PSY107 StudyGuide

Course Development Team
Head of Programme : Dr Emily Ortega

Course Developer(s) : Eun-Young Yeo
: Dr Emily Ortega
Technical Writer : Maybel Heng, ETP
Video Production : Eric Lau, ETP
Course Guide © 2019 Singapore University of Social Sciences. All rights reserved.
Study Units © 2018 Singapore University of Social Sciences and Pearson Education South
Asia Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this material may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
permission in writing from the Educational Technology & Production Team, Singapore
University of Social Sciences.
ISBN 978-981-4676-09-0
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How to cite this Study Guide (APA):

Yeo, E. Y., & Ortega, E. (2019). PSY107 Introduction to psychology 1 (study guide).
Singapore: Singapore University of Social Sciences.
Release V1.10
Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Course Guide
1. Introduction........................................................................................................... CG-2
2. Course Description and Aims............................................................................ CG-4
3. Learning Outcomes.............................................................................................. CG-5
4. Learning Materials................................................................................................ CG-6
5. Assessment Overview.......................................................................................... CG-7
6. Course Schedule.................................................................................................... CG-9
Study Unit 1:
Learning Outcomes................................................................................................. SU1-2
Overview................................................................................................................... SU1-3
Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology................................................................ SU1-4
Chapter 2: Psychological Research...................................................................... SU1-16
Summary................................................................................................................. SU1-31
Formative Assessment.......................................................................................... SU1-33
References............................................................................................................... SU1-48
Study Unit 2:
Overview................................................................................................................... SU2-3
Chapter 1: Biological Basis of Behaviour............................................................. SU2-4
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Table of Contents
Chapter 2: Sensation and Perception.................................................................. SU2-21
References............................................................................................................... SU2-55
Study Unit 3:
Overview................................................................................................................... SU3-3
Chapter 1: Memory.................................................................................................. SU3-4
Chapter 2: Thinking and Human Intelligence.................................................. SU3-27
References............................................................................................................... SU3-61
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List of Tables
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Key Features of the Five Senses.............................................................. SU2-26
Table 3.1 Sensory Memory and its Sensory Registers............................................. SU3-6
Table 3.2 Causes of Forgetting in the Memory System........................................ SU3-18
Table 3.3 Proactive Interference............................................................................... SU3-19
Table 3.4 Retroactive Interference............................................................................ SU3-19
Table 3.5 Key Processes in Stages of Memory....................................................... SU3-24
Table 3.6 Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences............................................. SU3-31
Table 3.7 Everyday problems................................................................................... SU3-39
Table 3.8 Common causes of poor judgement....................................................... SU3-42
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List of Tables
iv
List of Figures
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 The six modern perspectives in psychology.......................................... SU1-9
Figure 1.2 False Assumption about Correlation and Causality........................... SU1-25
Figure 1.3 Assumptions Based on Correlations..................................................... SU1-26
Figure 2.1 MRI Image of a Brain Tumour................................................................. SU2-4
Figure 2.2 Structure and Function of the Neuron................................................... SU2-7
Figure 2.3 The Nervous System................................................................................. SU2-9
Figure 2.4 The Autonomous Nervous System....................................................... SU2-10
Figure 2.5 Simulation of the Iron Rod’s Angle of Entry into Phineas Gage’s
Skull............................................................................................................................... SU2-12
Figure 2.6 Lobes of the Brain.................................................................................... SU2-14
Figure 2.7 The Motor Cortex and the Somatosensory Cortex.............................. SU2-15
Figure 2.8 The Visual Cortex.................................................................................... SU2-16
Figure 2.9 Split brain.................................................................................................. SU2-17
Figure 2.10 Stimulation Becomes Perception......................................................... SU2-23
Figure 2.11 Processing Visual Sensation................................................................. SU2-29
Figure 2.12 Upside-down photos – how different are they from one

another?........................................................................................................................ SU2-31
Figure 2.13 Ambiguous Picture................................................................................ SU2-32
Figure 2.14 Ambiguous Picture with Contour Lines............................................ SU2-33
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List of Figures
Figure 2.15 Checker-shadow Illusion...................................................................... SU2-37
Figure 2.16 The Moon Illusion (Left) and the Actual Moon (Right)................... SU2-38
Figure 3.1 The Modal Model of Memory................................................................. SU3-5
Figure 3.2 Structure of Long-term Memory............................................................. SU3-7
Figure 3.3 Working Memory Model.......................................................................... SU3-9
Figure 3.4 Serial Position curve................................................................................ SU3-14
Figure 3.5 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve............................................................. SU3-17
Figure 3.6 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence........................................ SU3-32
Figure 3.7 Degree of Association Variables Showing Strong Genetic

Contribution................................................................................................................. SU3-34
Figure 3.8 Members of the Dog Category and Possible Prototypes; a, b, and

c...................................................................................................................................... SU3-37
Figure 3.9 Collins and Quillian’s Conceptual Hierarchy...................................... SU3-37
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Course
Guide
Introduction to Psychology 1
PSY107 Course Guide
1. Introduction
Presenter: Dr Emily Ortega
This streaming video requires Internet connection.

Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.
Click here to watch the video. i
Welcome to your study of PSY107 Introduction to Psychology 1, a 5 credit unit (CU)

course.
This Study Guide is divided into two sections – the Course Guide and Study Units.
The Course Guide provides a structure for the entire course. As the phrase implies, the
Course Guide aims to guide you through the learning experience. In other words, it may
be seen as a roadmap through which you are introduced to the different topics within
the broader subject. This Guide has been prepared to help you understand the aim[s] and
learning outcomes of the course. In addition, it explains how the various materials and
resources are organised and how they may be used, how your learning will be assessed,
and how to get help if you need it.
The Study Units not only highlight the important areas of the topics covered, but will
guide you to organise your thoughts on the array of information presented. While it
draws your attention to concepts and theories, it will direct you to relevant sections of
the textbook and online videos for in-depth information, engage you in activities which
should help you link new material to your existing knowledge, pose questions to reinforce
your understanding, and get you to reflect on some thought-provoking issues. Material
in the Study Units may be elaborated on during the seminar sessions as well. The Study
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https://d2jifwt31jjehd.cloudfront.net/PSY107/IntroVideo/PSY107_Intro_Video.mp4
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Units aim to generate interest and facilitate your learning, and ultimately consolidate and
enhance your understanding of the subject.
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2. Course Description and Aims
This Introductory Psychology module introduces the basic principles, concepts, and
theories of the following key areas: Research Methods, Biological Psychology, and
Cognitive Psychology. Psychology is fundamentally the science of behaviour and mental
processes, and psychologists use scientific methods to test their ideas empirically. A better
understanding of human behaviour can be achieved by studying the biological basis
of behaviour and the various cognitive functions involved. Such core concepts will be
covered by means of pre-recorded lectures, interactive and instructive online resources
that supplement the textbook and study guide, multimedia tutorials, videos, simulations,
animations, tests and quizzes that make learning accessible and stimulating.
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3. Learning Outcomes
Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component)
• Define major concepts of Psychology.

• Describe basic theories or principles of Psychology.
• Explain the biological or cognitive bases of human behaviour and mental processes.
• Discuss behaviour and mental process using supporting theoretical and/or
empirical evidence.
Key Skills (Practical Component)
• Identify various components of a research article and research methods.

• Practice writing experimental reports.
• Apply the American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines when referencing.
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4. Learning Materials
The following is a list of the required learning materials to complete this course.
Required Textbook
Zimbardo, P. G., Johnson, R. L., & Hamilton, V. M. (2014). Psychology: Core concepts (7th
ed.). Pearson New International Edition. Essex, UK: Pearson.
https://online.vitalsource.com/books/9781292034478/pageid/0
To launch eTextbook, you need a VitalSource account which can be created via Canvas
(iBookstore), using your SUSS email address. Access to this eTextbook is restricted by
enrolment to this course.
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5. Assessment Overview
Assessment Description Weight Allocation
PCQ01 1%
PCQ02 1%
Pre-Class Quiz PCQ03 1%
PCQ04 1%
PCQ05 1%
Assignment 1 TMA01: Understanding 20%

Research Articles
Assignment 2 TMA02: Experimental 25%

Report
Examination 50%
TOTAL 100%
SUSS’s assessment strategy consists of two components: the Overall Continuous

Assessment (OCAS) and Overall Examinable Component (OES) that make up the overall
course assessment score. Both components are equally weighted.
a. OCAS: PCQ01-PCQ05 is weighted at 10%. Assignment 1 comprises one TMA

weighted at 40%. Assignment 2 is a TMA weighted at 50%. Pre-Class Quizzes,
Assignment 1 and 2 combined will constitute 100% of OCAS.
b. OES: The Examination is 100% of this component.
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To be sure of a pass result you need to achieve scores of at least 40% in each component.
Your overall rank score is the weighted average of both components.
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6. Course Schedule
To help monitor your study progress, you should pay special attention to your Course
Schedule. It contains study unit related activities including Assignment, self-evaluations,
and examinations. Please refer to the Course Timetable in the Student Portal for the
updated Course Schedule.
NOTE: You should always make it a point to check the Student Portal for any
announcements and latest updates.
You need to ensure you fully understand the contents of each Study Unit listed in
the Course Schedule. You are expected to complete the suggested activities either
independently and/or in groups. It is imperative that you read through your Assignment
questions and submission instructions before embarking on your Assignment. It is also
important you comprehend the Overall Assessment Weighting of your course. This is
listed in the Assessment Overview section of this Guide.
Manage your time well so you can meet given deadlines and do regular revisions after
completing each unit of study. They will help you retain the knowledge garnered and
prepare you for any required formal assessment. If your course requires an end-of-
semester examination, do look through Past Years’ Exam Papers which are available on
Learning Management System.
Although flexible learning – learning at your own pace, space and time – is a hallmark
at SUSS, you are encouraged to engage your instructor and fellow students in online
discussion forums. A sharing of ideas through meaningful debates will help broaden your
learning and crystallise your thinking.
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Study
Unit
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:
• Define psychology and explain why it is a science

• Summarise the history of the major theoretical approaches to psychology
• Identify the major psychological perspectives and describe how each explains
behaviour
• Describe the major goals of psychology
• List the four steps of the scientific method
• Describe the five psychological research methods
• Discuss typical ethical concerns that arise in applied psychology and in
psychological research
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Overview
P sychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. It looks

at how psychologists work from a variety of theoretical models and traditions,
record and analyse their observations, and attempt to unravel the mysteries of the
mind. Scientific methods are employed to test theories that arise from a set of facts or
observations.
TEXTBOOK:
Zimbardo, P. G., Johnson, R. L., & Hamilton, V. M. (2014). Psychology: Core concepts
(7th ed.). Essex, UK: Pearson.
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Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology
In a generic sense, everyone is a psychologist. We all study people, analyse their behaviour,
try to understand what they are thinking and feeling, and attempt to predict what they
will do next. However, there is a real difference between the common-sense psychology
we use in everyday life and the psychology you will learn about in the following pages.
More specifically, the working definition of psychology that we will use throughout this
book is a part of our Core Concept for this section of the chapter:
Psychology is a broad field with many specialties, but fundamentally psychology is the
science of behaviour and mental processes.
1.1 Psychology Then: Historical Roots

People have probably always speculated about human behaviour and mental processes.
Written records, dating back some 25 centuries to the Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato,
and Aristotle, include ideas about consciousness and madness. It was also the Greeks who
came up with some psychological notions that emotions and mental disorders originated
from different organs of the body. This could explain why we use expressions such as
“feeling sadness in our heart” or “my heart is filled with joy”. The Greeks were not alone,
as the exploration of consciousness became evident in Yoga and Buddhism in Asia, while
other explanations for personality and mental disorder were emerging from traditional
spiritual beliefs in Africa (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 1992).
The view that the human mind presented an unsolved mystery prevailed until the 17th
century, when French philosopher René Descartes dared to assert that human sensations
and behaviour are based on activity in the nervous system. Yet, despite these major
advances, psychology itself would not become a distinct scientific discipline for another
two centuries after Descartes. As we will see, it took two revolutionary ideas to make a
science of psychology possible.
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One of the two revolutionary ideas to shape the early development of psychology
emerged in the mid-1800s. Firstly, Charles Darwin suggested a biological kinship
between humans and animals. For psychologists this would mean that discoveries about
animal biology and behaviour could be applied (with caution, of course) to people.
So, for example, Helmholtz’s pioneering research on nerve impulses in frogs helped
psychologists understand human reflexes, and Darwin’s insight meant that Pavlov’s later
work on learning in dogs could also shed light on human learning.
The second big idea that shaped the early science of psychology arose in chemistry, where
scientists noticed patterns in properties of the chemical elements that led them to develop
the periodic table. Wilhelm Wundt, a German scientist, wondered if he could come up
with “the elements of conscious experience” which could simplify our understanding of
the mind. This quest for the elements of consciousness became known as structuralism.
Wundt established the first psychological research laboratory in 1879 where he used
the method of introspection to study the elements of consciousness – sensation and
perception, memory, attention, emotion, cognition, learning, and language. Although this
technique was widely criticised for being too subjective, the technique is used, even today,
in dream analysis and perceptual tasks, such as those you will experience in the Necker
cube demonstration in the Activity box below.
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Activity 1
Do It Yourself!
An introspective look at the Necker cube
Stare at the cube for a few moments...
...and you will notice it shift!
Activity 2
Under Psychology’s Six Main Perspectives in the textbook, find out more about
how this demonstration relates to the process of introspection. Something happens
mentally, and this can only be expressed through introspection. Why does this
changing perspective of the cube occur?
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William James didn’t agree with Wundt’s structuralism approach and argued that
psychology should include the function of consciousness, not just its structure. This led to
the emergence of the school of thought known as functionalism. In a famous metaphor, he
pictured a “stream of consciousness” as a mental process that had no static structure but
was continually flowing, changing, and interacting with the environment. James therefore
proposed that psychology should explain how people adapt – or fail to adapt – to the
everyday world outside the laboratory.
Another challenge to Wundt’s structuralism came from a rebellious group in his native
Germany. In some respects, their approach, known as Gestalt psychology, was the exact
opposite of structuralism. The Gestalt psychologists were interested in how we construct
“perceptual wholes” (or Gestalts, in German), such as our perception of a face, rather
than just a conglomeration of lines, colours, and textures. The structuralists focused on the
parts, or elements of consciousness, not on the whole. However, for Gestalt psychology,
understanding perception was merely the means to the even more important end of
understanding how the brain works. Like both the structuralists and functionalists,
psychologists of the Gestalt “school” (or philosophical approach) relied on introspection.
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Activity 3
Check out MyPsychLab >>> Study Guide Course Content >>> Mind, Behavior,
and Psychological Science
Biography: Read about the scientists mentioned so far.
• Charles Darwin
• Wilhelm Wundt
• William James
Trivia: Which of these scientists was Sir Francis Galton’s half-cousin?
Sir Francis Galton suggested that intelligence was inherited and was the first to use
statistical methods to study individual differences.
Thus far, the historical foundations from which modern psychological perspectives
emerged have been presented.
1.2 Psychology Now: Modern Psychological Perspectives

Six main viewpoints dominate the rapidly changing field of modern psychology –
the biological, cognitive, behavioural, whole-person, developmental, and socio-cultural
perspectives – each of which grew out of radical new concepts about mind and behaviour.
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Read
Psychology’s six main perspectives in the textbook.
Figure 1.1 The six modern perspectives in psychology
In this video lecture, we will learn more about the six perspectives in psychology and how
they can be applied to explaining why we do the things we do… or don’t!
This streaming video requires Internet connection. Access it via Wi-Fi to avoid
incurring data charges on your personal mobile plan.
i
https://d2jifwt31jjehd.cloudfront.net/PSY107/others/
PSY107_PSY107_Introduction_to_Psychology_Perspectives_in_Psychology.mp4.mp4
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Activity 4
On July 28, 2006, it was reported in The Straits Times that Mel Gibson was arrested on
suspicion of drink-driving. He was said to have launched into a tirade against Jews,
blaming them for starting all wars. Were his anti-Semitic comments a reflection of his
beliefs or were they simply alcohol-induced utterances?
Think about how each of the six psychological perspectives would explain Mel
Gibson’s behaviour.
1.3 Psychology is a Science

The study of psychology extends across both directly observable behaviour (e.g.,
talking, smiling, and crying) and mental processes that can only be observed indirectly
(e.g., thinking, feeling, and planning). Psychologists have not always agreed on these
boundaries for their field – particularly on whether subjective mental processes can be
explored by a discipline that claims to be a science.
It is important to note that the science of psychology is based on objective, verifiable

evidence obtained and is not mere speculation about human nature, nor is it a body of
folk wisdom about people that “everybody knows” to be true. There are many examples
of such “common-sense” ideas that psychological science has shown to be false.
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Activity 5
Find out whether you hold some of these false beliefs as well, by taking the quiz in the
box, “Do It Yourself! Psychological Science or Psychobabble?” found in the textbook
under Psychology’s Six Main Perspectives.
Critical thinking is necessary in order to assess claims made in the name of psychology.
People appear eager to embrace fantastic claims – especially those involving mysterious
powers of the mind and supernatural influences on our personalities. Pseudopsychology
refers to phony, unscientific psychology masquerading as the real thing.
How to be a critical thinker:
1. Don’t fixate on availability (don’t choose the first answer just because it’s there).
2. Don’t generalise too quickly (just because some elements in a group follow a
pattern doesn’t mean all will follow a pattern).
3. Don’t settle for an easy solution (consider all options).
4. Don’t choose a solution just because it fits pre-existing ideas (be open to new
ways of thinking).
5. Don’t fail to consider any possible solutions (consciously evaluate all possible
alternatives).
6. Don’t be emotional (emotions get in the way of evaluative rational thinking).
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Read
Find out more about pseudopsychology from the textbook and how we can counter its harmful
effects by being a critical thinker.
You may have heard the saying “You only hear what you want to hear”, and this is
aptly demonstrated in the Gold 90.5 FM television advertisement (watch on http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=BT_f9u66-gU) where the driving school instructor criticises
the student’s driving skills, however, the student only hears the good things. Similarly,
confirmation bias is a common form of bias where there is a tendency to attend
to evidence that complements or confirms our beliefs or expectations, while ignoring
evidence that does not. It is important to recognise such biases, as they can affect and
contaminate conclusions about new ideas or information presented before us.
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Activity 6
Based on what we have covered so far on critical thinking and how confirmation bias
can lead to errors in judgement, let’s see how your preconceptions might influence
your decision on the following task.
Here are four cards. Each of them has a letter on one side and a number on the other
side. Two of these cards are shown with the letter side up, and two with the number
side up.
Which two cards would you turn over to test the hypothesis that;
All cards that have a vowel on one side have an odd number on the other?
This simple demonstration known as the Wason Selection Task comes from research
done on confirmation bias by Wason (1966).
Modern sources of questionable psychology include practitioners of astrology, palmistry,

graphology, biorhythm analysis, and any number of psychics, seers, and prophets who
claim to have special insights into people’s personalities and to be able to predict their
futures.
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Activity 7
Simulate: Critical Thinking

Click HERE
Think about how much evidence you should require before you accept a claim as
being true. You need to take into consideration the probability of getting the answer
right by simply guessing. In other words, an estimation of what would occur by
chance alone.
1.4 Goals of Psychology

The main goals of a psychologist conducting basic research are to describe, explain,
predict, and control behaviour.
Describe “What” – The first task in psychology is to make objective and accurate
observations about what is being studied. It is important that the observation takes place
while maintaining objectivity. In other words, one must not be influenced by subjective
points of view – biases, prejudices, and expectations – as they are likely to distort
the information recorded. The recording of perceivable information includes observable
behaviour as well as the conditions under which the behaviour occurs. Let us imagine
the task of observing and describing how children play. We might, for example, observe
pre-school children playing in a childcare centre and make notes on what we observe, as
accurately and as objectively as possible. The information recorded may show that more
girls spent a longer time playing with dolls while more boys spent a longer time playing
with toy cars and trains. This is an objectively recorded observation. If, however, you
note that girls liked playing with dolls while boys liked playing with toy cars, then this
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observation can be deemed subjective. It is important to record facts and not information
based on your opinion.
Explain “Why” – Having described our observation, the next task is to explain what
has been described. How can the observed behaviour be explained? For example, our
observation about how most of the girls in the group spent a longer time playing with dolls
while most of the boys played with toy cars. Is this difference in behaviour between young
girls and boys due to their genetic makeup or could it be due to the way they were raised?
Explanations of behaviour can be derived from one’s insight into the human experience,
existing theories of human behaviour, as well as findings uncovered by previous research
studies.
Predict – Once an explanation of the observed behaviour is established, it is possible to

predict future behaviour. In other words, it is possible to make a statement about the
likelihood that a particular behaviour will take place. Following on from our observation
and explanation of young children’s preference for certain toys, it may be possible to
predict that when you take a pre-school girl to a toy store, she is likely to want to buy a
doll, while a pre-school boy is likely to want to buy a toy car or train.
Control – Having established an explanation of a particular behaviour which has enabled

the accurate prediction of future behaviour, it is then possible to alter the conditions that
affect such behaviour. If girls only played with dolls and boys only played with toy cars
and trains, girls are not likely to play with boys as they don’t share the same type of
toys, and vice-versa. In order to encourage children to play together, i.e. socialise with
children of the opposite gender, one might encourage young girls to play with toys other
than dolls by offering other types of toys to play with, while not making dolls available.
Similarly, boys may be encouraged to play with toys that girls like to play with. There are
also gender-neutral toys to consider.
Psychologists use their knowledge to control and improve people’s lives. They believe
that undesirable behaviour can be modified by proper intervention.
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Chapter 2: Psychological Research
Psychologists rely on systematic observation, data collection, and analysis to find out the
answers to their questions. The importance of why the scientific method is used in all areas
of empirical investigation will be revealed.
Psychology is a science where the scientific method is used to test ideas empirically. This
scientific method involves a four-step process which enables one to test ideas through
empirical investigation where objective information are collected based on observation
and careful measurement. This leads to the development of theories of behaviour and
mental processes based on solid empirical research. Such theories have the power to
explain facts and these explanations can be tested objectively.
Watch
Watch: The Basics: Scientific Research Methods (6.5 minutes)

Click HERE
Here is a simple and elegant psychological experiment published in the Journal of the
American Medical Association by an 11-year-old Emily Rosa of Colorado, U.S.A. (Rosa, Rosa,
Sarner, & Barrett, 1998). Emily’s school science project turned out to challenge a widely
held belief in the power of therapeutic touch (TT).
In the early 1990s, TT was touted as a medical therapy. Emily’s mother, a nurse, had
explained to her how TT practitioners attempted to promote healing by moving their
hands over the patient’s body without directly touching it. In doing so, they believed
that they were detecting and manipulating an energy field radiating from the body. These
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practitioners claimed they could use TT to treat a wide range of medical and psychological
problems – from colic to cancer and arthritis to depression (Gorman, 1999). So effective
was it believed to be that the technique was being taught in more than 100 colleges and
universities in 75 countries and used by nurses in at least 80 U.S. hospitals. But did it
really work, or was it just another example of flawed common sense? Emily suspected
that TT practitioners were really detecting their own beliefs and expectations, rather than
a “human energy field”. Hence, she put their claims to a simple experimental test, the
details of which we will use to illustrate the scientific method.
2.1 Four Steps of the Scientific Method
Read
The four steps of the scientific method in the textbook.
Step 1. Develop a Hypothesis
Like any good scientist, Emily stated her hypothesis in such a way that it could be tested
and falsified (shown to be either correct or incorrect). To make her suspicion testable,
Emily had to follow an ironclad requirement of all scientific research: She had to give
operational definitions for all the terms in her hypothesis. That is, she had to specify the
exact procedures (operations) she would use in setting up the experimental conditions
and measuring the results.
Emily wondered if TT practitioners could accurately sense the presence of her hand when
it was placed above one of their hands but not out of sight? She hypothesised that they
could not.
A hypothesis must undergo an “ordeal of proof” – a test that it will either pass or fail.
Here’s how Emily conducted her test. She invited each of 21 TT practitioners (varying in
experience from 1 to 27 years) to determine which of their two hands (thrust, palms up,
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through holes in a screen) was closest to one of her own hands (held palm down, a few
inches from either of the practitioner’s hands).
In order to control the conditions of her experiment, Emily varied only one part of the
situation on each trial: whether her hand was above the subject’s left or right hand.
We call this variable condition the independent variable. Think of the independent
variable as a condition that the experimenter changes independently of all the other
carefully controlled experimental conditions. The independent variable always involves
a systematic variation on the conditions that the experimenter is evaluating in a study.
In Emily’s experiment on therapeutic touch, control over the experimental conditions

would have been laughable if she had simply held her hand alternately above the
volunteers’ left and right hands or followed some other predictable pattern. That is, had
the volunteers been able to guess which response was correct, the results of the experiment
would have meant nothing. The solution was random presentation of the stimulus, which
meant that chance alone determined the order in which the stimulus was presented.
Random presentation is one tool in the experimenter’s bag of tricks for controlling
expectations that can skew the results of a study. In Emily’s experiment, randomisation
was achieved by a coin flip, which determined whether she presented her hand above the
practitioner’s left or right hand.
A scientific study must not stop at a hypothesis. The great failing of pseudosciences like
astrology is that they never take the other steps necessary to verify or reject their assertions.
Among scientists, however, a hypothesis will be taken seriously only after it has been
subjected to rigorous testing.
Step 2. Collect Objective Data
The scientist collects objective data – information gathered by direct observation. Such
data depend only on the manipulations of the experimental conditions (the independent
variable). The data must not depend on the experimenter’s hopes, expectations, or
personal impressions. In Emily’s experiment, the data consisted of the number of correct
and incorrect responses during the test – whether the practitioners responded correctly
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to the placement of her hand. Such responses are referred to as the dependent variable.
The term comes from the assumption that the responses of participants in an experiment
depend directly on the conditions to which they have been exposed. As a result, the data
will depend on how the independent variable has been manipulated.
In designing an experiment, the dependent variable must also be given an operational

definition. That is, the researcher must specify the procedures (operations) that were used
in measuring the responses being observed. This is exactly what Emily did when she
described how she required her participants to respond with “left” or “right”.
Activity 8
Simulate: Distinguishing Independent and Dependent Variables

Click HERE
Be a participant in a simulated psychological experiment and learn to tell the

difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Step 3. Analyse the Results and Accept or Reject the Hypothesis
The researcher examines the results (the data) to see whether the hypothesis survived the
test. Based on that analysis, the hypothesis is accepted or rejected. A statistical test can
tell the researcher whether the observed results rise to the level of significance – that is,
whether the results are likely due to the independent variable or merely due to chance. A
detailed explanation of statistics is beyond the syllabus of this module.
In Emily’s experiment, the statistical analysis was remarkably simple. The chances of
getting a correct answer merely by guessing were 50%. That is, half the time the TT
practitioners could be expected to give the right answer, even if they had no ability to
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sense the “human energy field”. So, Emily set this standard: Her subjects would have to
perform significantly above the chance level to support the claim that they can detect a
“human energy field”. They did not, so she concluded that practitioners of therapeutic
touch were not sensing human energy fields.
Step 4. Publish, Criticise, and Replicate the Results
In this final step of the scientific method, researchers must find out whether their work
can withstand the scrutiny and criticism of the scientific community. To do so, they might
communicate their results to colleagues by publishing them in a professional journal,
presenting a paper at a professional meeting, or writing a book. Emily Rosa published her
results in The Journal of the American Medical Association and then waited for the critics
to respond.
Some critics complained that Emily’s experiment was not an accurate representation of
the conditions under which therapeutic touch is done. They claimed that TT depends on
the transfer of emotional energy during a medical crisis; and because Emily was not sick,
she didn’t have disturbances in her energy field that could be detected by TT practitioners.
Critics could have checked Emily’s work by replicating it. To replicate her experiment they
would redo it, perhaps under slightly different control conditions, to see whether they
would get the same results. But, so far, Emily’s experiment was never replicated. At this
point then, we can say that Emily’s experimental results have withstood the scientific test.
Scientific findings are, however, always tentative, as a new study could result in a new
interpretation and relegate previous work to the scientific scrap heap. Granted, it is an
imperfect system, but it is so far the best method developed for testing ideas about the
natural world.
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Watch
Watch: The Big Picture: How to Answer Psychological Questions? (4 minutes)

Click HERE
2.2 Psychological Research Methods

In addition to experiments, like Emily Rosa’s research, these include correlational studies,
surveys, naturalistic observations, and case studies.
Read
A detailed explanation of the five types of psychological research can be found in the textbook.
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Have you heard people say that eating late at night will cause you to put on weight? We’ll
put this myth to the test in this video lecture, using the different types of research methods.
Click here to watch the video. ii
Click here to watch the video. iii
Experiments – Emily Rosa’s study is an example of an experiment, a form of research in

which the researcher controls all the conditions and directly manipulates the independent
variable. Not only did Emily and her colleagues design the apparatus used in their study,
but they established the conditions under which subjects were tested. Virtually everything
about the experiment was under their control.
Every experiment, including Emily’s, is designed to answer this question: Does the
manipulation of the independent variable cause the predicted change in the dependent
variable? To determine this, the experimenter designs two or more ways of treating the
participants whose responses are being studied. Thus, in the therapeutic touch study,
Emily created two possible treatment conditions by varying which of the participants’
hands she placed her own hand near. To give another example, in an experiment designed
to study a new drug, the two treatments might involve two different groups of volunteers.
One would get the experimental drug, while others receive a placebo, a “drug” with no
medical value, such as a sugar pill.
When two groups are used, those exposed to the special treatment (e.g., the new drug)
are said to be in the experimental condition of the study. These individuals make up the
ii
PSY107_PSY107_Psychological_Research_Part_1.mp4.mp4
iii
PSY107_PSY107_Psychological_Research_Part_2.mp4.mp4
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experimental group. Meanwhile, those in the other group, the control group, are placed
in the control condition, where they may receive a placebo or no treatment at all. Thus,
the control group is used as a standard against which to compare the subjects in the
experimental condition.
When an experimenter uses two or more groups of volunteer subjects, it is important to

avoid any systematic bias in the way individuals are assigned to the groups. In a drug
study, for example, it wouldn’t do for one group to have sicker people than the other
or for all the women to be assigned to the experimental group and all the men placed
in the control group. A good solution involves random assignment, where people are
assigned to each group by chance alone. One way to do this would be to list volunteers
alphabetically and assign alternating names to the experimental and control groups. This
would minimise any potential differences between the two groups.
Correlational Studies – This method is adopted to determine the relationship between

two variables. For example, you might be interested to see if there is any correlation
between IQ (variable 1) and memory for faces (variable 2). A recognition test can be
administered to gain a measure of one’s memory for faces, and the results of this test
(proportion of correct recognition) can be plotted against one’s IQ.
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If the findings show that as the IQ

score increases, the proportion of correct
recognition of faces also increases, then
this relationship is known as a positive
correlation.
If the findings show that as the IQ

score increases, the proportion of correct
recognition of faces decreases, then this
relationship is known as a negative
correlation.
When correlations are established, it is possible to use the measurement of one variable
to predict the other variable.
If the findings show that as there is no

clear relationship between the IQ scores
and the proportion of correct recognition
of faces, then there is no correlation
between the two variables.
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Activity 9
Research may show that those from broken homes are more likely to commit crime,
however why is it that broken home and committing a crime are not causally related?
Explore: Correlations Do Not Show Causation

Click HERE
A very important point to note about correlations is that a correlation does not necessarily
mean causation. For example, research may show that those from broken homes are more
likely to commit crime, but this does not mean that everyone who commits a crime comes
from a broken home. In other words, coming from a broken home and committing a crime
are not causally related.
Figure 1.2 False Assumption about Correlation and Causality
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A more likely assumption, and one that would need to be tested, is that poverty, a third
variable, may be the cause of both crime and broken homes.
Figure 1.3 Assumptions Based on Correlations
Surveys – It is possible to gather information about people’s attitudes, preferences, or

other characteristics by simply asking them using a survey, where responses for a prepared
set of questions are recorded. This method enables one to generate a large amount of data
with relative ease. However, the quality of the information gathered depends on the clarity
of the questions set and the honesty of the respondents.
Naturalistic Observations – When researchers want to know how individuals act in their
natural surroundings (as opposed to the artificial conditions of a laboratory), they may
use the method of naturalistic observation. Naturalistic observation might be a good
choice for studying child-rearing practices, people’s shopping habits, or public courting
behaviours. The method is also used extensively to study animal behaviour in the wild.
This approach is used by Dian Fossey who studied gorillas in the mountain forests of
Rwanda for a period of 18 years. Thus, the setting for a naturalistic observation could be as
varied as a shopping mall, a classroom, a home, or a remote wilderness. However, because
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the researcher merely observes, rather than controls the conditions and/or manipulates
the independent variable, naturalistic observations are made under far less controlled
conditions than are experiments.
Case Studies – Yet another kind of research, the case study, focuses on only a few
individuals – sometimes just one. The method is usually reserved for the in-depth study of
unusual people with rare problems or unusual talents. Psychoanalysts have also used this
approach, calling it the clinical method, to develop theories about mental disorder based
on material gathered from their patients. The disadvantages of the case study method,
of course, lie in its subjectivity and its small sample size, thus restricting the researcher’s
ability to draw conclusions that can be applied with confidence to other individuals. This
method can sometimes offer valuable insights that could not be obtained in any other way.
2.3 Sources of Bias in Research

Think of an issue which you have strong feelings and opinions about – perhaps abortion,
euthanasia, or capital punishment. On such topics, our emotions make it difficult to reason
objectively. Likewise, emotionally loaded topics can bring out biases that affect the ways
an experimenter designs a study, collects the data, or interprets the results. Fortunately,
the scientific method, with its public procedures and openness to replication, provides
a powerful means to check on an experimenter’s bias. Still, scientists would rather save
themselves embarrassment by identifying and controlling their biases before they hit
print. Here are some forms of bias to which they must be alert.
Emotional bias involves an individual’s beliefs, preferences, assumptions, or prejudices.

Often these are not obvious to the individual holding such biases. Whatever form it takes,
such bias can cause scientists to notice only the evidence confirming their hypotheses and
to ignore contrary data. Expectancy bias also affects observations when observers expect
– and look for – certain outcomes. These sources of bias lead to erroneous, dangerous, or
expensive conclusions.
A common strategy for controlling expectancy bias in a drug study, for example, is to
keep participants in the research experimentally “blind”, or uninformed, about whether
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they are getting the real drug or a placebo. An even better strategy known as a double-
blind study, keeps both the participants and the experimenter clueless about which group
receives what treatment, until the end of the study, so that neither group will get any clue
about the expected response to the pills they are taking.
Aside from these forms of observer bias, researchers must also try to identify other
possible influences on the behaviour being studied – influences other than the
independent variable. Such confounding variables are factors that could be confused
with the independent variable and thus distort the results. Consider, for example, a
study of a stimulant drug (such as Ritalin) used to control hyperactive behaviour among
schoolchildren. What might be some confounding variables? The drug’s effect might
differ because of different body weights, eating schedules, and time, method, or setting of
administration. Unless arrangements are made to control all such possible confounding
variables – that is, to expose all the subjects to identical conditions – the researcher has no
way of knowing which factors really produced the results.
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Activity 10
Identify possible confounding variables in the following experiment.
Experiment: A Primary 1 school teacher wants to test a new method she thought up,
that may help her students do better in spelling tests. She has a class of 30 students.
One day, she selects the first 15 students to arrive in class first thing in the morning.
She takes them to another class and spends 10 minutes teaching her new method. She
brings this group of 15 students back to class and administers a spelling test to all 30
students who were present. She found that the 15 students who were taught her new
method (experimental group) did better than the 15 who were not taught her new
method (control group). She concluded that her new method was effective.
What confounding variables can you identify?

How can they be overcome?
2.4 Research Ethics

A critical issue we will consider now involves the ethics of research. Is it ethical, for
example, to subject people to severe frustration in an experiment involving a problem
that is impossible to solve? Or, in an experimental study on the effects of alcohol on
performance, would it be alright to force participants to consume large amounts of
alcoholic drinks? What degree of unease is too high a price to pay for the knowledge
gained from the experiment? Psychologists may offer varying responses to these difficult,
but important, questions.
The American Psychological Association has published “Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduct” (2002), advising researchers of their ethical obligation
to shield subjects from potentially harmful procedures. It is also available online: http://
www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html
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The “Ethical Principles” states that participation in research should be voluntary and
informed. In other words, potential participants should be advised of the challenges
involved in participating in the experiment, and they should be given the option to
withdraw from the experimental study at any time.
The use of deception can be a tricky issue. The guidelines allow for deception under
some conditions, provided that no substantial risks are likely to accrue to the participants.
When deception is used, the APA guidelines require that participants be informed of the
deception as soon as is possible. This usually takes place when participants are debriefed
at the end of the experiment.
Activity 11
Simulate: Ethics in Psychological Research

Click HERE
Identify which of the ethical guidelines were breached in the research scenario
presented.
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Summary
Psychology is the science of behaviour and mental processes. It employs scientific

methods to empirically test theories that are formulated and hypotheses that are
generated. When testing hypotheses, psychologists need to be as objective as possible in
order to gather accurate information (data). One way to achieve this is by being a critical
thinker – being aware of the pitfalls that can arise from different types of biases.
The four steps involved in conducting a research study ensure that hypothesis testing
is conducted using scientific methods. There are various types of psychological research
methods that can be employed – experiments, correlational studies, surveys, naturalistic
observations, and case studies – and it is the job of the psychologist to select the most
appropriate method for testing the hypothesis concerned. Psychologists follow the code
of ethics established by the American Psychological Association which ensure the ethical
and humane treatment of experimental participants.
It is through the scientific study involving scientific methods that enable psychologists to
study human behaviour in a credible manner. The researcher will have had to carefully
consider the advantages and disadvantages of each research method before selecting the
most appropriate method for addressing each research question.
Watch
Timeline: Psychology Timeline

Click HERE
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TEST YOURSELF:
Practice:
• What Is Psychology – And What Is Not?

• What Are Psychology’s Historical Roots?
• What Are the Perspectives Psychologists Use Today?
• How Do Psychologists Develop New Knowledge?
Read
ed.). Essex, UK: Pearson.
MUST READ:
Mind, Behavior, and Psychological Science
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Formative Assessment
1. Which of the following statements is a formal definition of psychology?

a. Psychology is the scientific study of human nature.
b. Psychology is the scientific study of theories and research methods.
c. Psychology is the scientific study of the process of learning and modifying
behavioral reflexes.
d. Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their
mental processes.
2. Modern psychology is best considered to be a _______.

a. collection of pieces of folk wisdom
b. science
c. therapeutic process
d. pseudoscience
3. A behavioral psychologist studying the causes of alcohol usage would most likely
________.
a. ask people why they consume alcohol.
b. observe whether people have a positive or negative experience after
consuming alcohol.
c. measure brain changes following alcohol consumption.
d. determine patterns of alcohol usage within different cultures.
4. Evolutionary psychology might suggest that certain cognitive strategies and goals
are built into the brain because _________.
a. they help humans adapt to their natural environment
b. they are the result of learning that has taken place over many centuries
c. they are the result of memories we have inherited from our ancestors
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d. they are prewired to help us achieve self-actualization during our lifetimes
5. A cognitive psychologist has been studying aggression in teens. Which of the

following is most likely to be the title of his latest study?
a. "The Consequences of Teen Violence"
b. "Social Pressures that Produce Violent Teens"
c. "The Use of Medications to Control Aggression in Teens"
d. "The Reasons Why Teens Say They Act Violently"
6. Ted is seeing a humanistic psychologist for therapy. His psychologist is most likely
to focus on ___________.
a. cultural guidelines that shaped Ted's personality
b. striving for growth and exercising free will
c. the conflict between personal desires and social restrictions.
d. Ted's unconscious resentment of his siblings
7. Structuralists were concerned with uncovering the basic components of ________.

a. the unconscious
b. culture
c. the environment
d. the mind
8. Jenna wants to learn whether men or women are better drivers. To determine this, she
decides that she will measure driving ability by examining the number of automobile
accidents people have been involved in as a driver. The number of accidents is the
basis of __________.
a. her control group in this study
b. a case study examination of driving ability
c. the independent variable in this study
d. the operational definition of driving ability
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9. Some research questions cannot be answered using human experiments because

________.
a. some studies would be impractical or unethical
b. randomization is often hard to achieve
c. they are not a very effective way to learn about cause and effect relationships
d. researchers know that their results usually will not be published
10. In the 1970s, a 13-year-old girl was found locked up in a room, strapped to a potty
chair. Since she had grown up in a world without human speech, researchers studied
“Genie’s” ability to acquire words, grammar, and pronunciation. This type of research
is called __________.
a. a case study
b. a double-blind study
c. a naturalistic observation
d. correlational examination
11. Dr. Hefner wants to test the effects of Viagra on sexual desire. Dr. Hefner's research
assistant (who is unaware of what the study is testing) randomly gives 50 males the
drug while 50 males receive a placebo. (The study subjects are also unaware of the
treatment which they are getting.) This would be described as a ________.
a. correlational study
b. double-blind study
c. study that would be difficult to replicate
d. study with two independent variables
12. “Children who watch violent cartoons will become more aggressive.” According to
the scientific method, this statement is most likely a ___________.
a. conclusion
b. result
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c. hypothesis
d. fact
13. The most important aspect of a hypothesis is that it must be a ___________ idea.
a. complicated
b. testable
c. Logical
d. believable
14. A key aspect of an experiment is the requirement that researchers ___________.

a. use correlational methods
b. manipulate one variable to see its effect on another variable
c. provide some sort of placebo
d. publish their results in a scientific journal
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Solutions or Suggested Answers
SU1-Chapter 1 Activity 2
It is because we add meaning to what we see (sensation). In other words, the shifting
perspectives are different perceptions of the same sensation.
Charles Darwin
Most pick E and 7 so if you’ve picked E, you’ve made the right choice. However, if you’ve
also picked 7, then this shows that confirmation bias took place. Picking 7 only confirms
the hypothesis, it does not disprove it. If there’s a vowel on the other side of 7, that doesn’t
rule out the possibility that there is also a vowel on the other side of 8. Hence it was
necessary to pick 8 as it is the only card that can disconfirm the hypothesis.
One of the confounding variables has to do with how advanced some of these Primary
1 pupils are in terms of their knowledge of word spellings. If they are already good at
spelling, then the new method may not have necessarily helped and therefore cannot be
solely responsible for the good results. Another confounding variable has to do with the
way the students were selected for the experimental group. Students who arrive early
are likely to have woken up earlier as well. They may be mentally more alert than those
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who arrived later who may still be feeling sleepy. So how do we know that the better
performance of the experimental group was not influenced by the greater mental alertness
of the students? Another confounding variable is any possible detrimental effect that
students in the control group may have felt about being excluded from the activity that
the experimental group is engaged in, in another room. It would help to ensure that the
students have similar level of ability for which they are being tested. Random assignment
to experimental and control groups would help eliminate any extraneous variables that
can confound the results of the experimental. All other conditions should be kept constant.
The teacher should wait for all students to arrive before dividing them into experimental
and control groups. Both groups should be moved to two different classes (and not have
the situation where one group moves to another class while the remaining group stays
put). The test could take place later in the morning when all students can be expected to
be 'awake'. Are there any other confounding variables...?
1. Which of the following statements is a formal definition of psychology?
a. Psychology is the scientific study of human nature.
Incorrect. In particular, observable behaviour and mental processes are the
area of interest in the study of Psychology. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 1
Topic: Psychology is a Science.
b. Psychology is the scientific study of theories and research methods.

Incorrect. More specifically, Psychology is the study of human behavior and
mental processes. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic: Psychology is a
Science.
c. Psychology is the scientific study of the process of learning and modifying

behavioral reflexes.
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Incorrect. Mental processes are part of the study of psychology too. Refer to
Study Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic: Psychology is a Science.
d. Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their

mental processes.
Correct. The study of psychology extends across both directly observable
behaviour and mental processes that can only be observed indirectly. Refer
to Study Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic: Psychology is a Science.
2. Modern psychology is best considered to be a _______.

a. collection of pieces of folk wisdom
Incorrect. Psychology is not a mere speculation about human nature, nor is
it a body of folk wisdom. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic: Psychology
is a Science.
b. science
Correct. The study of psychology is a science, which is based on objective,
verifiable evidence obtained. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic:
Psychology is a Science.
c. therapeutic process
Incorrect. Psychotherapy is a small part of the larger field of psychology.
Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic: Psychology is a Science.
d. pseudoscience
Incorrect. Pseudopsychology refers to phony, unscientific psychology
masquerading as the real thing. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic:
Psychology is a Science.
3. A behavioral psychologist studying the causes of alcohol usage would most likely
________.
a. ask people why they consume alcohol.
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Incorrect. This might be a question asked by a cognitive psychologist. Refer

to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
b. observe whether people have a positive or negative experience after

consuming alcohol.
Correct. The work of noted behaviorist B.F. Skinner focused on the
influences of consequences of an action on future behaviors. Refer to
Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
c. measure brain changes following alcohol consumption.

Incorrect. This is the work from the biological perspective. Refer to Textbook
chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
d. determine patterns of alcohol usage within different cultures.

Incorrect. This is the area of interest from the Sociocultural Perspective. Refer
4. Evolutionary psychology might suggest that certain cognitive strategies and goals
are built into the brain because _________.
a. they help humans adapt to their natural environment
Correct. Adaptation and survival are the basic tenets of evolutionary
theory. Refer to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
b. they are the result of learning that has taken place over many centuries
Incorrect. In fact, evolutionary theory does not allow for the idea that learned
behaviors can become genetically passed from generation to generation.
Refer to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
c. they are the result of memories we have inherited from our ancestors
Incorrect. In fact, memory functions are not discussed in evolutionary theory.
d. they are prewired to help us achieve self-actualization during our lifetimes
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Incorrect. Self-actualization is a concept from the Developmental

perspective. Refer to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
5. A cognitive psychologist has been studying aggression in teens. Which of the

following is most likely to be the title of his latest study?
a. "The Consequences of Teen Violence"
Incorrect. This might be the title of a study conducted by a behaviorist. Refer
b. "Social Pressures that Produce Violent Teens"

Incorrect. This might be the title of a study conducted by a Social
Psychologist. Refer to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
c. "The Use of Medications to Control Aggression in Teens"

Incorrect. Unlike Psychiatrics, Cognitive psychologists do not use
medication. Refer to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
d. "The Reasons Why Teens Say They Act Violently"

Correct. Cognitive psychology focuses on how a person’s thoughts and
actions are a result of perceptions and interpretations of experiences. Refer
6. Ted is seeing a humanistic psychologist for therapy. His psychologist is most likely
to focus on ___________.
a. cultural guidelines that shaped Ted's personality
Incorrect. This might be the emphasis of the sociocultural therapist. Refer to
b. striving for growth and exercising free will

Correct. Humanistic psychology emphasizes human growth, individuality,
and freedom. Refer to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
c. the conflict between personal desires and social restrictions.
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Incorrect. Humanistic psychologist would focus on individual’s Autonomy

rather than on social forces. Refer to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
d. Ted's unconscious resentment of his siblings

Incorrect. This is the area of focus for a therapist in the field of
Psychodynamic Psychology. Refer to Refer to Textbook chapter 1, pp. 29-49.
7. Structuralists were concerned with uncovering the basic components of ________.

a. the unconscious
Incorrect. The unconscious is the emphasis of psychodynamic theorists,
not structuralists. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic: Psychology Then:
Historical Roots.
b. culture
Incorrect. Culture is the emphasis of socialcultural theorists. Refer to Study
Unit 1 Chapter 1 Topic: Psychology Then: Historical Roots.
c. the environment
Incorrect. This is not the focus of Structuralists. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter
1 Topic: Psychology Then: Historical Roots.
d. the mind
Correct. The name structuralism comes from the idea that it was possible
to identify and study the structure of the human mind. Refer to Study Unit
1 Chapter 1 Topic: Psychology Then: Historical Roots.
8. Jenna wants to learn whether men or women are better drivers. To determine this, she
decides that she will measure driving ability by examining the number of automobile
accidents people have been involved in as a driver. The number of accidents is the
basis of __________.
a. her control group in this study
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Incorrect. Control group serves as a standard for comparison. Refer to Study

Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of the Scientific Method.
b. a case study examination of driving ability

Incorrect. Case study focuses on only a few individuals, sometimes just one.
It is an in-depth study of unusual people with rare problems or talents. Refer
to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of the Scientific Method.
c. the independent variable in this study

Incorrect. This is not the independent variable because Jenna cannot
manipulate how many accidents a person has. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter
2 Topic: Four Steps of the Scientific Method.
d. the operational definition of driving ability

Correct. In order to accurately test one’s hypotheses, the aspects of the
study to be explored must be clearly defined. This is where operational
definitions become critical. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four
Steps of the Scientific Method.
9. Some research questions cannot be answered using human experiments because

________.
a. some studies would be impractical or unethical
Correct. There are some variables that simply cannot be manipulated in
an ethical way using human participants. In this case, the use of animal
participants is sometimes chosen. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic:
Research Ethics.
b. randomization is often hard to achieve

Incorrect. This is a strategy for controlling bias in a study. Refer to Study Unit
1 Chapter 2 Topic: Research Ethics.
c. they are not a very effective way to learn about cause and effect relationships
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Incorrect. Causal relationship can often be studied using experiments. Refer

to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Research Ethics.
d. researchers know that their results usually will not be published

Incorrect. Researchers can publish their results and findings in Professional
journals. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Research Ethics.
10. In the 1970s, a 13-year-old girl was found locked up in a room, strapped to a potty
chair. Since she had grown up in a world without human speech, researchers studied
“Genie’s” ability to acquire words, grammar, and pronunciation. This type of research
is called __________.
a. a case study
Correct. A case study focuses on only a few individuals, sometimes just
one. It is an in-depth study of unusual people with rare problems or talents.
Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Psychology Research Methods.
b. a double-blind study
Incorrect. This involves keeping both the experimenter and participants
clueless about the treatment. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic:
Psychology Research Methods.
c. a naturalistic observation
Incorrect. Naturalistic observation involves studying more than one
individual. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Psychology Research
Methods.
d. correlational examination
Incorrect. This method is adopted to determine the relationship between
two variables. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Psychology Research
Methods.
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11. Dr. Hefner wants to test the effects of Viagra on sexual desire. Dr. Hefner's research
assistant (who is unaware of what the study is testing) randomly gives 50 males the
drug while 50 males receive a placebo. (The study subjects are also unaware of the
treatment which they are getting.) This would be described as a ________.
a. correlational study
Incorrect. This method is adopted to determine the relationship between two
variables. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Sources of Bias in Research.
b. double-blind study
Correct. In this case, the fact that neither the experimenter nor the
participants knows who is receiving which pill makes this a double-blind
study. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Sources of Bias in Research.
c. study that would be difficult to replicate

Incorrect. This study can be replicated by following the exact procedure.
Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Sources of Bias in Research.
d. study with two independent variables

Incorrect. There is only one variable being manipulated by the researcher,
so there is only one independent variable in the study. Refer to Study Unit 1
Chapter 2 Topic: Sources of Bias in Research.
12. “Children who watch violent cartoons will become more aggressive.” According to
the scientific method, this statement is most likely a ___________.
a. conclusion
Incorrect. This is a testable statement, yet to be concluded. Refer to Study
Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of the Scientific Method.
b. result
Incorrect. This statement does not report any findings or result. Refer to
Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of the Scientific Method.
c. hypothesis
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Correct. This statement is a prediction about the effects of violent cartoons.

Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of the Scientific Method.
d. fact
Incorrect. This is merely a testable statement about the effects of violent
cartoons on children’s behaviour. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four
Steps of the Scientific Method.
13. The most important aspect of a hypothesis is that it must be a ___________ idea.
a. complicated
Incorrect. A hypothesis need not be complicated. Refer to Study Unit 1
Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of the Scientific Method.
b. testable
Correct. If a prediction is untestable, then it has no value in a scientific
exploration. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of the
Scientific Method.
c. Logical
Incorrect. While logic is an important quality of a hypothesis, it is not the
most important quality. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of
the Scientific Method.
d. believable
Incorrect. A hypothesis could be falsified, hence it need not be a believable
idea. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Four Steps of the Scientific
Method.
14. A key aspect of an experiment is the requirement that researchers ___________.

a. use correlational methods
Incorrect. Correlational is used to determine the relationship between two
variables, unlike in experiment where drawing of cause-and-effect is the
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objective. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Psychological Research

Methods.
b. manipulate one variable to see its effect on another variable

Correct. Manipulation allows for the drawing of cause-and-effect
conclusions in an experiment. Refer to Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic:
Psychological Research Methods.
c. provide some sort of placebo

Incorrect. Not all experiments administer placeboes. Refer to Study Unit 1
Chapter 2 Topic: Psychological Research Methods.
d. publish their results in a scientific journal

Incorrect. While the most value form of research comes from disseminating
the findings in a journal, this is not a requirement of an experiment. Refer to
Study Unit 1 Chapter 2 Topic: Psychological Research Methods.
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References
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Segall, M. H., & Dasen, P. R. (1992). Cross-cultural
psychology: Research and applications. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gorman, J. (1999). The 11-year-old debunker. Discover, 20(1), 62–63.
Lamdo, T. A. (1978). Psychotherapy in Africa. Human Nature, 1(3), 32–39.
Rosa, L., Rosa, E., Sarner, L., & Barrett, S. (1998). A close look at therapeutic touch.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 1005–1010.
Wason, P. C. (1966). Reasoning. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), New horizons in psychology (pp. 135–
151). Harmondsworth, England: Penguin.
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Study
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Learning Outcomes
• Describe the structure of a neuron and explain the mechanism of neural

transmission
• List and describe the major divisions and subdivisions of the nervous system and
the functions of each
• Identify the major structures and specialised functions of the brain
• Describe hemispheric specialisation
• Identify several methods used to study the brain and describe the strengths and
weaknesses of each method
• Define and compare sensation and perception
• Distinguish between bottom-up and top-down processing
• Discuss the five senses – seeing, hearing, smell, taste and touch
• Describe how a visual stimulus gets translated into “sight” in the brain
• Explain the Gestalt theory of perceptual organisation
• Describe the phenomenon of perceptual constancy
• Explain how 3D vision is achieved using binocular and monocular cues
• Discuss how illusions provide clues to perceptual mechanisms
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Overview
P sychologists who study the structure and composition of the brain believe that
all our thoughts, feelings, and actions have a biological and chemical basis. An
understanding of the nervous system helps us to further explore the link between
physiological processes in the brain and psychological experience and behaviour. We will
find out how our brain makes contact with the outside world and how our perceptual
system allows us to shape our personal sense of reality.
TEXTBOOK:
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Chapter 1: Biological Basis of Behaviour
One of the co-authors of the textbook wrote:
Hadn’t noticed Dad dragging the toe of his right foot ever so slightly as he walked. But my mother
noticed it on their nightly tour of the neighborhood, when he wasn’t keeping up with her brisk pace.
I just figured that he was slowing down a bit in his later years. Dad, too, casually dismissed his
symptom, but Mom was persistent. She scheduled an appointment with the doctor. In turn, the
doctor scheduled a brain scan that showed a remarkably large mass – a tumor – on the left side
of Dad’s brain. You can see what the neurologist saw in Figure 2.1 – an image taken ear-to-ear
through the head.
Figure 2.1 MRI Image of a Brain Tumour
This image, showing a side-to-side section toward the back of the head, reveals a large mass on
the left side of the brain, in a region involved with tracking the position of the right foot. Visible
at the bottom is a cross section of the cerebellum. Also visible are the folds in the cerebral cortex
covering the brain. Near the center, you can see two of the brain’s ventricles (hollow spaces filled
with cerebrospinal fluid), which are often enlarged, as they are here, in Alzheimer’s disease.
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When I saw the pictures, I knew immediately what was happening. The tumor was located in an
area that would interfere with tracking the position of the foot. As I remembered learning in my
introductory psychology class, each side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the
body – so it made sense that the tumor showing so clearly on the left side of Dad’s brain (right side
of the image) was affecting communications with his right foot.
The neurologist also told us that the diseased tissue was not in the brain itself. Rather, it was in the
saclike layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord. That was good news, in an otherwise bleak
report. Still, the mass was growing and putting pressure on the brain. The recommendation was
surgery – which occurred after an anxious wait of a few weeks.
During this difficult time, I remember feeling grateful for my professional training. As a
psychologist, I knew something about the brain, its disorders, and treatments. This allowed me to
shift perspectives – from son to psychologist and back again. It helped me deal with the emotions
that rose to the surface when I thought about the struggle for the organ of my father’s mind.
Sadly, the operation did not produce the miraculous cure for which we had hoped. Although brain
surgery is performed safely on thousands of patients each year – many of whom receive immense
benefits in the quality and lengths of their lives – one has to remember that it is a procedure that
is usually done on very sick people. In fact, the operation did give Dad some time with us that he
may otherwise not have had.
You, too, probably know someone – a relative or a friend – who has suffered a brain
injury. It might have involved a tumour, an auto accident, a combat wound, encephalitis
(inflammation of the brain), a stroke, or some other trauma. We will explore the physical
basis of mind and behaviour. So, what do we know about the brain?
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Read
Find out more about the brain from the textbook and be prepared to learn how biological
processes shape our thought, feeling, and action.
1.1 The Neuron

There are about 100 billion nerve cells in the brain. These cells, called neurons, use a
combination of electrical and chemical messengers to perform their specialised functions.
Dendrites, or receptor fibres, gather incoming messages and send them to the cell body,
or soma. This triggers a nerve impulse known as the action potential which results in the
messages being sent on as electrical discharges down the axon to the neuron’s terminal
button. At this point, a chemical known as neurotransmitters containing a message are
released to adjacent neurons. Some chemicals generate a nerve impulse by exciting nearby
receptors; others reduce or block nerve impulses and regulate the rate at which neurons
fire. These nerve impulses are the basis for every change that takes place in the body, from
moving our muscles to learning and remembering our multiplication tables.
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Activity 1
Check out MyPsychLab >>> Study Guide Course Content >>> Biopsychology,
Neuroscience, and Human Nature
Explore: Structure of Neurons

Click HERE
And for a more detailed look at the how neurotransmitters are released into the
synaptic gap . . .
Explore: Neuronal Transmission

Click HERE
Figure 2.2 Structure and Function of the Neuron
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The often forgotten yet important network of neurons is known as the glial cells which
provide structural support for neurons. These cells also form the myelin sheath which
forms the outer protective cover of axons in the brain and spinal cord.
Read
Find out more from the textbook about how neurons work.
In this video, we take a closer look at neurons and the important roles they play in our
behaviours. We will also see how too much or too little neurotransmitters can affect us.
1.2 The Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of the entire network of neurons in the body, comprising
the Central Nervous System (CNS) which is made up of the brain and spinal cord, and
the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). The brain is responsible for making complex
decisions, coordinating bodily functions, and initiating behaviour. The spinal cord serves
to connect the brain with parts of the PNS which include sensory and motor systems. It is
responsible for involuntary or reflex actions that do not require brain power.
i
PSY107_PSY107_Biological_Bases_of_Behaviour_Neurons_and_Neurotransmitters.mp4.mp4
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Figure 2.3 The Nervous System
Read
Find out more about the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System in the
textbook.
The somatic nervous system deals mainly with responses to the external world.
Information from the outside world is received through our sensory receptors and the
afferent neurons or sensory neurons carry these messages toward the central nervous
system. The brain processes this information and in response, information is sent via the
efferent neurons or motor neurons towards the muscles and glands. Interneurons serve
as a go-between for the motor and sensory neurons.
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Activity 2
Which type of neuron(s), sensory or motor, is/are in action?
Reading a book while holding the book in the left

hand and flipping the pages with the right hand.
The autonomic nervous system regulates our internal organs without our conscious
awareness. This system can be further divided into the sympathetic system which gets
the internal organs functioning in response to stressful or emergency situations, and the
parasympathetic system which constantly attempts to restore the body to its calm and
collected state (see Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4 The Autonomous Nervous System
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The Endocrine System is the hormone system which is the body’s chemical messenger
system and is controlled by the pituitary gland in the brain. This system is responsible
for the hormonal functions of major endocrine glands such as thyroids and parathyroids,
adrenals, pancreas, ovaries and testes. The various hormones affect bodily functions such
as sexual development as well as behaviour and emotions such as sexual responses.
Read
Find out from the textbook about how the Endocrine system is related to the body’s emergency
system known as “fight or flight”.
1.3 The Brain

Although the brain works as a unified whole, some of its parts specialise in particular jobs.
The brain stem, which connects the brain to the spinal cord, controls breathing, heartbeat,
waking, and sleeping. The cerebellum coordinates body movement and maintains
equilibrium. The amygdala, part of the limbic system, seems to control emotional
impulses such as aggressive urges. For example, a mouse receiving electrical stimulation
to the amygdala will attack a cat, while suppressing the amygdala will stop a bull in
his tracks. The hypothalamus is the liaison between the body and the rest of the brain,
releasing hormones to the pituitary gland. The thalamus acts as a relay station, sending
signals from the body to the brain.
The cerebrum translates nerve impulses into higher-level cognitive processes, using
images and symbols to form ideas and wishes. Its outer layer, the cerebral cortex, is the
centre of conscious thought and action. The cerebrum’s two halves, or hemispheres, are
connected by a bundle of millions of nerve fibres called the corpus callosum which acts
as a conduit of messages between the right and left sides of the brain.
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Read
Familiarise yourself with the three layers of the brain by which may help you to gain a better
understanding of how the brain functions. You can find this information in the textbook.
1.4 Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
The classic case of Phineas Gage began with a

railyard explosion on September 13, 1848, where the
25-year-old railway foreman suffered severe brain
damage when a metre-long iron rod was propelled
through the left side of Gage’s head and landed
some 25 metres away. The rod had entered under
his left cheekbone, destroying his left eye, and then
passed through the frontal lobes of his brain before
exiting the top of his skull. The astonishing thing was
that Gage actually survived this incident, apparently
fully recovered, and lived another 13 years.
Figure 2.5 Simulation of the Iron Rod’s
But did Gage “fully” recover? It appeared so at Angle of Entry into Phineas Gage’s Skull
first. Despite extensive damage to the frontal lobes

of his brain, his memories and reasoning ability
seemed intact. But his friends began to note dramatic changes in his personality and
character. Before, he was generally regarded as a young man of great promise – intelligent,
personable, and conscientious. He had been even-tempered and modest, but he soon
became hostile and profane. He talked incessantly about grandiose plans for the future
but could not seem to carry out any of them. He never returned to any real work at the
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railroad and in fact worked mostly odd jobs (including a stint in a circus sideshow) for
the remainder of his life.
Years after Gage’s death, his doctor, John Harlow, wrote about the case and suggested
that the tamping rod had destroyed a region of the brain that was responsible for “good
judgement”. Harlow theorised that the destruction of that part of Gage’s brain had
disrupted the ability to the intellect to inhibit the more primitive, animalistic impulses of
human nature. It was one of the first claims that changes in personality and emotions was
linked to damage to specific brain regions, and was therefore very controversial.
Recently, clues from Gage’s skull, which had been exhumed and preserved after his
death, were able to construct a computer simulation of the accident. The reconstruction
confirmed that Gage likely suffered damage to the left and right prefrontal cortex, and
that his impulsiveness, poor social skills, and irrationality were consistent with injury to
those areas.
This video lecture provides us with an overview of the structure of our brain.
ii
PSY107_PSY107_Biological_Bases_of_Behaviour_Brain_Structures.mp4.mp4
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Read
Find out more about the Lobes of the Brain from the textbook and how different parts of the
brain are responsible for different functions.
• Frontal lobes – movement, speech production, abstract thought

• Parietal lobes – sensations of touch, body position, speech understanding
• Occipital lobes – vision
• Temporal lobes – hearing, sense of smell, face recognition
Figure 2.6 Lobes of the Brain
1.5 Motor and Somatosensory Cortex

The motor cortex is a strip of cortex in the frontal lobes which is responsible for the body’s
voluntary muscle actions. Adjacent to this strip is the somatosensory cortex found in the
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parietal lobes, which is responsible for processing information about the sensations of
touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
Figure 2.7 The Motor Cortex and the Somatosensory Cortex
If the human was created proportionately to the parts of the cortex which are responsible
for the motor and sensory processes, the human would look disproportionate with very
large hands, and a large mouth. An artist’s rendition of what a person would look like if
his actual appearance was proportionately represented to correspond to the cortical area
allotted to each body part can be seen in images found in the Natural History Museum
of London website: Motor homunculus (http://www.sciencephoto.com/media/429991/
view) and Sensory homunculus (http://www.sciencephoto.com/media/539151/view).
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1.6 The Visual Cortex

Each eye is connected to both sides of the brain, with half of its optic nerve fibres going to
the left side of the brain and the other half connecting to the right side. The point at which
the crossover of half the optic nerve fibres from each eye occurs is called the optic chiasm.
This crossover of impulses allows the brain to process two sets of signals from an image
and helps human beings perceive form in three dimensions.
Figure 2.8 The Visual Cortex
As light strikes the letters we are reading – in this case “A” and “B” – it is reflected toward
our eye where it passes through the lens. The lens focuses the light into an inverted image
on the retina where it stimulates the rods and cones. The rods and cones send signals
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back through the bipolar and ganglion cells to the brain which are then interpreted in the
visual cortex using information from the lateral geniculate nucleus, one of the major visual
projection areas in the visual system. We use our knowledge of the world to perceive the
images we have read as the letters “A” and “B”.
1.7 Hemispheric Specialisation
The hemispheres of the cerebrum have undergone

detailed studies to try to determine if there are
specialised functions associated with the two sides
of the brain. In trying to answer these questions,
split-brain research has helped scientists immensely.
The split-brain procedure is a surgical technique
used with patients who have a seizure disorder and
for whom anticonvulsant medication does not help
Figure 2.9 Split brain
to stop the seizures in the brain. The procedure
involves separating the two hemispheres of the brain
by severing the corpus callosum.
One clear finding in split-brain patients and in normal brains is that the two hemispheres
control movements on the opposite side of the body. Popular culture also likes to separate
functions in the hemispheres by stating that the left hemisphere is the “analytical” side of
the brain, and the right hemisphere is the “creative” side of the brain. However, scientific
studies do not support such sweeping generalisations (Sperry, 1982). In fact, the only
functions that are clearly lateralised are language skills and spatial relations skills (Corina,
Vaid, & Belugi, 1992; Peterson & Fiez, 1993; Bradshaw & Nettleton, 1981). Well-designed
and controlled studies consistently find that the left hemisphere is superior in language
function while the right hemisphere is superior in spatial relationships.
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Our brain has an amazing quality called neuroplasticity. It refers to the potential for the
brain to adapt, and forming new neural pathways to allow the brain to compensate for
any damage or injuries. Since certain functions may be localised in specific parts of the
brain, does damage to these parts of the brain cause a total loss of its functions?
Watch this amazing story about a young girl who had a lobotomy and how neuroplasticity
helped her to have a better quality of life, even though she only had one hemisphere of
her brain left. https://youtu.be/2MKNsI5CWoU
1.8 Mapping the Brain

Scientists use a variety of methods to understand better the structure and functions of
the brain. In the past, autopsies revealed how impaired abilities might be the result of
damaged brain tissue. Later, experimenters purposely destroyed specific parts of animal
brain tissue so they could observe what sensory or motor losses occurred. Researchers
also stimulated specific regions with electricity or chemicals.
Today we can get actual pictures of the brain’s inner workings using a technique
called imaging. Scientists can also record nerve signals from a single neuron or
electrical wave patterns from the entire brain. This brain wave pattern is known as an
electroencephalogram, or EEG.
Read
The textbook describes the various brain imaging techniques. See the colourful images from
brain scanning devices such as the EEG, MRI, CT scan, PET, and fMRI.
Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, and each may be used for different
purposes. For example, detailed images of the brain structure can be obtained from a
standard MRI scan, while it is possible to observe activity in the brain using either the
PET or fMRI scans.
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Watch
Watch: Brain Imaging (3 minutes)

Click HERE
See how brain imaging techniques are used to safely remove brain tumours and study
migraines.
Chapter Summary
The biological basis for human behaviour starts with the understanding of the neuron,
the neural network, and is followed by the brain and its various components. There is
no denying that a good knowledge of the structure and functions of the various parts of
the brain and the nervous system aids our understanding of behaviour in response to our
environment. The following videos offer a good overview and help consolidate what we
have covered in this Study Unit chapter.
TEST YOURSELF:
Neuroscience, and Human Nature Practice:
• How Does the Body Communicate Internally?
• How Does the Brain Produce Behaviour and Mental Processes?
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Read
MUST READ:
Biopsychology, Neuroscience, & Human Nature, modules 2 & 3
GOOD TO READ:
Chapter 2, module 1
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Chapter 2: Sensation and Perception
Can we believe everything we see? For centuries, magicians and artists have entertained,
deceived, and delighted us because we tend to believe what we see. Most of the time, our
perceptions are remarkably error-free. They have to be as survival in our ever-changing,
complex environment depends on accurate perception.
Psychologists study all sensory processes, including hearing, smell, touch, and taste;
however, you will notice a tendency for greater focus to be placed on visual perception
and the processes we rely on to create meaning out of the world’s myriad objects and
events.
2.1 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing

To sense, perceive, and understand the world, we use two different processes. When our
eyes, ears, and other sensory apparatus detect stimulation and send the data to the brain,
it is called “bottom-up” processing. “Top-down” processing interacts with bottom-up
processing, adding in what we already know and remember.
How do we sense and perceive in our daily lives? We will put our sensation and perception
skills to the test in this video lecture.
Click here to watch the video. iii
Sensation involves the process of raw sensory data being relayed to the thalamus, which
analyses and directs them to specialised areas in the cortex, the outermost part of the brain.
iii
PSY107_PSY107_Sensation_and_Perception.mp4.mp4
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Perception takes place when the cortex processes this information and combines it with
old data stored in memory. Memories, expectations, culture, and language also influence
how we derive meaning from sensory information. Unlike a camera, which merely copies
an image, our perceptual process is actively processing the world by selecting, classifying,
and judging. Consider that a simple curve and a line in the right place on a sheet of
paper may look like a nose and a mouth. But when we put these same lines in a different
arrangement, they may look like random, meaningless marks, or even like a different
object.
Transduction refers to the process whereby physical stimulation (light waves or sound
waves) is converted to neural signals via the sensory organs (eyes or ears). Sensation takes
place when the coded neural signals reach the cerebral cortex. The process of perception
follows when interpretations of these sensations are made with reference to memories,
emotions, motives, and expectations.
Activity 3
Check out MyPsychLab >>> Study Guide Course Content >>> Sensation and
Perception
Simulate: Closer Look: Sensation

Click HERE
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Figure 2.10 Stimulation Becomes Perception
2.2 Sensory Thresholds

You have just been hired as the sound technician for your favourite rock band. You are in
the middle of a sound check when the lead guitarist signals you to “crank up” the volume
on the speakers. While you thought the music was already very loud, you turn the volume
from 11 to 15 on the digital scale sitting in front of you. You do not hear any difference in
the volume and the lead guitarist is asking for more. You start tapping on the knobs in
front of you, sure that there is something wrong with the system.
When another technician arrives to help you, you explain that when the band first started
playing, you knew that the incremental changes you made as you dialled up the volume
from 1 to 4 on the digital scale made a difference in the volume. But now you think that
the volume switch is not working above the digital scale of 10 because of what you just
observed as you turned up the volume. The technician explains that you are victim of
Weber’s Law.
In studying Sensation and Perception, scientists determine thresholds for detection of

stimuli for each of the senses – known as absolute thresholds and difference thresholds.
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The absolute threshold is the smallest amount of a stimulus that can be detected by the
subject. Thresholds are determined using a variety of procedures, many of which involve
the random presentation of stimuli of varying levels and track each presentation for
whether or not the subject indicates that they detect the stimulus. The absolute threshold
can be determined for a taste, smell, light, sound, or pressure on the skin. Difference
thresholds are how much change there must be in the stimulus for a subject to detect the
change. Frequently, it is referred to as the just noticeable difference (JND). For instance, if
a researcher were interested in determining a difference threshold for taste, they would
start with a particular concentration of saline (salty taste) and then give the subject varying
concentrations above or below the control concentration. Data would then be gathered to
indicate which concentrations the subject reports as different or the same as the beginning
concentration. The smallest concentration that the subject reports as different from the
beginning stimulus is deemed the “difference threshold”.
When investigating difference thresholds on perception of weight, Weber recognised

that when subjects were given a heavier weight, a greater overall change in the weight
was required for them to notice a difference than when they were given a very light
weight (Weber, 1834). He named this consistent finding “Weber’s Law” and introduced a
mathematical equation that demonstrated the effect.
The idea that perception of differences is directly related to the quantity or intensity of the
original stimulus has been shown across a number of sensory modalities (Bodis-Wollner,
1972; Ekman, 1959; and McBride, 1983).
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2.3 Five Human Senses

The five senses are as follows:
• Visual – sense of seeing

• Auditory – sense of hearing
• Gustatory – sense of taste
• Olfactory – sense of smell
• Tactile (tactual) – sense of touch
Read
The five senses are explained in detail in the textbook.
Imagine that the brain is a piece of organ trapped within the skull of our heads and it has
no idea what the outside world is like. It has to rely on the information coming in from
the outside world via the five sense organs (see Table 2.1). The information it receives are
in the form of electrochemical signals, and the brain needs to assemble these signals in a
way that makes sense by building an image or an idea of what it thinks the outside world
may be like.
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Table 2.1 Key Features of the Five Senses
Senses Sense organs Raw stimulus Transduction Sensation
Visual Eyes Light waves: Retina: rods colour,

wavelength, and cones brightness
intensity
Auditory Ears Sound waves: Hair cells of pitch,

frequency, the basilar loudness
amplitude membrane
Olfactory Nose airborne Hair cells of Odors

chemical the olfactory
molecules epithelium
Gustatory Tongue liquefied Taste buds Flavours:

molecules sweet, salty,
sour, bitter,
umami
Tactile Skin external Nerve pressure, heat,

contact endings pain
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Activity 4
Perception
Explore:
• Light and the Optic Nerve [Click HERE]

• Frequency and Amplitude of Sound Waves [Click HERE]
• Major Structures of the Ear [Click HERE]
Activity 5
With reference to Table 2.1, describe the sensation and perception of the following
stimulation:
Stimulus Sensation Perception
Painting of Mona Lisa
Mozart’s piano concerto

no.21
Christian Dior perfume
Durian
An injection
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Reflect
While doing Activity 5, did it occur to you that although the sensations for each of
the stimulus may be more or less the same for everyone, perceptions would differ
from individual to individual? For example, although many might find classical music
pleasant and soothing, those who prefer listening to pop or rock music might perceive
Mozart’s music to be boring. And while those who like eating durians would welcome
the pungent smell of the fruit, those who do not like eating durians might find the
smell offensive.
Think about how our memories, emotions, motives, and expectations affect our
perceptual experiences.
2.4 Perceptual Processing

More space in the brain is devoted to vision than all other senses put together. Visual
processing takes place in three different areas: the retina, the pathways through the brain,
and the visual cortex. It is in the visual cortex that flashes of light are broken down and
decoded, enabling us to distinguish one object from another.
Figure 2.11 below illustrates how light reflecting off a tree reaches the eye and subtends a
visual image on the retina. The light receptors (rods and cones) detect these light waves,
and the process of transduction converts them to nerve impulses which get sent to the
brain via the optic nerve.
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Figure 2.11 Processing Visual Sensation
In addition to identifying objects, the brain has to compute size, distance, and boundaries.
When the size of retinal image of objects changes with distance, the shape of objects appear
to change with changing angles, the brightness and colour of objects appear to change
with changes in lighting, yet we perceive objects to be constant. In other words, we know
that objects do not change in size, shape, or colour even though they may appear to have
changed in size, shape, or colour. This is known as perceptual constancies – size constancy,
shape constancy, brightness constancy, and colour constancy. This enables us to make
decisions about our environment almost instantaneously so we can go about our daily
routines safely and smoothly. Perceptual constancies are learned through our interactions
with the world around us.
Read
Find out more about perceptual constancies in the textbook.
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Activity 6
You probably won’t have any trouble reading the upside-down sentence below.
For PDF: Turn this book upside-down and read the sentence again.
Did you notice anything unusual about the sentence that you hadn’t noticed when
reading it upside-down? The letter ‘n’ in ‘Can’, the letter ‘a’ in ‘read’, the letter ‘u’ in
‘upside’, and the letter ‘n’ in ‘down’ are not the right way around. Why did you fail
to notice this when you read the sentence upside-down?
The simple answer to the question in Activity 6 is that we live in an upright world
and our brain is trained to process information that is upright. The brain does not get
many opportunities to process information that are upside-down. And so we fail to notice
any large difference between the two upside-down photographs below (Figure 2.12).
However, turn the book upside-down and you will find a noticeable differences between
the photographs.
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Figure 2.12 Upside-down photos – how different are they from one another?
Apart from the fact that we do not encounter upside-down objects regularly in our day
to day lives, and how this contributes to the difficulty we face in discerning fine details
when the object is upside-down, the mouth and eyes of the ‘grotesque’ picture (right) is
actually right-side up. This may contribute to the apparent normalcy of the picture when
the picture is viewed upside-down.
2.5 Perceptual Organisation – Gestalt Theories

Gestalt theory is concerned with how we perceive. Its fundamental tenant is “the whole
is greater than the sum of its parts”. When viewing an object, a cognitive process occurs
that allows us to make the transition from seeing only the parts to comprehending the
object in its entirety. The basic underlying principle of the gestalt approach to perception
is the Law of Pragnanz which essentially states that we try to perceive our world in terms
of “good forms”. In other words, we perceive the simplest pattern possible requiring
minimal mental effort.
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According to the Gestalt perspective, we follow laws of perceptual groupings which are
governed by innate mental processes. These perceptual groupings are:
• Law of similarity – similarity in appearance

• Law of proximity – closeness to one another
• Law of continuity – smoothly connected and continuous figures
• Law of closure – partially defined or apparent objects are seen as a whole
• Law of common fate – shared common motion or destination
• Law of Pragnanz – full figure or simplest pattern possible
Gestalt psychologists were interested in understanding conscious experience and how

we perceive forms, figures, contours, and shapes. In other words, they were interested
in learning how people distinguish a figure, the object of primary interest in any visual
scene, from the ground, i.e. everything else in that scene (background). This is known as
figure-ground segregation.
Can you identify the image in the picture below? Most people, when seeing this picture for
the first time, report seeing only a series of black and white patches. As you are looking at
the picture, your perceptual system is working just the way it is supposed to. Your retina
detects the black and white patches and the information about the size, shape, and colour
of the patches are sent to the brain. If you were not able to detect any recognisable image,
it is because your brain was unable to recognise any Gestalt – a well-organised whole.
Basically, you were unable to distinguish figure from ground.
Figure 2.13 Ambiguous Picture
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However, by adding the contour lines to the second picture below (Figure 2.14), you are
immediately able to identify the image of the Dalmatian and thus distinguish the figure
(the Dalmatian) from the ground (all the other black and white patches). Adding the
contour lines to the picture helped your perceptual system to organise some of the black
and white patches into a meaningful form.
Figure 2.14 Ambiguous Picture with

Contour Lines
Read
To gain a better understanding of the Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation resulting from
innate properties of the brain (nature) and the nurture argument of perception which refers to
learning-based inferences, read the relevant sections of the textbook.
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Activity 7
Perception
Simulate: Gestalt Laws of Perception

Click HERE
Check your understanding of the different Gestalt Laws.
2.6 Depth Perception

Our sense of depth or distance relies on two main types of cues – binocular cues and
monocular cues. Binocular cues rely on the use of both our eyes. Binocular convergence
is one, and it refers to the varying angles at which the eyes converge, depending on the
distance of the object being looked at.
Retinal disparity is another, where due to the position of each of our eyes on our head,
each eye receives a slightly different image from the other. You can test this by holding
your finger up at arm’s length and look at it, first with just your left eye (right eye closed)
and then switch to looking at it with just your right eye (left eye closed). Repeat this several
times and you will notice that the background differs when you look at your finger with
your left eye versus when you look at your finger with your right eye. This shows that
each of your eyes is seeing slightly different images. The brain combines these two slightly
different images to form a 3-dimensional image. As you will see, the left eye sees a little
more of the left side of your finger, while the right eye sees a little more of the right side
of your finger, so when these two slightly different images are combined, the brain sees a
3-dimensional image of the finger.
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It is possible to perceive depth with the use of one eye by relying on monocular cues. These
are the types of cues artists use to paint 3-dimensional pictures.
• Relative size
• Linear perspective
• Interposition (overlap)
• Relative height
• Relative brightness (light and shadow)
• Texture gradient
• Atmospheric perspective
• Relative motion (motion parallax)
Watch
Perception
Watch: What’s In It For Me?: Perceptual Magic Art (7.5 minutes)

Click HERE
This video demonstrates how monocular cues and binocular cues create depth.
Watch
Watch this YouTube video of artist Stefan Pabst create paintings that look realistic:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SI82c-8JlBI
Think about the different types of monocular cues he applies in his drawings to
achieve a 3D effect.
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2.7 Illusions – When Perception Fails

“The world, we strongly suspect, is real, and not an illusion. There is no getting
around the fact that many of our perceptions are internally constructed. It’s like a movie
constantly being filmed, edited, and sometimes censored by an idiosyncratic director
running around in our skulls. And there are plenty of special effects.”
- Joel Chenbach
Washington Post Staff Writer
(Source: National Geographic, January 2005)
Psychologists use our perceptual errors to study how the constructive process of
perception works. A better understanding of the fundamental properties of sensation and
perception can be achieved by studying illusions. Illusions are experienced when the brain
incorrectly interprets incoming stimulus patterns. Such errors can occur as a result of
applying learned principles of visual perception to ambiguous events.
Read
Find out more about perceptual ambiguity and distortions in the textbook.
Activity 8
Perception
Explore: Five Well-known Illusions

Click HERE
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Figure 2.15 Checker-shadow Illusion
The square marked “A” and the square marked “B” are the exact same shade of grey. In
fact, the amount of light reflecting off square A is exactly the same as that reflecting off
square B. So they should appear the same, yet the two squares don’t look the same shade
at all. Square A appears to be darker than square B.
Reflect
There are several reasons why our brain “sees” the two squares differently. What
might they be?
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Have you ever noticed that the full moon looks larger when it is on the horizon than when
it is at the zenith, i.e. up above? This is known as the moon illusion. The photo on the
left shows how large the moon appeared to be when the picture was taken. Yet when the
photograph was developed, the actual size of the moon was evidently smaller as shown
on the photo on the right. So why did the moon appear so large when in fact, it wasn’t
that large?
Figure 2.16 The Moon Illusion (Left) and the Actual Moon (Right)
There is ongoing debate on the moon illusion with many theories and arguments put forth
in print and on the Internet. The moon illusion can be explained using the principles of
visual perception and visual illusions.
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Reflect
Why does the horizon moon appear to be larger than the zenith moon?
2.8 The Intelligent Brain

The brain works to eliminate confusing signals and fill in the blanks. We know that a road
does not converge and disappear over the hill. If a shadow falls on the ground, we know
that the ground is not really turning black.
Perception goes beyond sensory information to impose stability on a constantly changing

flow of information. Psychologists have learned a great deal about how perception works
from studying illusions – the perceptual traps we fall into because we use perceptual
principles as shortcuts to deal with a flood of sensory input. Fortunately, these “shortcuts”
work most of the time. For example, even when a stop sign is partially obscured by leaves,
we still “see” the sign. Although only about seventy percent of the words we hear are
given complete sensory processing, we can make sense out of a spoken message because
our minds fill in the rest from context. Have you ever failed to recognise people you knew
when you encountered them in a place where you didn’t expect to see them? The reason
is that our expectations and personal biases have a powerful effect on perception. We may
fail to see something because we don’t expect or want to see it, which is one reason why
people are often unreliable eyewitnesses to an accident or crime.
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Chapter Summary
All of our senses put us in touch with the world around us. The brain is trapped within
our skull and is not capable of “seeing” what the world is like outside. Hence, it has to
rely on the various signals (information) that comes in via our senses (visual, auditory,
olfactory, gustatory, and kinaesthetic) and formulate a mental image of what the world
outside must look like. This can be likened to a blind person feeling an item and using the
information gathered from just the sense of touch to build a mental image of what that
object must look like.
Consequently, it is our brain that organises our perceptions, letting us know what is out
there and how we should react. What we “see” is, really, what our brain wants us to
see. The outside world may not actually look exactly as we “see” it. This is evident from
illusions such as the checker-shadow illusion where the brain refuses to let us “see” the
two squares as the same shade of gray. The brain insists that one square is a darker grey
than the other square. Despite these occasional misperceptions resulting from the brain
trying to make sense of information that conflicts with its stored understanding of the
world, the perceptual system is extremely sophisticated and the processes form the basis
for everything we learn, think, and do.
TEST YOURSELF:
Perception
Practice:
• How Does Stimulation Become Sensation?

• How Are the Senses Alike? And How Are They Different?
• What Is the Relationship between Sensation and Perception?
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Read
MUST READ:
Sensation and Perception, all modules.
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1. The function of the _________ is to carry information to and from all parts of the body.
a. synapse
b. endorphins
c. dendrite
d. nervous system
2. LaKeisha stepped on a piece of glass and quickly pulled her foot away from that sharp
object. Which of the following are responsible for sending a message to the muscles
in LaKeisha’s foot, resulting in her pulling her foot away from the piece of glass?
a. motor neurons
b. interneurons
c. sensory neurons
d. reflexes
3. Your teacher asks you to describe the sequence of parts of a neuron that the impulse
travels during neural conduction. Which of the following sequences will you offer?
a. dendrites, axon, soma, terminal button
b. neurotransmitters, dendrites, axon, soma
c. axon, soma, dendrites, terminal button
d. dendrites, soma, axon, terminal button
4. The central nervous system is comprised of all the neurons in the ________ and the
________.
a. brain; spinal cord
b. axons; dendrites
c. brain; skeletal muscles
d. glands; spinal cord
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5. Your ability to play the piano is regulated by the ____________ .

a. medial nervous system
b. limbic system
c. parasympathetic nervous system
d. somatic nervous system
6. The ________ is important for the human ability to tap dance and walk on a tightrope.
a. hippocampus
b. cerebellum
c. thalamus
d. amygdala
7. Damage to the ________ is the most likely explanation for a brain injury that has
devastating effects on human action and personality.
a. temporal lobes
b. parietal lobes
c. frontal lobes
d. Occipital lobes
8. Activation of receptors by external stimuli is called ___________.

a. perception
b. sensation
c. transduction
d. habituation
9. It is difficult to distinguish between colors at night because ____________.

a. we are seeing primarily with the cones
b. rods do not adapt to the dark
c. we are seeing primarily with the rods
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d. we are used to seeing mostly with the fovea
10. Which of the following properties of sound is the most similar to the brightness of
light?
a. pitch
b. volume
c. purity
d. timbre
11. In bottom-up processing, the resulting percept is determined by ______________.

a. stimulus characteristics
b. what others tell us
c. our past experiences and motivations
d. our expectations
12. The concept of ___________ explains why you "know" a door is rectangular even
though your sensory image is distorted when you are not looking at it straight on.
a. closure
b. the law of proximity
c. perceptual constancy
d. olfaction
13. "The whole is more than the sum of its sensory parts" is a statement reflecting _______.
a. the artificial intelligence approach
b. top-down processing
c. experience-based inference
d. Gestalt psychology
14. If you are able to taste one teaspoon of salt in a bucketful of hot buttered popcorn,
this amount is above your _______.
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a. olfaction
b. difference threshold
c. absolute threshold
d. equilibrium
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The process of reading involves the afferent neurons (sensory) as information is received
from our eyes (reading). Holding the book in the left hand also involves afferent neurons as
the sense of touch sends information about how the book feels. Information about how the
book should be held (upright and balanced) is delivered by the efferent neurons (motor)
and the same applies to the movement involving the flipping of pages with the right hand.
1. The function of the _________ is to carry information to and from all parts of the body.
a. synapse
Incorrect. This is the microscopic gap that serves as a communication link
between neurons. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous
System.
b. endorphins
Incorrect. This is a neurotransmitter that helps to control pain and releases
pleasurable sensations. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous
System.
c. dendrite
Incorrect. Dendrite is the branched fiber that extends outward from the cell
body and carries information into the neuron. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter
1 Topic: The Nervous System.
d. nervous system
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Correct. The nervous system is made up of the entire network of neurons

in the body. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous System.
2. LaKeisha stepped on a piece of glass and quickly pulled her foot away from that sharp
object. Which of the following are responsible for sending a message to the muscles
in LaKeisha’s foot, resulting in her pulling her foot away from the piece of glass?
a. motor neurons
Correct. Motor neurons carry messages from the central nervous system to
the muscles of the body. Refer to Textbook chapter 2, pp. 80-83.
b. interneurons
Incorrect. Interneurons connect the sensory neurons to the motor neurons.
c. sensory neurons
Incorrect. Sensory neurons carry messages to the brain. Refer to Textbook
chapter 2, pp. 80-83.
d. reflexes
Incorrect. Reflexes are simple unlearned responses triggered by stimuli.
3. Your teacher asks you to describe the sequence of parts of a neuron that the impulse
travels during neural conduction. Which of the following sequences will you offer?
a. dendrites, axon, soma, terminal button
Incorrect. Axon comes after soma in the correct sequence. Refer to Study Unit
2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Neuron.
b. neurotransmitters, dendrites, axon, soma

Incorrect. The neural impulse begins with the receipt of messages from the
dendrites. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Neuron.
c. axon, soma, dendrites, terminal button
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Incorrect. The neural impulse begins with the receipt of messages from the
dendrites. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Neuron.
d. dendrites, soma, axon, terminal button

Correct. This answer describes the correct sequence. Refer to Study Unit 2
Chapter 1 Topic: The Neuron.
4. The central nervous system is comprised of all the neurons in the ________ and the
________.
a. brain; spinal cord
Correct. The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal
cord. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous System.
b. axons; dendrites
Incorrect. These are nerve cells and branched fibers found within the
structure of the Neuron. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous
System.
c. brain; skeletal muscles

Incorrect. These are not within the central nervous system. Refer to Study
Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous System.
d. glands; spinal cord

Incorrect. Glands function within the Endocrine System. Refer to Study Unit
2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous System.
5. Your ability to play the piano is regulated by the ____________ .

a. medial nervous system
Incorrect. There is no medial nervous system. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter
1 Topic: The Nervous System.
b. limbic system
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Incorrect. Limbic system is involved in emotion and memory. Refer to Study

Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous System.
c. parasympathetic nervous system

Incorrect. This monitors the routine operations of the internal organs and
returns the body to calmer functioning after arousal. Refer to Study Unit 2
Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous System.
d. somatic nervous system

Correct. The controls of voluntary muscles, such as those in the hand, are
under the auspices of the somatic nervous system. Refer to Study Unit 2
Chapter 1 Topic: The Nervous System.
6. The ________ is important for the human ability to tap dance and walk on a tightrope.
a. hippocampus
Incorrect. This involves in establishing long-term memory. Refer to Study
Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Brain.
b. cerebellum
Correct. The cerebellum is responsible for processes including fine motor
control, balance, and coordination. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic:
The Brain.
c. thalamus
Incorrect. Thalamus acts as a relay station, sending signals from the body to
the brain. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Brain.
d. amygdala
Incorrect. Amygdala controls emotional impulses such as aggressive urges.
Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: The Brain.
7. Damage to the ________ is the most likely explanation for a brain injury that has
devastating effects on human action and personality.
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a. temporal lobes
Incorrect. This affects the functioning of face recognition, hearing and sense
of smell. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: Lobes of The Cerebral Cortex.
b. parietal lobes
Incorrect. This affects the functioning of body position, speech
understanding and sensations of touch. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1
Topic: Lobes of The Cerebral Cortex.
c. frontal lobes
Correct. This affects the functioning of speech production, movement and
abstract thought of a person. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 1 Topic: Lobes
of The Cerebral Cortex.
d. Occipital lobes
Incorrect. This affects the functioning of vision. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter
1 Topic: Lobes of The Cerebral Cortex.
8. Activation of receptors by external stimuli is called ___________.

a. perception
Incorrect. Perception brings meaning to Sensation. Refer to Study Unit 2
Chapter 2 Topic: Top-down and Bottom-up Processing.
b. sensation
Correct. Sensation is the process by which stimulation of a sensory
receptor produces neural impulses that the brain interprets. Refer to Study
Unit 2 Chapter 2 Topic: Top-down and Bottom-up Processing.
c. transduction
Incorrect. Transduction is the process whereby physical stimulation is
converted to neural signals via the sensory organs. Refer to Study Unit 2
Chapter 2 Topic: Top-down and Bottom-up Processing.
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d. habituation
Incorrect. Habituation involves learning not to respond to repeated
presentation of a stimulus. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 2 Topic: Top-down
and Bottom-up Processing.
9. It is difficult to distinguish between colors at night because ____________.

a. we are seeing primarily with the cones
Incorrect. We are seeing primarily with the rods instead. Refer to Textbook
chapter 3, pp. 126-128.
b. rods do not adapt to the dark

Incorrect. Rods are particularly sensitive to dim light, enabling us to see
in the dark, however rods are not involved in color processing. Refer to
c. we are seeing primarily with the rods

Correct. It is difficult to distinguish between colors at night because we
are seeing primarily with the rods, and rods are not involved in color
processing. Refer to Textbook chapter 3, pp. 126-128.
d. we are used to seeing mostly with the fovea

Incorrect. The fovea is full of cones, which do not function at night or at low
light levels. Refer to Textbook chapter 3, pp. 126-128.
10. Which of the following properties of sound is the most similar to the brightness of
light?
a. pitch
Incorrect. Pitch is the sensory characteristics of sound produced by the
frequency of the sound wave. Refer to Textbook chapter 3, pp. 129-136.
b. volume
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Correct. Volume is the most similar to brightness and is based on the

intensity of the stimulus. Refer to Textbook chapter 3, pp. 129-136.
c. purity
Incorrect. Purity is most related to saturation in the light domain. In both
cases, it refers to the total amount of different wavelengths, or frequencies,
in the stimulus. Refer to Textbook chapter 3, pp. 129-136 .
d. timbre
Incorrect. Timbre is the quality of a sound wave that derives from the wave’s
complexity. Refer to Textbook chapter 3, pp. 129-136.
11. In bottom-up processing, the resulting percept is determined by ______________.

a. stimulus characteristics
Correct. Bottom-up processing involves perceiving stimuli based on the
individual characteristics, or physical details, of those stimuli. Refer to
Textbook chapter 3, pp. 145.
b. what others tell us

Incorrect. Such information affects top-down processing, not bottom-up
processing. Refer to Textbook chapter 3, pp. 145.
c. our past experiences and motivations

Incorrect. These factors affects top-down processing, not bottom-up
d. our expectations
Incorrect. Expectations apply to top-down processing, not bottom-up
12. The concept of ___________ explains why you "know" a door is rectangular even
though your sensory image is distorted when you are not looking at it straight on.
a. closure
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Incorrect. This is a Gestalt principle that addresses the brain’s tendency to

fill in missing pieces of a visually incomplete stimulus. Refer to Study Unit
2 Chapter 2 Topic: Perceptual Processing.
b. the law of proximity

Incorrect. This is a Gestalt principle that we tend to group objects together
when they are near each other. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 2 Topic:
Perceptual Processing.
c. perceptual constancy
Correct. In this case, the specific type of perceptual constancy would be
“shape constancy”. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 2 Topic: Perceptual
Processing.
d. olfaction
Incorrect. Olfaction is one of the Five Human Senses. Refer to Study Unit 2
Chapter 2 Topic: Perceptual Processing.
13. "The whole is more than the sum of its sensory parts" is a statement reflecting _______.
a. the artificial intelligence approach
Incorrect. Artificial intelligence is not within the context of this. Refer to
Study Unit 2 Chapter 2 Topic: Perceptual Organisation – Gestalt Theories.
b. top-down processing
Incorrect. This is a form of perceptual processing where the perceiver’s past
experiences, goals, knowledge, memory heavily influence the interpretation
of an object or event. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 2 Topic: Perceptual
Organisation – Gestalt Theories.
c. experience-based inference
Incorrect. This is applicable to Top-down processing. Refer to Study Unit 2
Chapter 2 Topic: Perceptual Organisation – Gestalt Theories.
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d. Gestalt psychology
Correct. Gestalt psychology suggests that you should focus on the “whole,”
rather than on its individual parts. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 2 Topic:
Perceptual Organisation – Gestalt Theories.
14. If you are able to taste one teaspoon of salt in a bucketful of hot buttered popcorn,
this amount is above your _______.
a. olfaction
Incorrect. Olfaction is one of the Five Human Senses. Refer to Study Unit 2
Chapter 2 Topic: Sensory Thresholds.
b. difference threshold
Incorrect. The difference threshold refers to the amount of change in a
stimulus that is needed in order to be detected. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter
2 Topic: Sensory Thresholds.
c. absolute threshold
Correct. The absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of sensory
stimulus needed to be detected. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter 2 Topic:
Sensory Thresholds.
d. equilibrium
Incorrect. This is not applicable in this context. Refer to Study Unit 2 Chapter
2 Topic: Sensory Thresholds.
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References
Bodis-Wollner, I., Hendley, C. D., & Kulikowski, J. J. (1972). Electrophysiological
and psychophysical responses to modulation of contrast of a grating pattern.
Perception, 1(3), 341–349.

Bradshaw, J. L., & Nettleton, N. C. (1981). The nature of hemispheric specialization in
man. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 51–91.
Corina, D. P., Vaid, J., & Belugi, U. (1992). The linguistic basis of left-hemisphere
specialization. Science, 255, 1258–1260.
Ekman, G. (1959). Weber’s law and related functions. Journal of Psychology:
Interdisciplinary & Applied, 47, 343–351.
McBride, R. L. (1983). A JND-scale/category-scale convergence in taste. Perception &
Psychophysics, 34(1), 77–83.
Peterson, S. E., & Fiez, J. A. (1993). The processing of single words studied with positron
emission tomography. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 16, 509–530.
Sperry, R. W. (1982). Some effects of disconnecting the cerebral hemispheres. Science, 217,
1223–1226.
Weber, E. H. (1834). De pulsu, resorptione, auditu et tactu. Annotationes anatomicae et
physiologicae. Lipsiae: Koehler.
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Study
Unit
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Learning Outcomes
• Define memory
• Describe the traditional theory and the more recent Working Model of memory
• Describe the characteristics of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory
• Compare declarative and procedural memory; semantic and episodic memory;
implicit and explicit memory
• Describe the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval
• Discuss the various theories of forgetting
• Differentiate between anterograde and retrograde amnesia
• Discuss the unreliability of memory and how schema theory explains this
• Identify the contributions of Galton, Binet, Terman and Weschler to the science of
measuring intelligence
• Explain how IQ is computed
• Discuss the controversies surrounding intelligence assessment
• Summarise the various theories of intelligence including Howard Gardner’s theory
of multiple intelligences
• Describe the evidence for the genetic and environmental bases of intelligence
• Explain how concepts are mentally represented
• Define the concept “problem” and some useful strategies for solving problems
• Describe the common causes of poor judgement
• Explain how heuristics and algorithms are used to solve problems, and how they
can be employed to create artificial intelligence
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Overview
M emory involves a complex process starting with images, sounds, ideas,

language, and even physical action being translated into codes, represented
in memory, and retrieved when needed. Memory can be viewed as an information-
processing task and a closer look at how the structure and functioning of the brain will
enable us to understand how we remember and why we forget.
There is a longstanding controversy over how to define intelligence and how IQ tests
have been misused and misapplied. Is it wise, accurate, or fair to reduce intelligence to
a number? Researchers are currently debating the value of intelligence tests and how
intelligence should be measured.
An exploration into higher mental processes involving reasoning, imagining, and problem
solving will offer insight into how the field has evolved and why more psychologists than
ever are investigating the way we absorb, transform, and manipulate knowledge. Personal
biases can affect judgement leading to lapses in rationality, and risk-taking behaviour
reveals how people arrive at good and bad decisions in the decision-making process.
TEXTBOOK:
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Chapter 1: Memory
When we misplace our keys, forget a name, or go blank in the middle of an exam, we
become acutely aware of the complexities of memory. Forgetting can be mildly irritating,
or it can be a major frustration. Memory is the basis for all learning, and a process
that enables us to survive by linking the past to the present and the present to the
future. It involves the retention of learned information involving the process of encoding,
storage, and retrieval. To psychologists and neuroscientists, memory is an essential tool
for studying the function of the mind and the structure of the brain.
The early experimental study of memory began 100 years ago when German psychologist
Hermann Ebbinghaus attempted to memorise random, three-letter combinations in
meaningless series. But his memory faded quickly; he had no frame of reference or familiar
context for the nonsense syllables. Because they had no meaning, order, or organisation,
he forgot them. With the advent of the computer in the 1960s, psychologists were able
to create a working model of the memory. Their approach depicted the mind as an
information processor that could be divided into its component processes: selecting,
encoding, storing, and retrieving stored information.
Memory is not an exact record of our experience. What we select, store, and retrieve is
influenced by many factors. Our attitudes, expectations, interests, and fears affect what
we remember and how we remember it. A student assigned to read a book that seems
boring will not retain as much as another student who finds the book fascinating. A
witness may provide a distorted report of an accident because of personal expectations or
preconceptions. Our schemas – that is, our own set of beliefs about people, objects, and
situations – often cause us to ignore some details and add or alter others.
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1.1 Traditional Theory of Memory

The three stores model of memory is the traditional theory of memory. This theory is also
known as any one of the following:
• Atkinson and Shiffrin model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

• Information-processing view of memory
• Three-stage theory of memory
• Modal model of memory
The diagram in Figure 3.1 illustrates the traditional model of memory depicting the
memory system as comprising three separate modules, where information is believed
to be processed through the stages of Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory, and Long-
term Memory. Do note that the textbook presents a modified version of this traditional
model where Short-term Memory (STM) is also referred to as Working Memory (WM).
The assumption that STM and WM can be used interchangeably is flawed as the concept
of WM was introduced more recently by Baddeley (1986) where it was seen as an
extension of STM, involving higher cognitive processes such as learning, reasoning, and
comprehension.
Figure 3.1 The Modal Model of Memory
Sensory memory can be viewed as a short-term sensory buffer which receives stimulus
information via the five senses. For example, visual information is briefly stored in iconic
memory, while auditory information is stored in echoic memory. Research has been
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conducted mainly on iconic and echoic memory (Sperling, 1960, 1963; Darwin, Turvey, &
Crowder, 1972), however, there is no clearly established information on the other sensory
memories (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 Sensory Memory and its Sensory Registers
Iconic Echoic Haptic Olfactory Gustatory

memory memory memory sensory sensory
memory memory
Sensory visual auditory tactile sense sense

stimuli of smell of taste
Storage image or phonological touch

visual form
Duration 250 msec 250 msec

(raw
auditory)
up to 2
sec (word
sounds)
Capacity high
Forgetting spontaneous
decay or masking
Information that is attended to in sensory memory gets transferred to short-term memory.

STM has a limited capacity and is able to store seven plus or minus two bits of
information at a time (Miller, 1956). Given the limited “space” within STM, when it
becomes overloaded, old information needs to make way for new incoming information.
The concept of WM, when viewed as an extension of the STM concept, does more than
simply store 7 plus or minus 2 bits of information, as it is known to process information
as well.
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Activity 1
Memorise this phone number: 6314-6019
Cover up the number with your hand for about 15 seconds and see if you can still
remember the number after that duration.
What technique did you use to remember the phone number?
Important information that needs to be retained is rehearsed, i.e. repeated over and over
again in STM, in order to hold the information long enough before it gets transferred
to long-term memory (LTM). LTM store is said to be unlimited, which makes sense
if you imagine the wealth of information stored in memory throughout one’s lifetime.
Information in LTM is stored in two main compartments – procedural memory and
declarative memory as illustrated in Figure 3.2 below. Declarative memory is further
divided into semantic memory and episodic memory.
Figure 3.2 Structure of Long-term Memory
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Read
Find out more from the textbook about the structure, function, and biological basis of LTM.
1.2 Working Memory Model

Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) Working Memory model comprises the Central Executive,
Visuospatial Sketchpad, and Phonological Loop as shown in Figure 3.3. This model
illustrates the wider role of WM involving more than simply storing a limited amount
of information. The Central Executive is theorised to preside over the operations of
WM. It directs attention and manages the resources available for executing one or more
tasks concurrently. The process of taking notes while listening to a lecture, for example,
involves both the phonological loop (listening to the lecturer and processing the auditory
information) and the visuospatial sketchpad (watching the lecturer, looking at the
projected slides, looking down at notes …). In Baddeley’s (2003) updated version of WM,
the Episodic Buffer had been added to the model. This component is a temporary storage
facility where all the information being worked on are combined and organised. As the
capacity of WM is limited (like STM), overloading the system with more information
than it can manage would result in some of the information being unattended to
and consequently lost. WM is involved in high level processes like reading, language
comprehension, mental arithmetic, problem solving, and writing.
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Figure 3.3 Working Memory Model
1.3 Storing and Encoding Information

Sensory memory is the storage mechanism that performs initial encoding and provides
brief storage of sensory stimuli. When you hear a song, see a photograph, or touch a piece
of silk, sensory memory starts. The sensory information is then encoded, in other words,
organised such that the nervous system can process it. Information in sensory memory
lasts very briefly; and therefore, the information must be transferred to STM quickly, or
else, it will be lost. Encoding in sensory memory is usually visual, although auditory
encoding takes place, too.
Short-term storage occurs in STM, between sensory memory and LTM. If a specific piece
of information is important, complicated, or lengthy, it needs to be actively rehearsed and
thus maintained in STM before it can be encoded (transformed) in a way that it can be
transferred to LTM. Information in STM is encoded predominantly by sound, in other
words, phonologically, although information can also be coded visually.
Once information is transferred to LTM, the information is stored relatively permanently

and is ready to be retrieved. Encoding in LTM takes place semantically, in other words,
information is stored by its meaning.
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Due to the limited storage capacity of STM, a bottleneck is created in the memory system
where information does not get transferred to LTM effectively. Chunking is one known
method of organising information such that more information can be stored in STM and
subsequently transferred to LTM. The method of chunking involves organising a large
number of units in such a way that they can be packed into larger units. For example,
rather than having to memorise 12 individual letters; F B I E R P L T A I B M, they can be
packed into 4 units as: FBI ERP LTA IBM. Similarly, it is easier to remember the following
12 numbers; 2 0 1 0 1 9 6 5 1 9 3 9 if we organise them into 3 chunks; 2010 1965 1939. Hence,
7 plus or minus 2 chunks of information can be quite large!
So how does information get transferred from STM to LTM? Encoding is the process
necessary for transferring information from STM to LTM. It may help to think of encoding
as the process of applying memory glue to the to-be-remembered information. How can
we apply this memory glue to information we want to store in LTM? There are two ways
to do this – shallow processing and deep processing. Maintenance rehearsal involves
shallow processing where information is kept active in STM simply by repeating the
information over and over again. You would have experienced this first-hand when you
were asked to memorise a phone number in Activity 1 (by the way, the phone number
belongs to the Popular bookstore on campus). Rehearsed or repeated information will
eventually get transferred to LTM, but how strong is this memory glue?
Stronger memory glue can be applied using elaborative rehearsal which involves deep
processing. This method requires one to meaningfully associate new information with
previously learned material, in other words, existing knowledge. There are several types
of deep processing. Recall clustering is one where information can be grouped into
semantically related clusters.
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Activity 2
Which of these lists would be the easiest and the most difficult to memorise?
List 1 List 2 List 3
1 knife stiwl light
2 fork tolp cork
3 spoon blamp spool
4 plate klont flute
5 glass clumt class
6 table tipib label
7 stove prull glove
8 pot nir dot
9 pan pav fan
10 kitchen libthot brother
11 sink kafk milk
12 oven afif lion
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Subjective organisation is another type of elaborative rehearsal where information is

grouped according to self-developed categories. In other words, each of us has this ability
to categorise information in a way that makes sense to oneself. This explains why it is not
helpful to borrow your friend’s study notes, as the information may be organised in a way
that makes good sense to your friend, but may not necessarily make sense to you.
Activity 3
Divide these items into two groups:
Now ask a friend or family member to group the above items into two groups, and
compare it with your grouping. Are they the same?
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Another type of elaborative rehearsal is recoding where

information is transformed from one form to another. For example,
the word “ROSE” can be recoded from its visual form (the four
capital letters R O S E) to an auditory or phonological form, i.e.
how it sounds when it is verbally uttered. The word “ROSE” can
be recoded from one visual form “ROSE” to another visual form – an image of a flower.
Or the word “ROSE” could be transformed semantically to mean “a flower” or “a girl’s
name”. It can further be encoded in association with a friend or a relative whose name
is Rose. The different ways of encoding the word “Rose” also illustrates the importance
of levels of processing where the stronger the association between new information and
existing information (knowledge), the more “deeply” processed the information is.
What is memory? How do we encode items in our memory and what gets in our way of
recall? This video lecture will take us through the basics of memory.
1.4 Memory Retrieval

Long-term memory contains everything we know about the world and ourselves. It has
infinite capacity and stores concepts, smells, words, movements, and all our personal
experiences in a complex network of associations. It functions as a passive storehouse, not
as an active dispatcher. So it is critical to understand how information is retrieved from
LTM store.
i
https://d2jifwt31jjehd.cloudfront.net/PSY107/others/PSY107_PSY107_Memory.mp4.mp4
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The Serial Position Effect illustrates how information at the beginning and end of a list
is easiest to recall. Take for example, list of 20 words presented at a rate of 1 second per
word. When asked to recall all the words in any order, the last few words would be easiest
to recall as they are still fresh in one’s STM (recency effect), and the first few words on the
list may also be recalled easily as there was more time to rehearse the first few words and
they may have been successfully transferred to LTM (primacy effect).
Figure 3.4 Serial Position curve
How easily or effectively information can be retrieved from LTM depends on how the
information was encoded in the first place and whether there are good retrieval cues
to access the required information. Retrieval cues refer to stimulus that enables us to
remember, i.e. locate and retrieve the stored information in LTM.
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Activity 4
List the names of the seven dwarfs from “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs”.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
After you have listed all the names of the dwarfs that you can recall, continue with
the activity in Activity 5 (about six pages after this page).
Activities 4 and 5 demonstrate the difference between recalling and recognising

information. It is easier to recognise information than to recall them because recognition
tasks offer retrieval cues. Retrieval cues can be anything that can be linked to the
information being retrieved. It could be a smell, a sight, a sound, a feeling, a thought that
is associated with the information being retrieved.
Retrieval can be improved if the cues present at retrieval were also meaningfully
processed when learning the to-be-remembered information. This process is known as
encoding specificity shows that the closer the retrieval cue matches the form in which
the information was encoded, the more effective it will be in retrieving the appropriate
information. For example, if you had to remember a list of words that contained the word
“bug” and you associated the word with insects while memorising the word “bug”, your
chances of recalling this word increases if you are presented with the cue “insects” or
“ants”. However, if you are presented with the cue “a listening device” or “a spying tool”,
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you are less likely to recall the word “bug” as it was not how the word was encoded at
the time of learning it.
State-dependent learning refers to how the emotional state or the context under which
learning took place serves as a cue to recalling learned information. If you were in a very
sad mood when studying for a test, you are more likely to do better if you are also in
the same state of sadness when doing the test, rather than if your mood changed to a
happy one (Eich & Metcalfe, 1989). By the same token, if you studied in a rather noisy
environment, for example, at a noisy cafe, then you are less likely to do well in a very quiet
exam hall (Grant, Bredahl, Clay, Ferrie, Goves, Mcdorman, & Dark, 1988). Hence retrieval
cues are most effective when they match the conditions under which learning takes place.
1.5 Implicit and Explicit Memory

Implicit memory refers to contents of memory that was not consciously learned and does
not depend on conscious recollection, while explicit memory refers to memory resulting
from conscious learning and requires conscious recollection.
It is interesting to note that implicit memory affects behaviour without conscious

awareness. If you are asked how you did a particular thing (e.g., tie a ribbon so nicely) or
how you knew about a particular thing (e.g., that you shouldn’t swim immediately after
having eaten), and your answer is “I don’t really know . . .” then this demonstrates the
effect of implicit memory. Consider this scenario where you notice your friend struggling
with a wine bottle opener, so you take the wine bottle opener from your friend to give it
a go, and manage to open the wine bottle with ease. You have never opened a wine bottle
before, but somehow you did it! As it turns out, you have been observing your father open
wine bottles at home for years, without making any conscious effort to learn how to open
wine bottles. This procedure was stored in implicit memory all along.
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Read
Find out from the textbook about how implicit and explicit memories are tested empirically.
1.6 Forgetting
We often lament over forgetting, and we are constantly looking for ways not to forget
things. Spare a thought for mnemonist, Mr S. who had exceptional memory ability. Mr
S. would memorise lists of numbers in minutes to the astonishment of his audience.
How amazing this was to all except Mr S. who was not able to forget the things that he
had memorised. He simply could not “forget”. This resulted in Mr S. not being able to
distinguish important memories from trivial memories. Everything he saw, heard, smelt,
or felt would serve as a retrieval cue for the countless related memories which would flood
his mind. Apparently, Mr S. invented a way to “forget” things by writing them on a piece
of paper and burning it (Luria, 1968).
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve shows that forgetting takes place rapidly in the first few
hours after learning and then tapers off gradually (Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
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Forgetting takes place for various reasons. One of them is that encoding never took place
in the first place. Have you ever experienced being told that you did not acknowledge an
acquaintance as you walked right past him? He was certainly in your field of vision so
you must have “seen” him. But because you didn’t pay attention to him, “he” never got
encoded in memory. According to the Memory Trace Decay Theory, encoded information
decays and fades away with disuse (Table 3.2).
Table 3.2 Causes of Forgetting in the Memory System
Causes of forgetting
Sensory memory spontaneous decay, masking
Short-term memory fading due to inattention, interference
Long-term memory retrieval failure, interference, fading due to disuse
The Classical Interference Theory of forgetting identifies two types of interference;

Proactive and Retroactive interference. Proactive interference involves the interference
of older information stored in memory with retrieval of new information, while
retroactive interference involves newer information interfering with the retrieval of older
information.
Table 3.3 sets the scene for proactive interference to take place. The control group recalls
more words from List B than the experimental group, simply because the experimental
group had the disadvantage of interference caused by words in List A which they had to
learn before learning List B.
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Table 3.3 Proactive Interference
Proactive Learn Learn Instructed Outcome

interference to Recall
Experimental List A List B List B 4/10

group
Control group rest List B List B 7/10
Retroactive interference is illustrated in Table 3.4 where the control group recalls more
words from List A than the experimental group because the experimental group had the
disadvantage of interference caused by words they had learned from List B after they had
first learned List A.
Table 3.4 Retroactive Interference
Retroactive Learn Learn Instructed Outcome

interference to Recall
Experimental List A List B List A 4/10

group
Control group List A rest List A 7/10
Read
The textbook covers Schacter’s (1999, 2001) seven sins of memory problems. Read on to find
out how you can take advantage of these ‘sins’ to improve your memory.
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Scientists are learning more about how memory actually works. When something is
remembered, the brain changes physically. In fact, every bit of information we remember
is encoded in our brains. These traces form the biological foundation for everything
we know and do. Clearly, memory is essential to individuality and personal identity.
However, sometimes people do lose their memories. Organic amnesia is typically the
result of injury to the brain, disease, or alcohol addiction. As the tissue is lost and memory
fades, so does personality, and eventually life itself. Sadly, life without memory is life
without a past or a future.
Read
Find out more from the textbook about the two types of memory loss - anterograde amnesia
(inability to form new memories) and retrograde amnesia (loss of memory prior to brain injury).
Watch
Check out MyPsychLab >>> Study Guide Course Content >>> Memory
Watch: When Memory Fails (7 minutes)

Click HERE
This video discusses the case of H.M., who suffered from anterograde amnesia.
1.7 Reliability of Memory

Flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed memories of dramatic events. They could be
events like the 911 terrorist attack, or it could be a death of a family member or family pet.
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However, studies have shown that even memories as vivid as flashbulb memories are not
always accurately recalled (Neisser, 1991; Schmolck, Buffalo, & Squire, 2000).
Memories are sometimes unreliable due to misattribution errors, which occur when
retrieved information from memory is associated with the wrong time, place, or person.
Have you ever experienced bumping into someone and thinking that person was an
old school friend when in fact, the person turned out to be an ex-colleague? You have
associated this familiar person with the wrong place (school vs. office) and time (school
days years ago vs. more recent previous employment).
The constructive and reconstructive nature of memory can be explained using Schema
Theory. Schemas are structured clusters of knowledge about the world, events, people,
and actions. According to this theory, our existing schemas are used to fill memory gaps.
In other words, we use our knowledge about what we already know (schema) to fill in any
knowledge gaps we encounter. In a classic experiment on false memories conducted by
Brewer and Treyens (1981), participants recruited to take part in a psychology experiment
were asked to wait in an office. Moments later, they were taken to another room and asked
to recall every item they had seen in the office where they had been waiting earlier. The
list of recalled items included items that were not actually in the office. They tended to
be items that one would normally find in a typical office. Hence, participants had relied
on their schema of office to help them recall items in the office which also led to them
recalling typical office items that were not at all in the office.
Activity 5
Simulate: Schemas
Click HERE
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Activity 6
You may have heard of cases where women were said to recall suppressed memories
of traumatic childhood abuse, only to find out later on that they were all fabricated
(Loftus, 1997). You can read more about it at the following website:
http://faculty.washington.edu/eloftus/Articles/sciam.htm.
Memories are constructed and reconstructed, and consequently can be distorted. A

person’s memory of an event can be distorted by mere suggestions. This was one
of the concerns raised with regards to eyewitness testimonies where it was believed
that investigating police officers can influence the witnesses’ account by asking leading
questions or by offering suggestions. The wordings of posed questions can influence the
eye-witnesses’ response. For example, a question asking “How hard did the man tap his
fist against the window?” vs. “How hard did the man smash his fist against the window?”
could evoke different responses. Such influences are known as the misinformation effect.
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Activity 7
Continued from Activity 4
With the help of these names, are you able to recognise any that you were not able to
recall earlier?
Grouchy Gabby Puffy
Fearful Sleepy Dumpy
Smiley Jumpy Sneezy
Hopeful Shy Lazy
Droopy Dopey Pop
Sniffy Wishful Grumpy
Bashful Cheerful Teach
Shorty Nifty Happy
Doc Wheezy Stubby
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Chapter Summary
Based on what has been covered in this Study Unit chapter, it would be safe to conclude
that memory is not entirely reliable. Unlike a video recorder, memories can be inaccurate,
incomplete, and malleable. Quoting Guy Pearce’s character named Lenny in the movie
Memento, “Memories are not perfect, they’re not even good. They’re unreliable … Eye-
witness testimonies are unreliable … Memory can change the shape, the colour …
Memories can be distorted. They are an interpretation, not a record. They’re irrelevant if
you’ve got the facts”.
Table 3.5 Key Processes in Stages of Memory
The traditional model of memory describes three memory stages involving sensory input
leading to the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. The Working Memory
concept is an extension of the STM concept, where higher cognitive processes are said to
take place, which is more than the function of simply storing seven plus or minus two
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bits of information. These are the two main theories of memory, and it is important to
understand that they are simply theories that attempt to explain how our memory might
be structured and how it functions.
More recently, Tulving and Schacter (1990) had been advocating multiple memory systems
involving systems and sub-systems of human learning and memory. These systems
include primary, procedural, semantic, episodic, and perceptual representation. The sub-
system includes motor skills, cognitive skills, simple conditioning, simple associative
learning, visual word form, auditory word form, structural description, spatial, relational,
visual, and auditory. As you can see, theories about how our memory system works can be
quite elaborate depending on how explicitly one wished to describe the various memory
functions.
The more interesting aspect of memory is the constructive and reconstructive nature of
memory which either helps us fill in the gaps in our memory, or leads us to create false
memories. Our memory system does not operate like a video recorder. Our memory is
unable to play back events and facts accurately due to its constructive and reconstructive
nature. This enables us to understand why memory can be distorted and unreliable.
TEST YOURSELF:
Practice:
• What Is Memory?
• How Do We Form Memories?
• How Do We Retrieve Memories?
• Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?
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Read
MUST READ:
Memory, all modules.
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Chapter 2: Thinking and Human Intelligence
From primary school through to university, in business and the military, tests are used to
label and classify each of us. Information about our academic achievements and failures,
personality traits, and mental health is collected in an effort to predict how we will perform
in the classroom, on the job, or in society.
2.1 Intelligence Testing – How It All Began . . .

Defining and measuring intelligence is perhaps the best-known but most elusive goal of
psychometricians – the scientists who specialise in psychological testing. Galton (1869)
stressed the hereditary basis of intelligence as he had observed that gifted individuals
tended to come from families with gifted family members. He started devising mental
tests; and since then, there has been an ongoing debate about what intelligence is, how to
measure it, and how much heredity and environment contribute to it.
In the early 20th century, Alfred Binet set out to replace teachers’ subjective opinions with
an objective way to identify children who needed special help in school. His procedure
included testing children individually on various reasoning tasks, then comparing each
child to the average performance of children in the same age group. He developed the
concept of “mental age”.
Lewis Terman of Stanford University believed that intelligence was an inner quality
reflecting inherited differences and an unchangeable aspect of a person’s makeup. Terman
(1916) adapted Binet’s test for American schools and came up with the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale. At this point, the concept of the intelligence quotient was introduced.
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Terman’s test became popular in the United States. The time was ripe for an efficient and
inexpensive way to test and categorise large numbers of children. There were millions of
new immigrants to be educated and a flood of army recruits enlisting for service in World
War I.
Assessing mental ability seemed a good way to impose order on the social chaos. Many
people accepted the idea that intelligence tests could identify special abilities. Test results
seemed to support the idea that there were racial and ethnic differences in intelligence.
But critics protested that intelligence tests depended too much on language ability and
could not measure the competencies of non-English speakers and young children. This led
David Weschler, in 1939, to develop test problems that did not depend on English skills,
a major milestone in intelligence testing.
Activity 8
How is intelligence measured? Try out the “Do It Yourself!” sample IQ test items
presented in the textbook under IQ Testing Today.
2.2 Intelligence Testing – How Reliable and Valid Are They?

Psychological testing has become big business. First, a test must predict what it was
designed to predict. That is, it must be valid. If it helps to identify those who will get
the highest grades in the future, then it is valid as a grade predictor. Second, the test
must demonstrate over time that its results are consistent. That is, it must be reliable.
Third, everyone taking or scoring the test must do it according to the same rules. But how
objective are these tests? Are they the unbiased, objective assessment devices that Binet
had imagined?
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Watch
Check out MyPsychLab >>> Study Guide Course Content >>> Thinking and Human
Intelligence
Watch: Special Topics: Intelligence Testing, Then and Now (5 minutes)

Click HERE
Cultural biases in many tests overlook important differences in experience and only
measure attributes, such as verbal ability or social conformity without acknowledging
the importance of creativity, common sense, and other important skills. Some personnel
screening tests are used to reject or exclude people although the tests have nothing to do
with skills required for success on the job. The most serious misuse of tests is rooted in the
mistaken belief that an intelligence test can somehow reveal basic unchanging qualities of
mind and character. Some people have even used test results to claim that entire races are
inferior. Hence, tests and testing practices may be used to discriminate against minorities
in school and in the workplace.
Western cultures prize verbal skills and logical thinking; in Bali, physical grace and
musical talent are highly coveted skills. Some neurologists completely bypass the
complications of mind and culture. They measure brain waves to detect differences in how
people react and adjust to surprises. They assume that the smart brain has characteristic
reaction patterns. Whether these measures are valid and what purpose they serve is not
yet known.
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In this video lecture, you’ll meet four quirky characters. Can you tell who is more
intelligent?
2.3 Theories of Intelligence

Intelligence can be simply defined as mental capacity to acquire knowledge, reason,
and solve problems effectively (Zimbardo, Johnson, & Hamilton, 2014). However,
psychologists define intelligence in different ways. Some psychometricians believe
they are measuring a single ability or trait called intelligence. But recently, cognitive
psychologists have provided alternative views on the subject. Howard Gardner (1983,
1999a; 1999b) started off theorising that there are at least eight different kinds of
intelligences (Table 3.6).
ii
PSY107_PSY107_Thinking_and_Intelligence.mp4.mp4
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Table 3.6 Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
1 Linguistic intelligence language ability - vocabulary,

comprehension
2 Logical-mathematical intelligence mathematical ability
3 Spatial intelligence navigating in space; forming,

transforming, and using mental
images
4 Musical intelligence perceiving and creating pitch

patterns
5 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence skills of motor movement,

coordination
6 Interpersonal intelligence understanding others
7 Intrapersonal intelligence understanding one’s self, developing

a sense of identity
8 Naturalistic intelligence classify living things as members of

diverse groups; recognise patterns
found in nature
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Sternberg’s (1999) Triarchic Theory considers three aspects of intelligence which focus on
the practical nature of intelligence (Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Watch
Intelligence
Watch: The Basics: Theories of Intelligence (5 minutes)

Click HERE
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Watch
Intelligence
Watch: Robert Sternberg on:
• Intelligence (1 minute) Click HERE

• Practical Intelligence (1 minute) Click HERE
• Cultural influences (2.5 minutes) Click HERE
• Gender differences (1 minute) Click HERE
Listen to what Sternberg has to say about the various aspects of intelligence.
Read
Various definitions and theories of intelligence can be found in the textbook.
Although Binet saw intelligence as a dynamic cognitive process, many psychometricians

saw intelligence as a single trait which can be accurately measured by intelligence tests
and which can predict certain types of academic or vocational performance. There was
a strong tendency to believe that intelligence was inherited. Correlational studies show
strong genetic component contributing to intelligence (Bouchard & McGue, 1981 as cited
in Zimbardo et al, 2014).
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Figure 3.7 Degree of Association Variables Showing Strong Genetic

Contribution
Nevertheless, environmental factors such as nutrition, access to quality education, and

enriching environment have been known to contribute positively to intelligence. In the
1980s, a New Zealand based political scientist, James Flynn, noticed that IQ levels were
gradually increasing world-wide at an average rate of 3 IQ points per decade. This
effect, coined the Flynn Effect, suggests that this increasing IQ was predominantly due to
environmental effects.
Reflect
Intelligence: Nature vs. Nurture
Are we born intelligent, or are we made intelligent?

What evidence can you present to support your stand?
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Watch
Intelligence
Watch: The Big Picture: What is Intelligence? (3 minutes)

Click HERE
Read
Read the textbook and find out how psychologists explain differences in IQ among groups.
While most agree that both hereditary and environmental influences affect intelligence, there
is ongoing debate about the source of IQ differences among racial and social groups.
Activity 9
Intelligence
Explore: Factors Affecting intelligence

Click HERE
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2.4 Cognition
Cognition includes knowing, remembering, reasoning, imagining, anticipating, planning,
problem solving, and communicating. Psychologists study these mental processes and
what they have discovered about how people think. Broadbent (1958) used a flowchart
to demonstrate how people receive, process, and store information as words, pictures,
and patterns in memory. His model interpreted the workings of the mind as if it were a
computer. This information-processing model can be used to answer questions about how
our experiences are transformed into knowledge that guides our actions.
One of the basic functions the mind performs is categorising. We tend to sort, label, and
store stimuli based on common features, similar functions, and other similarities. The
categories we form in our minds are called concepts. Although some concepts are simple
and some complex, our minds link virtually all elements into coherent relationships.
Artificial concepts, like a “square”, are easy to categorise as they are defined by a clear
set of rules or characteristics. Natural concepts, on the other hand, are imprecise mental
categories we develop through our interaction with the world. Take for example, the
concept of a “dog”. How do you determine whether an animal is a dog or not? One of the
theories of concept representation is known as the Defining Features approach where a
concept can be defined by a list of features. We could list the following defining features of
a dog – has four legs, has fur, has a tail, barks… But what about a three-legged dog that had
lost a leg in an accident? Based on the defining features approach, this three-legged dog is
not a dog because it does not fit the defining features of the concept of a dog. To overcome
this limitation of the defining features approach, Rosch, Mervis, Gray, Johnson, and Boyes-
Braem (1976) suggested that natural concepts invoke mental prototypes or generic images
which serve as the “average” or “summary representation” of that concept. So what would
a prototype of the concept of “dog” look like (Figure 3.8)?
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Figure 3.8 Members of the Dog Category and Possible Prototypes; a, b, and c.
Another theory of concept representation is Collins and Quillian’s (1969) conceptual

hierarchy which theorises that concepts are organised hierarchically (Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.9 Collins and Quillian’s Conceptual Hierarchy
Schemas are a type of complex concepts that allow us to organise a body of knowledge
around prior experience, related events, and expectations. When we hear the word picnic,
for example, we can imagine immediately what items go into a picnic basket, what to wear
to a picnic, and in what environment the picnic is likely to take place. The more something
fits into an established schema, the more it will make sense to us. If something doesn’t fit
our knowledge or expectations, we may not even notice it.
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Activity 10
Intelligence
Simulate: The Mind’s Organization of Conceptual Knowledge

Click HERE
Our concepts are formed not only as words or labels, but also as mental pictures. Evidence
of visual thinking comes from laboratory experiments in which participants’ delayed
responses indicate that they are mentally rotating or scanning images. Psychologists can
also measure changes in brain activity to show how the brain reacts to surprising events.
Visual thought builds on our experience of spatial or geographical relationships. We use
mental maps to give directions, decide on an alternate route to work, and get around
the house without turning the lights on. But cognitive maps may also be distorted. For
example, our mental map of the rest of the world might enlarge nearby or familiar regions
and shrink faraway regions. While some researchers try to understand how the mind
functions, others examine the brain’s chemistry and architecture in an effort to find out
how we reason, learn, and remember.
Activity 11
Intelligence
Simulate: How Good is Your Cognitive Map?

Click HERE
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Read
Find out more about the components of thought in the textbook.
2.5 Problem Solving

On average, how many problems do you face every day? One? Five? A dozen? Hundreds?
You may not have realised this but we do face hundreds of problems every day. It all
starts from the moment your alarm bell goes in the morning. You are faced with the
problem of deciding whether to get out of bed immediately or to snooze the alarm and
sleep in for another 10 minutes. You are then faced with the problem of deciding what
to wear for the day, followed by which route to take to work. Every time a goal is not
immediately achievable because it is blocked for any reason, be it a lack of resources, lack
of information... you’ve got a problem.
Table 3.7 Everyday problems
Problem Blocked by … Goal
To get out of bed Fatigue, need more sleep Get out of bed.
immediately or sleep …
another 10 minutes.
What to wear … Not knowing what the Dress appropriately for the
weather is going to be like. day.
Which route to take to Not knowing what the Get to work on time.
work. traffic situation is going to
be like.
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The stages of thinking involved in problem solving are as follows:
1. Preparation – recognising that a problem exists and making some preliminary

attempts to understand and solve the problem
2. Incubation – when preliminary attempts fail, it sometimes helps to put the
problem aside where thinking continues at the unconscious level
3. Illumination – a flash of insight which ends the unconscious work and brings the
solution to the surface of consciousness
4. Verification – confirmation of the insight
Read
The textbook contains some useful strategies for solving problems.
2.6 Judgement and Decision-Making

No matter how uncertain life is, we all have to think and act decisively. Every day,
we assess situations, take risks, and make judgements and decisions. We’ll find out
what psychologists are discovering about why people make bad decisions and irrational
judgements.
There are several explanations for human error and irrationality. Psychologists have
argued that irrationality is based on the same processes that enable us to form concepts
and make inferences. But we often make irrational decisions because these same mental
strategies are not appropriate in all cases. Confronted with uncertainty or ambiguity, we
tend to think that the most easily recalled events are the most likely. For example, when
news reports are full of vivid accounts of plane crashes and hijackings, we overestimate
the likelihood of these events and may avoid travelling altogether. Similarly, if you were
asked whether you are more likely to encounter a terrorist attack or a traffic accident while
holidaying in the Middle East, your intuition would tell you that you are more likely to
think that a terrorist attack would be more likely even though the underlying odds of a
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terrorist attack are less likely than a traffic accident. An intuition is like a gut feeling where
quick impulsive thoughts lead to decisions with no logical or rational basis.
Activity 12
Imagine being in a room full of teachers (70%) and doctors (30%). You meet Robert for
the first time. After a few minutes of conversation with him, you discover that he is
health conscious, meticulous, and very intelligent. Would you conclude that he was a
teacher or a doctor?
We make some decisions based on other mental shortcuts or heuristics, often using
prototypes to represent classes of objects, events, and people. These assumptions can
mislead us into poor judgement, because we may mistakenly categorise something based
on one feature. How information is “framed”, or presented, can also influence our decision
making in mathematics, geography, politics – virtually any subject area. Recently, the
science of risk assessment has also been attracting a lot of interest. Researchers are
discovering that most people avoid risks when seeking gains. But they also choose risks
to avoid sure losses. Prolonged wars are a good example of loss avoidance; it’s extremely
difficult for one side to accept a sure loss and admit that there’s no chance of winning.
Consequently both sides end up fighting longer and losing even more.
How people perceive a risk may also depend on complex psychological factors, such as
the “dread” factor. For example, we may be terrified of a nuclear accident but never think
twice about jaywalking. That’s because jaywalking is familiar, while a nuclear accident is
unfamiliar and, therefore, seems more potentially catastrophic. Yet the odds of a nuclear
accident are a tiny fraction of the odds of getting hurt while jaywalking.
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Table 3.8 Common causes of poor judgement
Confirmation bias Ignoring or finding fault with information that does not fit
our opinions, and seeking information we agree with.
Hindsight bias Tendency to believe, after learning about an event, that one
could have predicted the event in advance.
Anchoring bias Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate

on information appearing at the beginning of the problem.
Representative bias Faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that

once something is categorised, it shares all features of other
members in that category.
Availability bias Faulty heuristic strategy that comes from our tendency to
judge probabilities of events by how readily examples come
to mind.
Tyranny of choice Too many choices can interfere with effective decision
making, sometimes to the point of immobilising us.
Although bright, reasonable people often make irrational decisions and take unacceptable
risks, the field of psychology is helping to shed light on our behaviour and even provide
guidelines for helping us catch ourselves before we go astray – or redirect ourselves if we
do.
Read
Find out more from the textbook about judgement and decision making.
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The problem solving methods discussed thus far are all based on logical thinking. What
about those who are able to solve problems by coming up with entirely new methods or
unusual, inventive solutions? Such people are said to have engaged in creative thinking.
Read
What does it take to be a creative genius? Read about it in the textbook under Becoming a
Creative Genius.
Activity 13
Intelligence
Simulate: Creativity
Click HERE
2.7 Artificial Intelligence

The term artificial intelligence was coined by McCarthy (1959) and it refers to the creation
of machines that can mimic human thinking. Artificial intelligence is prevalent today in
computer programs. There are chess programs, card-playing programs, online chat robots,
and many more.
Algorithms are typical ways of programming computers. Algorithms refer to rules which,
if applied appropriately, guarantee a solution to a problem. Although this method tends
to be fool-proof, it can be a time-consuming method for humans to apply when solving
problems as it requires one to go through every possible solution in an orderly manner
in order to get to the solution. Humans tend to employ heuristics which are cognitive
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shortcuts or “rules of thumb” which often succeed in offering quick solutions, but do not
guarantee a correct solution.
A chess program called Deep Blue was programmed using heuristics which employs the
same type of decision-making processes as humans do. This is unusual as computers
are typically programmed using algorithm. Although world chess champion, Garry
Kasparov, beat Deep Blue in 1996, Deep Blue apparently beat Kasparov the following year.
Are machines getting more and more intelligent? This is an ongoing debate about whether
machines can be said to be intelligent just because they are able to mimic human behaviour
or human cognition.
Chapter Summary
Theories of concept representation offer insight into how information might be organised
in memory, and how thought takes place in the brain leading to problem solving abilities
and intelligence. There are intelligence tests which purport to measure one’s intelligence
while psychologist Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there
are at least 8 different aspects to human intelligence. The assessment of intelligence
seems to be similar to how Alfred Binet originally conceptualised it. It is a dynamic,
complex cognitive construct which makes its assessment rather tricky. The controversies
surrounding it will likely continue far into the future.
Watch
Intelligence
Watch: Thinking Like a Psychologist: Intelligence Tests and Success (4.5 minutes)
Click HERE
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TEST YOURSELF:
Check out MyPsychLab >>> Study Guide Course Content >>> Thinking and
Human Intelligence
Practice:
• What are the Components of Thought?

• What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Posses?
• How is Intelligence Measured?
• Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities?
• How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences among Groups?
Read
MUST READ:
Thinking and Human Intelligence, all modules.
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1. When you hear a phone number and are able to recall it for a brief period, the phone
number is thought to reside within _________ memory.
a. sensory
b. working
c. procedural
d. long-term
2. The rapidly passing scenery you see out the window is first stored in ___________.
a. echoic memory
b. long-term memory
c. iconic memory
d. working memory
3. Because of the limited capacity of ________, it is unsafe to talk on a cell phone while
driving on a freeway during rush-hour.
a. sensory memory
b. episodic memory
c. procedural memory
d. working memory
4. _______ rehearsal results in a more lasting memory and promotes the transfer of
information to long-term memory compared to _______ rehearsal.
a. Permanent; condensed
b. Elaborative; maintenance
c. Condensed; permanent
d. Maintenance; elaborative
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5. A police officer is shot in a gun battle with bank robbers. Although emergency brain
surgery saves his life, it leaves him unable to store new information. The officer’s
family is applying to the state for compensation for his injuries. When asked to
provide a diagnosis of the difficulties he suffers, what will they write?
a. anterograde amnesia
b. proactive amnesia
c. retrograde amnesia
d. retroactive amnesia
6. How do retrieval cues help you remember?

a. They help chunk information.
b. They direct you to relevant information stored in long term memory.
c. They provide inferences
d. They don’t – this is a placebo effect that leaves you feeling as if memory was
aided when it really was not.
7. Writing the previous year on your diary entries instead of the current year is an
example of ____________.
a. retroactive interference
b. encoding specificity
c. proactive interference
d. transience
8. Concepts ______________.
a. can represent objects but not activities
b. cannot be directly observed by researchers
c. are basically the same from one person to the next
d. come in exactly two types, visual and auditory
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9. When you give someone verbal directions on how to find a classroom in a building,
you are using a ___________.
a. prototype
b. mental set
c. cognitive map
d. hierarchy
10. Sally is enrolled in a high school geometry course, which she describes as “drawing
figures and figuring drawings.” In a typical class, students draw geometric figures
and use a formula to calculate an aspect of the figure such as its area. Each time Sally
uses a formula she is making use of what psychologists call __________.
a. heuristics
b. algorithms
c. divergence
d. logarithms
11. Most people would guess that more women die of breast cancer than of heart disease,
even though the opposite is true. People might be misled, because we hear about
breast cancer quite a bit in the media. Thus, we fall victim to __________.
a. the availability bias
b. confirmation bias
c. an anchoring bias
d. Hindsight bias
12. According to Sternberg, your college grades would reflect your ________ intelligence.
a. creative
b. practical
c. fluid
d. analytical
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13. Janet cannot get along well with others, but she is the best in her class at reading.
According to Howard Gardner, she lacks ________ intelligence but possesses much
________ intelligence.
a. musical; spatial
b. interpersonal; linguistic
c. bodily-kinesthetic; intrapersonal
d. spatial; linguistic
14. Tim and Jim are identical twins who were raised apart. Ned and Ed are fraternal twins
who were raised together. Which pair of twins will have more similar IQ scores, if
either?
a. Ned and Ed
b. Their IQs will be the same, because environment and genetics interact equally
across both cases
c. Tim and Jim
d. All twins have the same IQ
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The easiest to memories is List 1 as the words can be grouped meaningfully (semantically)
- recall clustering. List 2 would be the most difficult to memories as the words are nonsense
words and they cannot be meaningfully organised or clustered. It is also impossible to
find associations between nonsense words and our existing knowledge.
Sneezy, Sleepy. Dopey, Doc, Happy, Bashful, Grumpy
You are quite likely to conclude that Robert was a doctor based on how his characteristics
match those of a typical doctor. However the odds of Robert being a teacher is greater at
70:30. So rationally, you would have had a greater chance of being correct by stating that
Robert was a teacher.
1. When you hear a phone number and are able to recall it for a brief period, the phone
number is thought to reside within _________ memory.
a. sensory
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Incorrect. The duration of sensory memory for auditory events is just a

couple of seconds. This is not the best answer. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter
1 Topic: Traditional Theory of Memory.
b. working
Correct. Working, or short-term, memory is where we store information for
20-30 seconds while we decide whether to move it to long-term memory.
Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional Theory of Memory.
c. procedural
Incorrect. This is a division of Long term memory that stores memories for
how things are done. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional
Theory of Memory.
d. long-term
Incorrect. Long term memory has the largest capacity and longest duration.
It receives information from working memory. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter
1 Topic: Traditional Theory of Memory.
2. The rapidly passing scenery you see out the window is first stored in ___________.
a. echoic memory
Incorrect. Echoic memory is sensory; however it attends to auditory stimuli.
Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional Theory of Memory.
b. long-term memory
Incorrect. This is the third of the three memory stages. Refer to Study Unit 3
Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional Theory of Memory.
c. iconic memory
Correct. Iconic memory is sensory and the first stage of the memory
systems. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional Theory of
Memory.
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d. working memory
Incorrect. This storage location is not first, as the sensory memory system
of iconic memory comes before it. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic:
Traditional Theory of Memory.
3. Because of the limited capacity of ________, it is unsafe to talk on a cell phone while
driving on a freeway during rush-hour.
a. sensory memory
Incorrect. The best answer to this question would require a memory storage
facility that had a longer duration than just a couple of seconds. Refer to
Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional Theory of Memory.
b. episodic memory
Incorrect. This stores memory for personal events, or “episodes”. Refer to
Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional Theory of Memory.
c. procedural memory
Incorrect. This is a division of Long term memory that stores memories for
how things are done. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional
Theory of Memory.
d. working memory
Correct. This reminds us that we are only capable of processing a limited
number of data in working memory at any point. Refer to Study Unit 3
Chapter 1 Topic: Traditional Theory of Memory.
4. _______ rehearsal results in a more lasting memory and promotes the transfer of
information to long-term memory compared to _______ rehearsal.
a. Permanent; condensed
Incorrect. There are no such terms in the context of Memory. Refer to Study
Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Storage and Encoding Information.
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b. Elaborative; maintenance
Correct. Elaborative rehearsal leads to longer-lasting memories than does
maintenance rehearsal, because the deeper the processing, the better the
memory. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Storage and Encoding
Information.
c. Condensed; permanent
Incorrect. There are no such terms in the context of Memory. Refer to Study
Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Storage and Encoding Information.
d. Maintenance; elaborative
Incorrect. Elaborative rehearsal leads to longer-lasting memories than
maintenance rehearsal. Repeating items over and over, as in maintenance
rehearsal, has not been found to be very effective. Refer to Study Unit 3
Chapter 1 Topic: Storage and Encoding Information.
5. A police officer is shot in a gun battle with bank robbers. Although emergency brain
surgery saves his life, it leaves him unable to store new information. The officer’s
family is applying to the state for compensation for his injuries. When asked to
provide a diagnosis of the difficulties he suffers, what will they write?
a. anterograde amnesia
Correct. Anterograde amnesia occurs when new memories cannot be
formed. Refer to Textbook chapter 5, pp. 223-224.
b. proactive amnesia
Incorrect. There is no such term in the context of Memory. Refer to Textbook
chapter 5, pp. 223-224.
c. retrograde amnesia
Incorrect. Retrograde amnesia deals with not being able to get old
information out of storage. Refer to Textbook chapter 5, pp. 223-224.
d. retroactive amnesia
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Incorrect. There is no such term in the context of Memory. Refer to Textbook

chapter 5, pp. 223-224.
6. How do retrieval cues help you remember?

a. They help chunk information.
Incorrect. Chunking is a process that is used in working memory. Retrieval
cues are related to long-term memory. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic:
Memory Retrieval.
b. They direct you to relevant information stored in long term memory.

Correct. Retrieval cues help prime your long-term memory to find a
specific piece of information that is needed. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter
1 Topic: Memory Retrieval.
c. They provide inferences

Incorrect. Retrieval cues enable access to the required information stored in
Long term information. They do not provide inferences. Refer to Study Unit
3 Chapter 1 Topic: Memory Retrieval.
d. They don’t – this is a placebo effect that leaves you feeling as if memory was
aided when it really was not.
Incorrect. Retrieval cues do help us to remember. Refer to Study Unit 3
Chapter 1 Topic: Memory Retrieval.
7. Writing the previous year on your diary entries instead of the current year is an
example of ____________.
a. retroactive interference
Incorrect. This refers to situations where newly learned (recent) information
obstructs retrieval of previously learned (old) information. Refer to Study
Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Forgetting.
b. encoding specificity
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Incorrect. This is a principle stating that the more closely the retrieval cues
match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be
remembered. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Forgetting.
c. proactive interference
Correct. This refers to situations where previously learned (old)
information obstructs retrieval of newly learned (recent) information.
Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Forgetting.
d. transience
Incorrect. Transience is based on the idea that long term memories gradually
fade in strength over time. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 1 Topic: Forgetting.
8. Concepts ______________.
a. can represent objects but not activities
Incorrect. A concept can include objects, ideas, or experiences. This definition
is not exclusive of activities. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Cognition.
b. cannot be directly observed by researchers

Correct. Concepts are mental groupings, not outward objects. Therefore
they can be inferred, but not observed. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2
Topic: Cognition.
c. are basically the same from one person to the next

Incorrect. Everyone conceptualizes the world in a unique way. Refer to Study
Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Cognition.
d. come in exactly two types, visual and auditory

Incorrect. The two kinds of concepts are Natural Concepts and Concept
Hierarchies. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Cognition.
9. When you give someone verbal directions on how to find a classroom in a building,
you are using a ___________.
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a. prototype
Incorrect. Prototype is an ideal or most representations of objects and events
drawn from our direct experience. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic:
Cognition.
b. mental set
Incorrect. This refers to a habitual manner for solving problems. Refer to
Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Cognition.
c. cognitive map
Correct. This is a cognitive representation of a physical space that is stored
as a visual concept. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Cognition.
d. hierarchy
Incorrect. This refers to the organization of concepts in levels, from general
to specific. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Cognition.
10. Sally is enrolled in a high school geometry course, which she describes as “drawing
figures and figuring drawings.” In a typical class, students draw geometric figures
and use a formula to calculate an aspect of the figure such as its area. Each time Sally
uses a formula she is making use of what psychologists call __________.
a. heuristics
Incorrect. Heuristics do not guarantee a solution, hence not applicable to
solving Geometry problems. Refer to Textbook chapter 6, pp. 261-263.
b. algorithms
Correct. Sally is making use of algorithms because the rules will always
produce a solution. Refer to Textbook chapter 6, pp. 261-263.
c. divergence
Incorrect. There is no such strategy in Problem Solving. Refer to Textbook
chapter 6, pp. 261-263.
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d. logarithms
Incorrect. There is no such strategy in Problem Solving. Refer to Textbook
chapter 6, pp. 261-263.
11. Most people would guess that more women die of breast cancer than of heart disease,
even though the opposite is true. People might be misled, because we hear about
breast cancer quite a bit in the media. Thus, we fall victim to __________.
a. the availability bias
Correct. This is a faulty heuristic strategy that comes from our tendency
to judge probabilities of events by how readily examples come to mind.
Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Judgement and Decision-Making.
b. confirmation bias
Incorrect. This is ignoring information that does not fit our opinions, and
seeking information we agree with. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic:
Judgement and Decision-Making.
c. an anchoring bias
Incorrect. This is a faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on
information appearing at the beginning of the problem. Refer to Study Unit
3 Chapter 2 Topic: Judgement and Decision-Making.
d. Hindsight bias
Incorrect. This is the tendency to believe, after learning about an event, that
one could have predicted the event in advance. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter
2 Topic: Judgement and Decision-Making.
12. According to Sternberg, your college grades would reflect your ________ intelligence.
a. creative
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Incorrect. Creative intelligence is the ability to determine what needs to be

done, to analyze how best to do it, and to monitor performance. Refer to
Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Theories of Intelligence.
b. practical
Incorrect. This is the ability to apply one’s experience with the external world
to handle new and complex tasks. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic:
Theories of Intelligence.
c. fluid
Incorrect. Fluid intelligence is the ability to see complex relationship and
solve problems. It is theorized by Cattell and not Sternberg. Refer to Study
Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Theories of Intelligence.
d. analytical
Correct. This type of intelligence is the ability measured by most IQ tests,
and includes the ability to analyze problems and find correct answers.
Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Theories of Intelligence.
13. Janet cannot get along well with others, but she is the best in her class at reading.
According to Howard Gardner, she lacks ________ intelligence but possesses much
________ intelligence.
a. musical; spatial
Incorrect. Musical intelligence is the ability to perform, compose, and
appreciate musical patterns, rhythms, and pitches. Spatial intelligence is the
ability to form and manipulate mental images of objects and to consider their
relationships in space. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Theories of
Intelligence.
b. interpersonal; linguistic
Correct. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other
people’s intentions, emotions, motives, and actions and the ability to
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work well with others. Linguistic intelligence is seen by measures such

as vocabulary and reading comprehension tests. Refer to Study Unit 3
Chapter 2 Topic: Theories of Intelligence.
c. bodily-kinesthetic; intrapersonal
Incorrect. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence refers to skills of motor movements
and coordination. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to understand
oneself. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Theories of Intelligence.
d. spatial; linguistic
Incorrect. Spatial intelligence is the ability to form and manipulate
mental images of objects and to consider their relationships in space.
Linguistic intelligence is seen by measures such as vocabulary and reading
comprehension tests. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Theories of
Intelligence.
14. Tim and Jim are identical twins who were raised apart. Ned and Ed are fraternal twins
who were raised together. Which pair of twins will have more similar IQ scores, if
either?
a. Ned and Ed
Incorrect. Ned and Ed share environments, but identical genetics. Refer to
b. Their IQs will be the same, because environment and genetics interact
equally across both cases
Incorrect. Such interact cannot be equal. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2
Topic: Theories of Intelligence.
c. Tim and Jim

Correct. Tim and Jim share genetic commonalities. Their IQs will probably
be the most similar even though they did not share environments growing
up. Refer to Study Unit 3 Chapter 2 Topic: Theories of Intelligence.
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d. All twins have the same IQ

Incorrect. There are differences for Identical and Fraternal twins. Refer to
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References
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A control system and its
control processes. In K. Spence (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol.
2). New York: Academic Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. A. Bower (Ed.), Recent
advances in learning and motivation (Vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.
Brewer, W. F., & Treyens, J. C. (1981). Role of schemata in memory for places. Cognitive
Psychology, 13, 207–230.
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. London: Pergammon.
Collins, A. M., & Quillian, M. R. (1969). Retrieval time from semantic memory. Journal of
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 240–247.
Darwin, C. J., Turvey, M.t., & Crowder, R. G. (1972). The auditory analogue of the
Sperling partial report procedure: Evidence for brief auditory stage. Cognitive
Psychology, 3, 255–267.
Eich, E., & Metcalfe, J. (1989). Mood dependent memory for internal vs. external events.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 15, 443–455.
Galton, F. (1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. London:
Macmillan/Fontana.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999a). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New
York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999b). Who owns intelligence? The Atlantic Monthly, 283, 67–76.
Grant, H., Bredahl, L. S., Clay, J., Ferrie, J., Goves, J. E., Mcdorman, T. A., & Dark, V. J.
(1988). Context-dependent memory for meaningful material: Information for
students. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 617–623.
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Head of Programme : Dr Emily Ortega

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How to cite this Study Guide (APA):

Singapore: Singapore University of Social Sciences.

2. Course Description and Aims............................................................................ CG-4

3. Learning Outcomes.............................................................................................. CG-5

5. Assessment Overview.......................................................................................... CG-7

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology................................................................ SU1-4

Formative Assessment.......................................................................................... SU1-33

Chapter 1: Biological Basis of Behaviour............................................................. SU2-4

Chapter 2: Sensation and Perception.................................................................. SU2-21

Formative Assessment.......................................................................................... SU2-42

Chapter 2: Thinking and Human Intelligence.................................................. SU3-27

Formative Assessment.......................................................................................... SU3-46

Table 2.1 Key Features of the Five Senses.............................................................. SU2-26

Table 3.1 Sensory Memory and its Sensory Registers............................................. SU3-6

Table 3.2 Causes of Forgetting in the Memory System........................................ SU3-18

Table 3.3 Proactive Interference............................................................................... SU3-19

Table 3.4 Retroactive Interference............................................................................ SU3-19

Table 3.5 Key Processes in Stages of Memory....................................................... SU3-24

Table 3.6 Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences............................................. SU3-31

Table 3.7 Everyday problems................................................................................... SU3-39

Table 3.8 Common causes of poor judgement....................................................... SU3-42

Figure 1.1 The six modern perspectives in psychology.......................................... SU1-9

Figure 1.2 False Assumption about Correlation and Causality........................... SU1-25

Figure 1.3 Assumptions Based on Correlations..................................................... SU1-26

Figure 2.1 MRI Image of a Brain Tumour................................................................. SU2-4

Figure 2.2 Structure and Function of the Neuron................................................... SU2-7

Figure 2.3 The Nervous System................................................................................. SU2-9

Figure 2.4 The Autonomous Nervous System....................................................... SU2-10

Figure 2.6 Lobes of the Brain.................................................................................... SU2-14

Figure 2.7 The Motor Cortex and the Somatosensory Cortex.............................. SU2-15

Figure 2.8 The Visual Cortex.................................................................................... SU2-16

Figure 2.9 Split brain.................................................................................................. SU2-17

Figure 2.10 Stimulation Becomes Perception......................................................... SU2-23

Figure 2.11 Processing Visual Sensation................................................................. SU2-29

Figure 2.12 Upside-down photos – how different are they from one

Figure 2.13 Ambiguous Picture................................................................................ SU2-32

Figure 2.14 Ambiguous Picture with Contour Lines............................................ SU2-33

Figure 2.15 Checker-shadow Illusion...................................................................... SU2-37

Figure 3.1 The Modal Model of Memory................................................................. SU3-5

Figure 3.2 Structure of Long-term Memory............................................................. SU3-7

Figure 3.3 Working Memory Model.......................................................................... SU3-9

Figure 3.4 Serial Position curve................................................................................ SU3-14

Figure 3.5 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve............................................................. SU3-17

Figure 3.6 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence........................................ SU3-32

Figure 3.7 Degree of Association Variables Showing Strong Genetic

Figure 3.8 Members of the Dog Category and Possible Prototypes; a, b, and

Figure 3.9 Collins and Quillian’s Conceptual Hierarchy...................................... SU3-37

Presenter: Dr Emily Ortega

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Welcome to your study of PSY107 Introduction to Psychology 1, a 5 credit unit (CU)

2. Course Description and Aims

Knowledge & Understanding (Theory Component)

• Define major concepts of Psychology.

Key Skills (Practical Component)

• Identify various components of a research article and research methods.

ed.). Pearson New International Edition. Essex, UK: Pearson.

Assessment Description Weight Allocation

Pre-Class Quiz PCQ03 1%

Assignment 1 TMA01: Understanding 20%