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Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics & Heat Transfer

Lecture 2 B: Pressure Forces

Dr Jon Powell

1
 Learning Outcomes

•Calculate the forces

exerted by a fluid at
Calculate rest on plane or curved
submerged surfaces.

2
Summary

3
Introduction

4
 Applications

Fluid statics applies to circumstances with forces acting on floating or submerged

bodies, as well hydraulic power transmission systems, such as presses and car jacks.
Obvious applications include the design of dams and storage tanks.

To completely describe the resultant hydrostatic force acting on a submerged surface

requires knowing 1) the magnitude 2) the direction and 3) the line of action of the
resultant force. However, in this course, we will focus finding the magnitude and
direction of a resultant pressure force, acting on either on plane or curved surfaces.

5
Area Vector

6
 Area as a Vector

Let’s look in more detail at the concept of area being a vector.

The concept of an area vector is used as a way mathematically describing the

direction that the surface faces, and hence as a way of defining the location of the
system and the surroundings.

The area vector is always normal to the surface and points out from the system,
hence we define a unit vector, 𝑒̂ that is normal to the surface, hence it is called the
unit normal vector.

The magnitude of the area vector is the magnitude of the area, in the way that we
normally understanding area: magnitude of 𝐴⃗ = Magnitude of the area

7
 Component of Area Vector – Projected Area [1]

y ên
 
A  A ên
y
  l
Ax  Ax eˆ x  A cos x eˆ x x

w x
z
 
Ay  Ay eˆ y  A cos  y eˆ y

If we have a two-dimensional surface which is only a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and so we

can plot it on an 𝑥𝑦 graph for convenience.

As with other vectors, we can project the area vector onto the planes and axes. For
this area vector it onto the 𝑥𝑧 plane and the 𝑦𝑧 plane, or on the two-dimensional
graph, we can project it on to the 𝑦 axis and the 𝑥 axis.

These two area vector components, 𝐴⃗ and 𝐴⃗ , add together to give us the net area
vector 𝐴⃗, in the way that vectors normally add together.

If 𝑤 is the width of the plane surface (along the 𝑧 axis) and 𝑙 is the length of the edge
on the 𝑥𝑦 plane, then the magnitude of the area 𝐴⃗ = 𝑙𝑤

The magnitude of the projected area 𝐴⃗ is therefore equal to 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ cos 𝜃

and the magnitude of the projected area 𝐴⃗ is equal to 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ cos 𝜃

Hence the area vector is given by;

8
𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ cos 𝜃 𝚤̂ + 𝐴⃗ cos 𝜃 𝚥̂

8
 In 3D




dAz  dA  eˆ z eˆ z

 dA cos  z eˆ z eˆn  cos x eˆ x  cos y eˆ y  cos z eˆ z

Component y

of Area Vector 



 
dA  dA eˆn

– Projected
dAx  dA  eˆ x eˆ x

 dA cos  x eˆ x

Area [2] x

 
 
dAy  dA  eˆ y eˆ y

z  dA cos  y eˆ y

Likewise, for a three-dimensional surface, which varies in the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions,

we can write the area vector in terms of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 components.

𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑒̂ + 𝐴⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑒̂ + 𝐴⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑒̂

9
 z

Component 
dAx  dA  eˆ x , ( signed )

of Area
Vector – 
dA y  dA  eˆ y  
dA  dA eˆ n
Projected ( signed )
y
Area [3] 
dA z  dA  eˆ z , ( signed )
x A
 How to Find The Net Area Vector for a 2D Surface

Consider a surface which does not vary in the 𝑧 direction and is only a function of
𝑥 and 𝑦. We can initially simplify the problem to consider the surface as a line,
which lies between two points, 1 and 2, representing the upper and lower edges
of the surface. Consider just an infinitesimal section, a differential position vector,
𝑑𝑟⃗. That section can be written in terms of its 𝑥 and 𝑦 components, as follows;

𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥 𝑒̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑒̂

We can imagine a thin section of the surface that has a width 𝑑𝑟 and length 𝑤 . The
magnitude of the area for that thin section would be 𝑤𝑑𝑟 , whilst the vector would
point normal to the surface, displaced from 𝑑𝑟⃗ by an angle of −90 , hence in the
direction given by −𝑒̂ × 𝑑𝑟⃗. The area vector can therefore be written as follows;

𝑑𝐴⃗ = −𝑒̂ × (𝑤𝑑𝑟⃗)

Substitute in the expression for the differential position vector, 𝑑𝑟⃗;
𝑑𝐴⃗ = −𝑒̂ × [ 𝑤𝑑𝑥 𝑒̂ + 𝑤𝑑𝑦 𝑒̂ ]

Recalling the cross-product sign convention and rules;

11
 𝑑𝐴⃗ = − 𝑤𝑑𝑥 𝑒̂ + 𝑤𝑑𝑦 𝑒̂

𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝑤𝑑𝑦 𝑒̂ − 𝑤𝑑𝑥 𝑒̂

The above equations tells us that 𝑑𝐴⃗ = − 𝑤𝑑𝑥 𝑒̂ and 𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝑤𝑑𝑦 𝑒̂

𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝑑𝐴⃗ + 𝑑𝐴⃗

In order ot obtain the area vector we need to integrate 𝑑𝐴⃗ over the whole area of
the surface.
𝐴⃗ = 𝑑𝐴⃗

Substitute in the expression for 𝑑𝐴⃗ and integrate between points 1 and 2.

𝐴⃗ = 𝑤𝑑𝑦 𝑒̂ − 𝑤𝑑𝑥 𝑒̂

𝐴⃗ = 𝑤 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑒̂ − 𝑤 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑒̂
The change in 𝑥 is negative, with 𝑥 − 𝑥 = −𝑙 cos 𝜃, whilst the change in 𝑦 is
positive and 𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑙 sin 𝜃

𝐴⃗ = 𝑤𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒̂ + 𝑤𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑒̂

Since 𝑤, 𝑙 , sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 are all positive in value, the area vector components are
also positive in value, as expected, with the vector components pointing in the
positive x and y directions as shown in the diagram.

𝐴⃗ = 𝑤𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑒̂

𝐴⃗ = 𝑤𝑙 cos 𝜃 𝑒̂

11
 How to Find The Net Area Vector

A similar approach can be made used for 3-D surfaces

The net area vector can be found simply by summing its projected area components

𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐴⃗ + 𝐴⃗

12
 Questions:
Find The Net Area 1. Find the net area vector for the 2-D
surfaces (a) and (b). Both have depth w.
Vector 2. Are they equal? If so, why?

The two surfaces shown on a two-dimensional plane have the same end points and
the same height; hence the vertical and horizontal distances between the end points
on the two surfaces are same.

Consider a differential area vector, 𝑑𝐴⃗, on the two surfaces. The components of these
two differential area points in the negative 𝑥 and negative 𝑦 directions. Hence 𝑑𝐴⃗ can
be expressed as follows;

𝑑𝐴⃗ = −𝑒̂ × [ 𝑤𝑑𝑦 𝑒̂ + 𝑤𝑑𝑥 𝑒̂ ]

To find the net area vector of the two surfaces we need to find the sum of all the
differential area vectors on those two surfaces.

𝐴⃗ = 𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝑤𝑑𝑦 𝑒̂ + 𝑤𝑑𝑥 𝑒̂

13
Where 𝑤 is the width of the surface and points 1 and 2 are the end points of the
surface

𝐴⃗ = 𝑤(𝑥 − 𝑥 )𝑒̂ + 𝑤(𝑦 − 𝑦 )𝑒̂

The surfaces have the same end points hence they will also have the same net area
vector.

We can perhaps understand the problem more clearly by considering the 𝑥𝑧 plane
and the 𝑦𝑧 plane projections of the surface.
For the curved surface on the right, there sections of the surface have area vector
components with a positive 𝑦 direction. There are other sections with area vector
components having a negative 𝑦 direction. These partially cancel each other out such
that 𝐴 is the same for both surfaces.

13
Resultant Force due to
Pressure

14
 Some Properties
of Pressure Force
[1]
𝑑𝐹⃗ = −𝑃𝑑𝐴⃗

𝐹⃗ = − 𝑃𝑑𝐴⃗

𝑑𝑀 = 𝑟⃗ × (−𝑃𝑑𝐴⃗)

𝑀= 𝑟⃗ × (−𝑃𝑑𝐴⃗)

1. Infinitesimal pressure force on element

2. Resultant pressure force on area

1. The minus sign is due to the fact that the pressure always acts
opposite to the area vector
2. The pressure force is always normal to the surface

3. Infinitesimal moment of pressure force about point C

4. Resultant moment of the pressure force about point C

15
 Some Properties of Pressure Force [2]

Some properties of the pressure force are as follows

• The pressure force is always opposite to the area vector
• The pressure force is always compressively normal to the suface
• If the pressure field is uniform over the area then 𝐹⃗ = −𝑃𝐴⃗
• Components of pressure force are evaluated over the components of the area
vector 𝐹 = − ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝐴

16
 Some Properties of Pressure Force [3]

The resultant pressure force can be obtained from the sum of the pressure force
components

𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹⃗

17
 1. Find the expressions for the net pressure force due to uniform pressure
in the two cases shown:
Example 1 • uniform 𝑃 (on the left side only),
• both uniform pressures 𝑃 and 𝑃 , on plates (a) and (b).
2. In the corresponding cases, Are they equal? If so, why?

18
19
 Find the resultant pressure force (magnitude, direction, and line of action)
Example 2 due to all fluid pressures on the curved plate of width 𝑤.

20
21
Find the resultant pressure force (magnitude, direction, and
line of action) due to all fluid pressures on the curved plate of
width 𝑤.

Pressures on Upper and Lower Surfaces

At y positions less than D, the pressure on the upper surface of the gate is a
combination of atmospheric pressure and hydrostatic pressure
Whereas at y positions greater than D, the pressure on the upper surface is
atmospheric pressure.

𝑃 𝑦>𝐷
𝑃 =
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 0<𝑦<𝐷

On the lower surface of the gate, pressure is uniform, as the pressure is solely due to
atmospheric pressure.
𝑃 =𝑃

By finding the pressure difference, we can see that the atmospheric pressure terms
on the two surfaces, cancel out.

22
 0 𝑦>𝐷
𝑃 −𝑃 =
𝜌𝑔ℎ 0<𝑦<𝐷

Differential Pressure Force on a Differential Surface Element

If we consider an arbitrary differential surface element on the gate, with two upper
and lower surfaces. The upper surface has a differential surface area vector, 𝑑𝐴⃗ ,
whilst the lower surface has a differential area vector, 𝑑𝐴⃗ .

The pressure forces acting on these two surfaces are given by the expressions;

𝑑𝐹⃗ = −P dA
𝑑𝐹⃗ = −P dA
The net pressure force acting on the sections of plate is given by the sum of the two
forces, hence 𝑑𝐴⃗ = −dA = dA;
𝑑𝐹⃗ = dF + dF
𝑑𝐹⃗ = −P dA − P dA
The lower area vector is equal but opposite to the upper area vector
𝑑𝐹⃗ = − P − P dA

22
Find the resultant pressure force (magnitude, direction, and
line of action) due to all fluid pressures on the curved plate of
width 𝑤.

d𝐹⃗ = − P − P dA

In order to find the resultant pressure force on the gate, we need to integrate the
expression for the net force on the differential surface element, between points 1
and 2 on the diagram (or from points 2 to 1). There is no need to integrate between
points 2 and 2’, because the pressure difference across the gate between these two
points, is zero.

In order to perform this integration along the length of the gate between points 1
and 2, we need to expression the differential area vector in terms of a differential
position vector on the gate, 𝑑𝑟⃗, with respect to our co-ordinate system.

The scalar area of the differential section of the gate swept out by the scalar distance
𝑑𝑟, is 𝑤𝑑𝑟. The vector 𝑑𝐴⃗ is not equal to 𝑤𝑑𝑟⃗, however, as 𝑑𝐴⃗ is rotated 90 degrees
counterclockwise from w𝑑𝑟⃗.

Considering a co-ordinate system that is natural to 𝑑𝑟⃗, with 𝑟̂ being a unit vector that
is tangent to the gate and positive in the direction from 1 to 2, and 𝑛 is a unit vector
that is normal and positive in the upwards direction and in accordance with the right
hand rule, the 𝑘 unit vector points out from the page and 90 degrees to both 𝑛 and 𝑟̂ .
The 90 degree counterclockwise rotation of 𝑤𝑑𝑟⃗ is achieved using the cross product,

23
𝑘 × 𝑟̂ , which according to the right hand rule, equals 𝑛, i.e. 𝑘 × 𝑟̂ points in the same
direction as 𝑑𝐴⃗

Hence the expression for the differential area vector can be written as follows;

𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝑘 × (𝑤𝑑𝑟⃗)

𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝑘 × 𝑤 𝑑𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝚥̂ = 𝑤[ 𝑑𝑥 𝚥̂ − 𝑑𝑦 𝚤̂]
Where according to the right hand rule, k × 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂ and 𝑘 × 𝚥̂ = −𝚤̂

23
Find the resultant pressure force (magnitude, direction, and
line of action) due to all fluid pressures on the curved plate of
width 𝑤.

𝟏
𝑫𝟐 𝒏 𝑫 𝒏
𝑭 = 𝝆𝒈𝒘 ̂− 𝑫 ̂
𝟐 𝒏+𝟏 𝒂

𝑑𝐴 ⃗=𝑤[(𝑑𝑥) 𝑗 ̂−(𝑑𝑦) 𝑖 ̂]

The resultant force acting on the differential area, acts at a point is some distance ℎ
from the surface of the water’s surface and is the result of a hydrostatic pressure
difference, 𝑃 − 𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

The resultant pressure force, 𝑑𝐹⃗ = − P − P dA, can therefore be written as 𝑑𝐹⃗ =
− 𝜌𝑔ℎ dA . We can now write the differential area vector in terms of 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦, so
we can integrate between points (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and (𝑥 , 𝑦 )

𝑑𝐹⃗ = −𝜌𝑔ℎw[(𝑑𝑥) 𝚥̂ − (𝑑𝑦)i]

Seeing as ℎ is a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦, we should arrange this equation and then

substitute in expressions for ℎ in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦

𝑑𝐹⃗ = −𝜌𝑔w[(h𝑑𝑥) 𝚥̂ − (h𝑑𝑦)i]

From the diagram we can see that 𝑦 = 𝐷 − ℎ, hence ℎ = 𝐷 − 𝑦. Using the equation
for the 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 that describes the profile of the gate, we can also see that by

24
substituting 𝑦 in ℎ = 𝐷 − 𝑦 with 𝑎𝑥 , we obtain an expression for ℎ in terms of 𝑥,
ℎ = 𝐷 − 𝑎𝑥 . Substituting these equations into 𝑑𝐹⃗ = −𝜌𝑔w[(h𝑑𝑥) 𝚥̂ − (h𝑑𝑦)i], we
obtain an equation we can integrate between points 1 and 2.

𝑑𝐹⃗ = −𝜌𝑔w[((𝐷 − 𝑎𝑥 )𝑑𝑥) 𝚥̂ − ((𝐷 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦)i]

𝐹⃗ = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 𝐷 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝚤̂ + (−𝜌𝑔𝑤) 𝐷 − 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝚥̂

Where the upper limit for 𝑥 is obtained from ℎ = 𝐷 − 𝑎𝑥 , by setting ℎ to zero and
/
rearranging to solve for 𝑥. 0 = 𝐷 − 𝑎𝑥 hence 𝑥 = therefore 𝑥 =

Assuming 𝑛 ≠ −1
/

𝑦 𝑎𝑥
𝐹⃗ = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 𝐷𝑦 − 𝚤̂ − 𝐷𝑥 − 𝚥̂
2 𝑛+1

𝐷
𝐷 𝐷 𝑎 𝑎
𝐹⃗ = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 𝚤̂ − 𝐷 − 𝚥̂
2 𝑎 𝑛+1

𝐷 𝑎𝑛 𝐷
𝐹⃗ = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 𝚤̂ − 𝚥̂
2 𝑛+1 𝑎

𝐷 𝑛 𝐷
𝐹⃗ = 𝜌𝑔𝑤 𝚤̂ − 𝐷 𝚥̂
2 𝑛+1 𝑎

24
Direction of d𝑟⃗
and d𝐴⃗

25
 Center of
Pressure and
Line of
Action

To fully describe the pressure force acting on this gate we would also need to find the
line of action of the force, however, this is outside the scope of this introductory
course.

However, it is important to note that due to the pressure being greater at the bottom
of the body of water, the resultant pressure force acts below the half water point
between 1 and 2, i.e. 𝑦 <

The point where the resultant force appears to act is called the the centre of
pressure, CP and the line upon which the force appears to act is called the line of
action. The line of action of course, must pass through the CP and be normal to the
surface at CP.

The CP and line of action are found using the principle of moments, however we
won’t be looking into this any further. I simply wish to bring these main concepts to
your attention.

26
 Example

EXAMPLE 11–2 A Gravity-Controlled Cylindrical Gate

Cengel Thermal Fluids

27
Special Case: Resultant Pressure
Force on A Flat Surface

28
 Resultant
Pressure
Force on a
Plane
Submerged
Plate

As engineers we might be interested in find the magnitude, direction and line-of-

action of the resultant pressure force acting on a fully submerged plane surface.

In this introductory course, however, we will focus on only finding the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force. The process for finding these, is as described for the
curved surface in the previous example.

In this example we consider a plane surface or arbitrary shape inclined at some

arbitrary angle, 𝜃, with the z axis being normal to the two parallel plane surfaces

The top diagram shows the plate from the side, with the x-axis coming out of the
page, whilst the lower object shows the plate with a view normal to the plane
surfaces, looking from above, and the z axis pointing into the page.

29
 Resultant
Pressure
Force on a
Plane
Submerged
Plate

Consider an area element d𝐴⃗ located at 𝑟⃗

30
 Resultant
Pressure
Force on a
Plane
Submerged
Plate

We are interested in the force on the upper side of the plate, hence we are interested
in the differential area vector on that side of the plate, which we see points in the −𝑘
direction

31
 Resultant
Pressure
Force on a
Plane
Submerged
Plate

We consider the pressure force that acts on the upper side of that area element,
which we see points in the +𝑘 direction and is at a depth of ℎ, or distance ℎ from the
free surface of the water.

32
 Resultant
Pressure
Force on a
Plane
Submerged
Plate

We wish the evaluate the resultant force that is acting on the upper surface of the
plate, which because it is a pressure force is normal to the surface.

33
 Resultant
Pressure
Force on a
Plane
Submerged
Plate

The resultant pressure force appears to act at the centre of pressure, which is
located at 𝑟⃗′, or co-ordinates (𝑥 , 𝑦 ). Note that the CP does not have to he located
on the plate, it could in general be located on or outside of the plate. The CP is also
not located at the centroid / centre of area, as the pressure is not distributed evenly
over the area, with the pressure being greater towards the lower end of the plate, CP
is below the centroid / centre of area.

34
 𝐹⃗ = (𝑃 𝐴)𝑘

Resultant
Pressure
Force on a
Plane
Submerged
Plate

The centroid is located at distance ℎ from the free surface and position (𝑥 , 𝑦 )

We assume that the fluid is static, hence we do not consider the effects of dynamic
pressure . We also assume that the force due to gravity is the only body force.
Finally we also assume the fluid is incompressible and the gravitational field strength
is uniform, hence we assume the specific weight, 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔, is constant.

We can obtain the resultant force by integrating −𝑃𝑑𝐴⃗ over the area of the surface,
where the pressure is given by the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the
hydrostatic pressure, 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ.

𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝐴𝑘 = 𝑃 𝑑𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 𝑘

Where
𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑑𝐴⃗ = −𝑑𝐴𝑘
Recalling that the area vector points in the −𝑘 direction, whilst 𝑑𝐴 is obviously > 0,

35
hence 𝑑𝐴⃗ < 0. Since the 𝑃 is uniform over the area, we can simplify the equation to
the following;

𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 𝑘
The depth, ℎ, can be written in terms of 𝑦, ℎ = 𝑦 sin 𝜃

𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦𝑑𝐴 𝑘
At this point we should note the definition of 𝑦 ;

∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝑦 =
𝐴

Hence, we can write the following;

𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦 𝐴 𝑘

35
 𝐹⃗ = (𝑃 𝐴)𝑘

Resultant
Pressure
Force on a
Plane
Submerged
Plate

We will now derive the equation for the resultant pressure force that acts on the
plate, where 𝑃 is the pressure at the centroid of the plate. It is important to note
that the magnitude of the resultant force is dictated by the pressure at the centroid,
𝑃 , but it does not act at the centroid. We will see why this is when deriving
equation.

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 𝐹⃗ = (𝑃 𝐴)𝑘

We assume that the fluid is static, hence we do not consider the effects of dynamic
pressure . We also assume that the force due to gravity is the only body force.
Finally, we also assume the fluid is incompressible and the gravitational field strength
is uniform, hence we assume the specific weight, 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔, is constant.
We can obtain the resultant force by integrating −𝑃𝑑𝐴⃗ over the area of the surface,
where the pressure is given by the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the
hydrostatic pressure, 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ.
𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝐴𝑘 = 𝑃 𝑑𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 𝑘
Where
𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑑𝐴⃗ = −𝑑𝐴𝑘
Recalling that the area vector points in the −𝑘 direction, whilst 𝑑𝐴 is obviously > 0,
hence 𝑑𝐴⃗ < 0. Since the 𝑃 is uniform over the area, we can simplify the equation to
the following;

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 𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴 𝑘
The depth, ℎ, can be written in terms of 𝑦, ℎ = 𝑦 sin 𝜃
𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦𝑑𝐴 𝑘
Noting that 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦𝑑𝐴 is the hydrostatic pressure force that acts on a single
differential surface element, hence 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 is the sum of all the hydrostatic
pressure forces acting on all of the differential surface elements, in other words, it is
∫
the magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic pressure. Which means 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 is
∫
the average hydrostatic pressure acting on the top surface, and of course is the
average 𝑦 position on the top surface, i.e. it is the y position of the centroid, 𝑦 ;
∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝑦 =
𝐴
We can therefore rewrite 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 as follows;
𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 sin 𝜃
Which of course is the hydrostatic pressure at 𝑦 . Hence, we can write the following;
𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦 𝐴 𝑘
𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦 𝐴 𝑘
Recall that 𝑃 is the atmospheric pressure, which is uniform across the whole of the
top surface. We therefore say that 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝑦 is the pressure at the centroid,
𝑃 .
𝐹⃗ = 𝑃 𝐴𝑘
Note that the magnitude of the resultant pressure is calculated at the centroid, but
the resultant does not act at the centroid. This is due to the hydrostatic pressure not
being uniform and increasing with increasing depth. We will understand better by
considering the momentums of the differential pressures forces acting on the area
elements of the top surface.

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 Resultant Moment (Line of Action) .

Consider a differential force, 𝑑𝐹⃗ , acting on a differential surface element, 𝑑𝐴, at

position 𝑑𝑟⃗. That force applies a moment about point 𝑂, 𝑟⃗ × 𝑑𝐹⃗ . Summing the
moment applied by all differential forces acting on all 𝑟⃗, differential areas, we end up
with the resultant moment about point O, which is also given by the resultant force,
𝐹⃗ , and the point where that force appears to act, 𝑟⃗′

𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = ∫ 𝑟⃗ × 𝑑𝐹⃗

The differential pressure force, 𝑑𝐹⃗ , is given by 𝑑𝐹⃗ = −𝑃𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝑃𝑑𝐴𝑘 = 𝑑𝐹𝑘, noting
that the area points in the −𝑘 direction. Since 𝑃𝑑𝐴 > 0, we can therefore say that
𝑑𝐹 > 0

We can write the position vectors in terms its 𝑥 and 𝑦 components

𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑦 𝚥̂ × 𝐹𝑘 = ∫ 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ × (𝑑𝐹𝑘)

𝑥 𝚤̂ + 𝑦 𝚥̂ × 𝑃 𝐴𝑘 = ∫ 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝚥̂ × (𝑑𝐹𝑘)

Recalling that 𝚥̂ × 𝑘 = 𝚤̂ and 𝑘 × 𝚤̂ = −𝚥̂

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 −𝑥 𝚥̂ + 𝑦 𝚤̂ 𝑃 𝐴 = − ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐹 𝚥̂ + ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐹 𝚤̂

*********************

The hydrostatic pressure below the centroid is greater than the hydrostatic pressure
above the centroid. Taking the sum of the moments of the pressure forces acting on
the differential surface elements, ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐹, we find that the pressure forces acting on
surface elements below the centroid, have a greater moment than the moments of
the pressure forces acting on the surface elements above the centroid, hence this
sum is not equal to zero.
The sum of the moments on the differential surface elements, is equal to the
moment of the resultant pressure force, 𝑦 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐹, where 𝑦′ is the 𝑦 position of
the point where the resultant pressure force appears to act, CP. We can therefore find
the y position of CP as follows;
∫
𝑦 = , where 𝐹 is the resultant force.
The resultant force appears to act at a point below the centroid. We will not be
looking into this in any more detail during this introductory course.

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 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼
𝑦 =𝑦 +
𝑃 𝐴

So the sum of momentums of the differential pressure forces is equal to the moment
due to the resultant force
𝑦𝐹 = 𝑦𝑑𝐹
𝑦 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑦𝑃𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦𝑃 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝑦𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑑𝐴
Noting that the depth ℎ, is a function of 𝑦, 𝑦 sin 𝜃;
𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑃 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
Also, note that that ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴/𝐴 is the average 𝑦 position of all of the differential surface
elements, hence ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦 𝐴
𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝑦 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
Also referring to the definition of the second moment of area about the x-axis, 𝐼 =
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴;
𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝑦 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼
It is more convenient to have the second moment of area written in terms of the
second moment of area about the centroid 𝑥 axis, 𝐼 ̂ ̂ . Values of 𝐼 ̂ ̂ for many
geometries are available in various reference texts.

𝐼 =𝐼 ̂ + 𝐴𝑦

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Substitute this relationship into the equation for 𝑦 𝐹

𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝑦 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 (𝐼 ̂ + 𝐴𝑦 )
𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝑦 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑦 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼
𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑦 𝐴(𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 sin 𝜃) + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼

The height of water above the centroid, ℎ , is equal to 𝑦 sin 𝜃 , hence we can write
the following

𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑦 𝐴(𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ ) + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼

And of course the term, 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ , is the pressure at the centroid, 𝑃 , hence we can
simplify this equation to;

𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑦 𝐴𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼

Of course the resultant pressure force,𝐹 , on that surface is equal to product of the
pressure at the centroid and the area of the surface, 𝑃 𝐴. Rearranging the above
equation we can therefore obtain;

𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼
𝑦 =𝑦 +
𝑃 𝐴
Since is always greater than zero, this equation tells us that 𝑦 > 𝑦 , which
means that the plane surface will always tend to tilt so that the lower end drops and
the higher end rises, until the face is orientated with the tangent to the plane surface
pointing the vertical direction.

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 𝑦 𝐹 = 𝑦 𝐴(𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ ) + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼

𝐼
𝑦 =𝑦 +
𝐴𝑦

In the special case that one side of the plate is exposed to the free surface pressure,
𝑃 , where we wish to know the net pressure force due to pressure distributions on
both sides of the plate, the net pressure force is due to a pressure difference
between those two sides. In this case that net pressure force, F = A P −
P = A 𝜌𝑔𝑦 sin 𝜃 + 𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝐴 sin 𝜃

In that case we can write the following

𝑦 A𝜌𝑔𝑦 sin 𝜃 = 𝑦 𝐴𝜌𝑔𝑦 𝐴 sin 𝜃 + 𝜌𝑔 sin 𝜃 𝐼 ̂

sin 𝜃 𝐼 ̂
𝑦 =𝑦 +
𝐴𝑦 sin 𝜃

𝐼̂
𝑦 =𝑦 +
𝐴𝑦

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 𝐼
𝑦 =𝑦 +
𝐴𝑦

Take the example of a rectangular gate holding back a body or water, for example a
gate for a canal, or a damn

In the case of a rectangular shape 𝐼 ̂ ̂ = 𝑎𝑏 , 𝑦 = and 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏

Hence;
1
𝑏 12 (𝑎𝑏 )
𝑦 = +
2 𝑎𝑏 𝑏/2

𝑏 𝑎𝑏 /12
𝑦 = +
2 𝑎𝑏 /2

𝑏 𝑏
𝑦 = +
2 6

3𝑏 𝑏
𝑦 = +
6 6

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 2𝑏
𝑦 =
3
The resultant pressure acts at 2/3 of the liquid depth from the free surface

41
 Example

EXAMPLE 11–1 Hydrostatic Force Acting on the Door

of a Submerged Car

Cengel Thermal Fluids

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Learning Outcomes

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 Learning Outcomes

•Calculate the forces

exerted by a fluid at
Calculate rest on plane or curved
submerged surfaces.

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