
Innovation and Creativity through the Ministry of Education and National Research Foundation of Korea
(2013H1B8A2032233).
Author Contributions: H.R.L. designed and performed the experiments and analysis, and wrote the paper;
J.H.A. and H.Y.K. built up the research project and consulted with the research process.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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