Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For
liquids, it corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a
Viscosity
higher viscosity than water.[1]

Viscosity can be conceptualized as quantifying the internal frictional force that arises
between adjacent layers of fluid that are in relative motion. For instance, when a
viscous fluid is forced through a tube, it flows more quickly near the tube's axis than
near its walls. In such a case, experiments show that some stress (such as a pressure
difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to sustain the flow through the
tube. This is because a force is required to overcome the friction between the layers of
the fluid which are in relative motion. So for a tube with a constant rate of flow, the
strength of the compensating force is proportional to the fluid's viscosity.

A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero
viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, the A simulation of liquids with different viscosities.
second law of thermodynamics requires all fluids to have positive viscosity;[2][3] such
The liquid on the right has higher viscosity than
fluids are technically said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a high viscosity, such as
the liquid on the left
pitch, may appear to be a solid.
Common symbols η, μ
Derivations from μ = G·t
other quantities
Contents
Etymology
Definition
Simple definition
General definition
Kinematic viscosity
Momentum transport
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids
In solids
Measurement
Units
Molecular origins
Pure gases
Pure liquids
Mixtures and blends
Solutions and suspensions
Amorphous materials
Eddy viscosity
Selected substances
Water
Air
Other common substances
Order of magnitude estimates
See also
References
Footnotes
Citations
Sources
External links

Etymology
The word "viscosity" is derived from the Latin viscum ("mistletoe"). Viscum also referred to a viscous glue derived from mistletoe
berries.[4]

Definition

Simple definition

In materials science and engineering, one is often interested in understanding the forces or stresses
involved in the deformation of a material. For instance, if the material were a simple spring, the
answer would be given by Hooke's law, which says that the force experienced by a spring is
proportional to the distance displaced from equilibrium. Stresses which can be attributed to the
deformation of a material from some rest state are called elastic stresses. In other materials, stresses
are present which can be attributed to the rate of change of the deformation over time. These are
called viscous stresses. For instance, in a fluid such as water the stresses which arise from shearing
the fluid do not depend on the distance the fluid has been sheared; rather, they depend on how
quickly the shearing occurs. Illustration of a planar Couette flow.
Since the shearing flow is opposed
Viscosity is the material property which relates the viscous stresses in a material to the rate of by friction between adjacent layers of
change of a deformation (the strain rate). Although it applies to general flows, it is easy to fluid (which are in relative motion), a
visualize and define in a simple shearing flow, such as a planar Couette flow. force is required to sustain the
motion of the upper plate. The
In the Couette flow, a fluid is trapped between two infinitely large plates, one fixed and one in relative strength of this force is a
parallel motion at constant speed (see illustration to the right). If the speed of the top plate is low measure of the fluid's viscosity.
enough (to avoid turbulence), then in steady state the fluid particles move parallel to it, and their
speed varies from at the bottom to at the top.[5] Each layer of fluid moves faster than the one
just below it, and friction between them gives rise to a force resisting their relative motion. In
particular, the fluid applies on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an
equal but opposite force on the bottom plate. An external force is therefore required in order to
keep the top plate moving at constant speed.

In many fluids, the flow velocity is observed to vary linearly from zero at the bottom to at the
top. Moreover, the magnitude of the force acting on the top plate is found to be proportional to
the speed and the area of each plate, and inversely proportional to their separation :

The proportionality factor is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, with units of (pascal- In a general parallel flow, the shear
second), often simply referred to as the viscosity. The ratio is called the rate of shear stress is proportional to the gradient
deformation or shear velocity, and is the derivative of the fluid speed in the direction perpendicular of the velocity.
to the plates (see illustrations to the right). If the velocity does not vary linearly with , then the
appropriate generalization is:

where , and is the local shear velocity. This expression is referred to as Newton's law of viscosity. In shearing flows with
planar symmetry, it is what defines . It is a special case of the general definition of viscosity (see below), which can be expressed in
coordinate-free form.

Use of the Greek letter mu ( ) for the dynamic viscosity (sometimes also called the absolute viscosity) is common among mechanical and
chemical engineers, as well as mathematicians and physicists.[6][7][8] However, the Greek letter eta ( ) is also used by chemists, physicists,
and the IUPAC.[9] The viscosity is sometimes also called the shear viscosity. However, at least one author discourages the use of this
terminology, noting that can appear in nonshearing flows in addition to shearing flows.[10]

General definition

In very general terms, the viscous stresses in a fluid are defined as those resulting from the relative velocity of different fluid particles. As
such, the viscous stresses must depend on spatial gradients of the flow velocity. If the velocity gradients are small, then to a first
approximation the viscous stresses depend only on the first derivatives of the velocity.[11] (For Newtonian fluids, this is also a linear
dependence.) In Cartesian coordinates, the general relationship can then be written as
where is a viscosity tensor that maps the velocity gradient tensor onto the viscous stress tensor .[12] Since the indices in
this expression can vary from 1 to 3, there are 81 "viscosity coefficients" in total. However, assuming that the viscosity rank-4 tensor
is isotropic reduces these 81 coefficients to three independent parameters , , :

and furthermore, it is assumed that no viscous forces may arise when the fluid is undergoing simple rigid-body rotation, thus ,
leaving only two independent parameters.[11] The most usual decomposition is in terms of the standard (scalar) viscosity and the bulk
viscosity such that and . In vector notation this appears as:

where is the unit tensor, and the dagger denotes the transpose.[10][13] This equation can be thought of as a generalized form of
Newton's law of viscosity.

The bulk viscosity (also called volume viscosity) expresses a type of internal friction that resists the shearless compression or expansion of
a fluid. Knowledge of is frequently not necessary in fluid dynamics problems. For example, an incompressible fluid satisfies
and so the term containing drops out. Moreover, is often assumed to be negligible for gases since it is in a monatomic ideal gas.[10]
One situation in which can be important is the calculation of energy loss in sound and shock waves, described by Stokes' law of sound
attenuation, since these phenomena involve rapid expansions and compressions.

It is worth emphasizing that the above expressions are not fundamental laws of nature, but rather definitions of viscosity. As such, their
utility for any given material, as well as means for measuring or calculating the viscosity, must be established using separate means.

Kinematic viscosity

In fluid dynamics, it is sometimes more convenient to work in terms of the kinematic viscosity (sometimes also called the momentum
diffusivity), defined as the ratio of the viscosity μ to the density of the fluid ρ. It is usually denoted by the Greek letter nu (ν) and has
dimension :

in order to distinguish it from the dynamic viscosity , which has dimension .

Momentum transport
Transport theory provides an alternative interpretation of viscosity in terms of momentum transport: viscosity is the material property which
characterizes momentum transport within a fluid, just as thermal conductivity characterizes heat transport, and (mass) diffusivity
characterizes mass transport.[14] To see this, note that in Newton's law of viscosity, , the shear stress has units equivalent
to a momentum flux, i.e. momentum per unit time per unit area. Thus, can be interpreted as specifying the flow of momentum in the
direction from one fluid layer to the next. Per Newton's law of viscosity, this momentum flow occurs across a velocity gradient, and the
magnitude of the corresponding momentum flux is determined by the viscosity.

The analogy with heat and mass transfer can be made explicit. Just as heat flows from high temperature to low temperature and mass flows
from high density to low density, momentum flows from high velocity to low velocity. These behaviors are all described by compact
expressions, called constitutive relations, whose one-dimensional forms are given here:
where is the density, and are the mass and heat fluxes, and and are the mass diffusivity and thermal conductivity.[15] The fact
that mass, momentum, and energy (heat) transport are among the most relevant processes in continuum mechanics is not a coincidence:
these are among the few physical quantities that are conserved at the microscopic level in interparticle collisions. Thus, rather than being
dictated by the fast and complex microscopic interaction timescale, their dynamics occurs on macroscopic timescales, as described by the
various equations of transport theory and hydrodynamics.

Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids

Newton's law of viscosity is not a fundamental law of nature, but rather a constitutive
equation (like Hooke's law, Fick's law, and Ohm's law) which serves to define the viscosity
. Its form is motivated by experiments which show that for a wide range of fluids, is
independent of strain rate. Such fluids are called Newtonian. Gases, water, and many
common liquids can be considered Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts. However,
there are many non-Newtonian fluids that significantly deviate from this behavior. For
example:

Shear-thickening liquids, whose viscosity increases with the rate of shear strain.
Shear-thinning liquids, whose viscosity decreases with the rate of shear strain.
Thixotropic liquids, that become less viscous over time when shaken, agitated,
or otherwise stressed.
Rheopectic (dilatant) liquids, that become more viscous over time when shaken,
agitated, or otherwise stressed. Viscosity, the slope of each line, varies
Bingham plastics that behave as a solid at low stresses but flow as a viscous among materials.
fluid at high stresses.

Trouton's ratio is the ratio of extensional viscosity to shear viscosity. For a Newtonian fluid, the Trouton ratio is 3.[16][17] Shear-thinning
liquids are very commonly, but misleadingly, described as thixotropic.[18]

Even for a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity usually depends on its composition and temperature. For gases and other compressible fluids, it
depends on temperature and varies very slowly with pressure. The viscosity of some fluids may depend on other factors. A
magnetorheological fluid, for example, becomes thicker when subjected to a magnetic field, possibly to the point of behaving like a solid.

In solids
The viscous forces that arise during fluid flow must not be confused with the elastic forces that arise in a solid in response to shear,
compression or extension stresses. While in the latter the stress is proportional to the amount of shear deformation, in a fluid it is
proportional to the rate of deformation over time. For this reason, Maxwell used the term fugitive elasticity for fluid viscosity.

However, many liquids (including water) will briefly react like elastic solids when subjected to sudden stress. Conversely, many "solids"
(even granite) will flow like liquids, albeit very slowly, even under arbitrarily small stress.[19] Such materials are therefore best described as
possessing both elasticity (reaction to deformation) and viscosity (reaction to rate of deformation); that is, being viscoelastic.

Viscoelastic solids may exhibit both shear viscosity and bulk viscosity. The extensional viscosity is a linear combination of the shear and
bulk viscosities that describes the reaction of a solid elastic material to elongation. It is widely used for characterizing polymers.

In geology, earth materials that exhibit viscous deformation at least three orders of magnitude greater than their elastic deformation are
sometimes called rheids.[20]

Measurement
Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers. A rheometer is used for fluids that cannot be defined by a single
value of viscosity and therefore require more parameters to be set and measured than is the case for a viscometer. Close temperature control
of the fluid is essential to obtain accurate measurements, particularly in materials like lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change
of only 5 °C.[21]

For some fluids, the viscosity is constant over a wide range of shear rates (Newtonian fluids). The fluids without a constant viscosity (non-
Newtonian fluids) cannot be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a variety of different correlations between shear
stress and shear rate.

One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer.

In coating industries, viscosity may be measured with a cup in which the efflux time is measured. There are several sorts of cup – such as
the Zahn cup and the Ford viscosity cup – with the usage of each type varying mainly according to the industry. The efflux time can also
be converted to kinematic viscosities (centistokes, cSt) through the conversion equations.
Also used in coatings, a Stormer viscometer uses load-based rotation in order to determine viscosity. The viscosity is reported in Krebs
units (KU), which are unique to Stormer viscometers.

Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity. Resonant, or vibrational viscometers work by creating shear waves within the
liquid. In this method, the sensor is submerged in the fluid and is made to resonate at a specific frequency. As the surface of the sensor
shears through the liquid, energy is lost due to its viscosity. This dissipated energy is then measured and converted into a viscosity reading.
A higher viscosity causes a greater loss of energy.

Extensional viscosity can be measured with various rheometers that apply extensional stress.

Volume viscosity can be measured with an acoustic rheometer.

Apparent viscosity is a calculation derived from tests performed on drilling fluid used in oil or gas well development. These calculations
and tests help engineers develop and maintain the properties of the drilling fluid to the specifications required.

Nanoviscosity (viscosity sensed by nanoprobes) can be measured by Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy.[22]

Units
The SI unit of dynamic viscosity is the newton-second per square meter (N·s/m2 ), also frequently expressed in the equivalent forms pascal-
second (Pa·s) and kilogram per meter per second (kg·m−1 ·s−1 ). The CGS unit is the poise (P, or g·cm−1 ·s−1 = 0.1 Pa·s),[23] named after
Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille. It is commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise (cP), because it is more
convenient (for instance the viscosity of water at 20 °C is about 1 cP), and one centipoise is equal to the SI millipascal second (mPa·s).

The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is square meter per second (m2 /s), whereas the CGS unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes (St, or
cm2 ·s−1 = 0.0001 m2 ·s−1 ), named after Sir George Gabriel Stokes.[24] In U.S. usage, stoke is sometimes used as the singular form. The
submultiple centistokes (cSt) is often used instead, 1 cSt = 1 mm2 ·s−1 = 10−6 m2 ·s−1 . The kinematic viscosity of water at 20 °C is about 1
cSt.

The most frequently used systems of US customary, or Imperial, units are the British Gravitational (BG) and English Engineering (EE). In
the BG system, dynamic viscosity has units of pound-seconds per square foot (lb·s/ft2 ), and in the EE system it has units of pound-force-
seconds per square foot (lbf·s/ft2 ). Note that the pound and pound-force are equivalent; the two systems differ only in how force and mass
are defined. In the BG system the pound is a basic unit from which the unit of mass (the slug) is defined by Newton's Second Law,
whereas in the EE system the units of force and mass (the pound-force and pound-mass respectively) are defined independently through
the Second Law using the proportionality constant gc.

Kinematic viscosity has units of square feet per second (ft2 /s) in both the BG and EE systems.

Nonstandard units include the reyn, a British unit of dynamic viscosity. In the automotive industry the viscosity index is used to describe
the change of viscosity with temperature.

The reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity, usually symbolized by or , depending on the convention used, measured in
−1 −1
reciprocal poise (P , or cm·s·g ), sometimes called the rhe. Fluidity is seldom used in engineering practice.

At one time the petroleum industry relied on measuring kinematic viscosity by means of the Saybolt viscometer, and expressing kinematic
viscosity in units of Saybolt universal seconds (SUS).[25] Other abbreviations such as SSU (Saybolt seconds universal) or SUV (Saybolt
universal viscosity) are sometimes used. Kinematic viscosity in centistokes can be converted from SUS according to the arithmetic and the
reference table provided in ASTM D 2161.

Molecular origins
In general, the viscosity of a system depends in detail on how the molecules constituting the system interact. There are no simple but
correct expressions for the viscosity of a fluid. The simplest exact expressions are the Green–Kubo relations for the linear shear viscosity or
the transient time correlation function expressions derived by Evans and Morriss in 1988.[26] Although these expressions are each exact,
calculating the viscosity of a dense fluid using these relations currently requires the use of molecular dynamics computer simulations. On
the other hand, much more progress can be made for a dilute gas. Even elementary assumptions about how gas molecules move and
interact lead to a basic understanding of the molecular origins of viscosity. More sophisticated treatments can be constructed by
systematically coarse-graining the equations of motion of the gas molecules. An example of such a treatment is Chapman–Enskog theory,
which derives expressions for the viscosity of a dilute gas from the Boltzmann equation.[27]

Momentum transport in gases is generally mediated by discrete molecular collisions, and in liquids by attractive forces which bind
molecules close together.[14] Because of this, the dynamic viscosities of liquids are typically much larger than those of gases.

Pure gases
 Elementary calculation of viscosity for a dilute gas

Consider a dilute gas moving parallel to the -axis with velocity

that depends only on the coordinate. To simplify the discussion, the
gas is assumed to have uniform temperature and density.

Under these assumptions, the velocity of a molecule passing

through is equal to whatever velocity that molecule had when its
mean free path began. Because is typically small compared with
macroscopic scales, the average velocity of such a molecule has
the form

where is a numerical constant on the order of . (Some authors

estimate ;[14][28] on the other hand, a more careful calculation
for rigid elastic spheres gives .) Now, because half the
molecules on either side are moving towards , and doing so on
average with half the average molecular speed , the
momentum flux from either side is

The net momentum flux at is the difference of the two:

According to the definition of viscosity, this momentum flux should be

equal to , which leads to

Viscosity in gases arises principally from the molecular diffusion that transports momentum between layers of flow. An elementary
calculation for a dilute gas at temperature and density gives

where is the Boltzmann constant, the molecular mass, and a numerical constant on the order of . The quantity , the mean free
path, measures the average distance a molecule travels between collisions. Even without a priori knowledge of , this expression has
interesting implications. In particular, since is typically inversely proportional to density and increases with temperature, itself should
increase with temperature and be independent of density at fixed temperature. In fact, both of these predictions persist in more sophisticated
treatments, and accurately describe experimental observations. Note that this behavior runs counter to common intuition regarding liquids,
for which viscosity typically decreases with temperature.[14][28]

For rigid elastic spheres of diameter , can be computed, giving

In this case is independent of temperature, so . For more complicated molecular models, however, depends on temperature
in a non-trivial way, and simple kinetic arguments as used here are inadequate. More fundamentally, the notion of a mean free path
becomes imprecise for particles that interact over a finite range, which limits the usefulness of the concept for describing real-world
gases.[29]

Chapman–Enskog theory
A technique developed by Sydney Chapman and David Enskog in the early 1900s allows a more refined calculation of .[27] It is based
on the Boltzmann equation, which provides a systematic statistical description of a dilute gas in terms of intermolecular interactions.[30] As
such, their technique allows accurate calculation of for more realistic molecular models, such as those incorporating intermolecular
attraction rather than just hard-core repulsion.

It turns out that a more realistic modeling of interactions is essential for accurate prediction of the temperature dependence of , which
experiments show increases more rapidly than the trend predicted for rigid elastic spheres.[14] Indeed, the Chapman–Enskog analysis
shows that the predicted temperature dependence can be tuned by varying the parameters in various molecular models. A simple example
is the Sutherland model,[a] which describes rigid elastic spheres with weak mutual attraction. In such a case, the attractive force can be
treated perturbatively, which leads to a particularly simple expression for :

where is independent of temperature, being determined only by the parameters of the intermolecular attraction. To connect with
experiment, it is convenient to rewrite as

where is the viscosity at temperature .[31] If is known from experiments at and at least one other temperature, then can
be calculated. It turns out that expressions for obtained in this way are accurate for a number of gases over a sizable range of
temperatures. On the other hand, Chapman & Cowling 1970 argue that this success does not imply that molecules actually interact
according to the Sutherland model. Rather, they interpret the prediction for as a simple interpolation which is valid for some gases over
fixed ranges of temperature, but otherwise does not provide a picture of intermolecular interactions which is fundamentally correct and
general. Slightly more sophisticated models, such as the Lennard-Jones potential, may provide a better picture, but only at the cost of a
more opaque dependence on temperature. In some systems the assumption of spherical symmetry must be abandoned as well, as is the case
for vapors with highly polar molecules like H2 O.[32][33]

Bulk viscosity

In the kinetic-molecular picture, a non-zero bulk viscosity arises in gases whenever there are non-negligible relaxational timescales
governing the exchange of energy between the translational energy of molecules and their internal energy, e.g. rotational and vibrational.
As such, the bulk viscosity is for a monatomic ideal gas, in which the internal energy of molecules in negligible, but is nonzero for a gas
like carbon dioxide, whose molecules possess both rotational and vibrational energy.[34][35]

Pure liquids

In contrast with gases, there is no simple yet accurate picture for the molecular origins of viscosity
in liquids.

At the simplest level of description, the relative motion of adjacent layers in a liquid is opposed
primarily by attractive molecular forces acting across the layer boundary. In this picture, one
(correctly) expects viscosity to decrease with increasing temperature. This is because increasing
temperature increases the random thermal motion of the molecules, which makes it easier for them
to overcome their attractive interactions.[36]

Building on this visualization, a simple theory can be constructed in analogy with the discrete
structure of a solid: groups of molecules in a liquid are visualized as forming "cages" which
surround and enclose single molecules.[37] These cages can be occupied or unoccupied, and
stronger molecular attraction corresponds to stronger cages. Due to random thermal motion, a
molecule "hops" between cages at a rate which varies inversely with the strength of molecular
attractions. In equilibrium these "hops" are not biased in any direction. On the other hand, in order
for two adjacent layers to move relative to each other, the "hops" must be biased in the direction of Play media
the relative motion. The force required to sustain this directed motion can be estimated for a given Video showing three liquids with
shear rate, leading to different viscosities

(1)

where is the Avogadro constant, is the Planck constant, is the volume of a mole of liquid, and is the normal boiling point. This
result has the same form as the widespread and accurate empirical relation
 Play media
Experiment showing the behavior of
a viscous fluid with blue dye for
visibility

(2)

where and are constants fit from data.[37][38] On the other hand, several authors express caution with respect to this model. Errors as
large as 30% can be encountered using equation (1), compared with fitting equation (2) to experimental data.[37] More fundamentally, the
physical assumptions underlying equation (1) have been criticized.[39] It has also been argued that the exponential dependence in equation
(1) does not necessarily describe experimental observations more accurately than simpler, non-exponential expressions.[40][41]

In light of these shortcomings, the development of a less ad hoc model is a matter of practical interest. Foregoing simplicity in favor of
precision, it is possible to write rigorous expressions for viscosity starting from the fundamental equations of motion for molecules. A
classic example of this approach is Irving–Kirkwood theory.[42] On the other hand, such expressions are given as averages over
multiparticle correlation functions and are therefore difficult to apply in practice.

In general, empirically derived expressions (based on existing viscosity measurements) appear to be the only consistently reliable means of
calculating viscosity in liquids.[43]

Mixtures and blends

Gaseous mixtures

The same molecular-kinetic picture of a single component gas can also be applied to a gaseous mixture. For instance, in the Chapman–
Enskog approach the viscosity of a binary mixture of gases can be written in terms of the individual component viscosities , their
respective volume fractions, and the intermolecular interactions.[27] As for the single-component gas, the dependence of on the
parameters of the intermolecular interactions enters through various collisional integrals which may not be expressible in terms of
elementary functions. To obtain usable expressions for which reasonably match experimental data, the collisional integrals typically
must be evaluated using some combination of analytic calculation and empirical fitting. An example of such a procedure is the Sutherland
approach for the single-component gas, discussed above.

Blends of liquids

As for pure liquids, the viscosity of a blend of liquids is difficult to predict from molecular principles. One method is to extend the
molecular "cage" theory presented above for a pure liquid. This can be done with varying levels of sophistication. One useful expression
resulting from such an analysis is the Lederer–Roegiers equation for a binary mixture:

where is an empirical parameter, and and are the respective mole fractions and viscosities of the component liquids.[44]

Since blending is an important process in the lubricating and oil industries, a variety of empirical and propriety equations exist for
predicting the viscosity of a blend, besides those stemming directly from molecular theory.[44]

Solutions and suspensions

Aqeuous solutions

Depending on the solute and range of concentration, an aqueous electrolyte solution can have either a larger or smaller viscosity compared
with pure water at the same temperature and pressure. For instance, a 20% saline (sodium chloride) solution has viscosity over 1.5 times
that of pure water, whereas a 20% potassium iodide solution has viscosity about 0.91 times that of pure water.
An idealized model of dilute electrolytic solutions leads to the following prediction for the viscosity of a solution:[45]

where is the viscosity of the solvent, is the concentration, and is a positive constant which depends on both solvent and solute
properties. However, this expression is only valid for very dilute solutions, having less than 0.1 mol/L.[46] For higher concentrations,
additional terms are necessary which account for higher-order molecular correlations:

where and are fit from data. In particular, a negative value of is able to account for the decrease in viscosity observed in some
solutions. Estimated values of these constants are shown below for sodium chloride and potassium iodide at temperature 25 °C (mol =
mole, L = liter).[45]

Solute (mol−1/2 L1/2) (mol−1 L) (mol−2 L2)

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 0.0062 0.0793 0.0080
Potassium iodide (KI) 0.0047 −0.0755 0.0000

Suspensions

In a suspension of solid particles (e.g. micron-size spheres suspended in oil), an effective viscosity can be defined in terms of stress
and strain components which are averaged over a volume large compared with the distance between the suspended particles, but small
with respect to macroscopic dimensions.[47] Such suspensions generally exhibit non-Newtonian behavior. However, for dilute systems in
steady flows, the behavior is Newtonian and expressions for can be derived directly from the particle dynamics. In a very dilute
system, with volume fraction , interactions between the suspended particles can be ignored. In such a case one can explicitly
calculate the flow field around each particle independently, and combine the results to obtain . For spheres, this results in the Einstein
equation:

where is the viscosity of the suspending liquid. The linear dependence on is a direct consequence of neglecting interparticle
interactions; in general, one will have

where the coefficient may depend on the particle shape (e.g. spheres, rods, disks).[48] Experimental determination of the precise value of
is difficult, however: even the prediction for spheres has not been conclusively validated, with various experiments finding
values in the range . This deficiency has been attributed to difficulty in controlling experimental conditions.[49]

In denser suspensions, acquires a nonlinear dependence on , which indicates the importance of interparticle interactions. Various
analytical and semi-empirical schemes exist for capturing this regime. At the most basic level, a term quadratic in is added to :

and the coefficient is fit from experimental data or approximated from the microscopic theory. In general, however, one should be
cautious in applying such simple formulas since non-Newtonian behavior appears in dense suspensions ( for spheres),[49] or in
suspensions of elongated or flexible particles. [47]

There is a distinction between a suspension of solid particles, described above, and an emulsion. The latter is a suspension of tiny droplets,
which themselves may exhibit internal circulation. The presence of internal circulation can noticeably decrease the observed effective
viscosity, and different theoretical or semi-empirical models must be used.[50]

Amorphous materials

In the high and low temperature limits, viscous flow in amorphous materials (e.g. in glasses and melts)[52][53][54] has the Arrhenius form:
where Q is a relevant activation energy, given in terms of molecular
parameters; T is temperature; R is the molar gas constant; and A is
approximately a constant. The activation energy Q takes a different
value depending on whether the high or low temperature limit is
being considered: it changes from a high value QH at low
temperatures (in the glassy state) to a low value QL at high
temperatures (in the liquid state).

For intermediate temperatures, varies nontrivially with temperature

and the simple Arrhenius form fails. On the other hand, the two-
exponential equation

where , , , are all constants, provides a good fit to Common glass viscosity curves[51]
experimental data over the entire range of temperatures, while at the
same time reducing to the correct Arrhenius form in the low and high
temperature limits. Besides being a convenient fit to data, the expression can also be derived
from various theoretical models of amorphous materials at the atomic level.[53]

A two-exponential equation for the viscosity can be derived within the Dyre shoving model
of supercooled liquids, where the Arrhenius energy barrier is identified with the high-
frequency shear modulus times a characteristic shoving volume.[55] Upon specifying the
temperature dependence of the shear modulus via thermal expansion and via the repulsive
part of the intermolecular potential, another two-exponential equation is retrieved:[56]

Common logarithm of viscosity against

temperature for B2O3, showing two
regimes
where denotes the high-frequency shear modulus of the material evaluated at a
temperature equal to the glass transition temperature , is the so-called shoving volume,
i.e. it is the characteristic volume of the group of atoms involved in the shoving event by which an atom/molecule escapes from the cage of
nearest-neighbours, typically on the order of the volume occupied by few atoms. Furthermore, is the thermal expansion coefficient of
the material, is a parameter which measures the steepness of the power-law rise of the ascending flank of the first peak of the radial
distribution function, and is quantitatively related to the repulsive part of the interatomic potential.[56] Finally, denotes the Boltzmann
constant.

Eddy viscosity

In the study of turbulence in fluids, a common practical strategy is to ignore the small-scale vortices (or eddies) in the motion and to
calculate a large-scale motion with an effective viscosity, called the "eddy viscosity", which characterizes the transport and dissipation of
energy in the smaller-scale flow (see large eddy simulation).[57][58] In contrast to the viscosity of the fluid itself, which must be positive by
the second law of thermodynamics, the eddy viscosity can be negative.[59][60]

Selected substances
Observed values of viscosity vary over several orders of magnitude, even for common substances (see the order of magnitude table below).
For instance, a 70% sucrose (sugar) solution has a viscosity over 400 times that of water, and 26000 times that of air.[62] More dramatically,
pitch has been estimated to have a viscosity 230 billion times that of water.[61]

Water

The dynamic viscosity of water is about 0.89 mPa·s at room temperature (25 °C). As a function of temperature in kelvins, the viscosity
can be estimated using the semi-empirical Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann equation:

where A = 0.02939 mPa·s, B = 507.88 K, and C = 149.3 K.[63] Experimentally determined values of the viscosity are also given in the
table below. Note that at 20 °C the dynamic viscosity is about 1 cP and the kinematic viscosity is about 1 cSt.
 Viscosity of water
at various temperatures[62]
Temperature (°C) Viscosity (mPa·s or cP)
10 1.3059
20 1.0016
30 0.79722
50 0.54652
70 0.40355
90 0.31417

Air
In the University of
Queensland pitch drop
Under standard atmospheric conditions (25 °C and pressure of 1 bar), the dynamic viscosity of air is
experiment, pitch has been
18.5 μPa·s, roughly 50 times smaller than the viscosity of water at the same temperature. Except at very
dripping slowly through a
high pressure, the viscosity of air depends mostly on the temperature. Among the many possible funnel since 1927, at a rate
approximate formulas for the temperature dependence (see Temperature dependence of viscosity), one of one drop roughly every
is:[64] decade. In this way the
viscosity of pitch has been
determined to be
approximately 230 billion
which is accurate in the range -20 °C to 400 °C. For this formula to be valid, the temperature must be (2.3 × 1011) times that of
given in kelvins; then corresponds to the viscosity in Pa·s. water.[61]

Other common substances

Substance Viscosity (mPa·s) Temperature (°C) Ref.

Benzene 0.604 25
Water 1.0016 20 [62]

Mercury 1.526 25

Whole milk 2.12 20 [65]

Dark beer 2.53 20 [66]

Olive oil 56.2 26 [65]

Honey 2000–10000 20 [67]

Ketchup[b] 5000–20000 25 [68]

Honey being drizzled
Peanut butter[b] 104–106 [69]

Pitch 2.3 × 1011 10–30 (variable) [61]

Order of magnitude estimates

The following table illustrates the range of viscosity values observed in common substances. Unless otherwise noted, a temperature of
25 °C and a pressure of 1 atmosphere are assumed. Certain substances of variable composition or with non-Newtonian behavior are not
assigned precise values, since in these cases viscosity depends on additional factors besides temperature and pressure.
Factor (Pa·s) Description Examples Values (Pa·s) Ref.

Butane 7.49 × 10−6 [70]

10−6 Lower range of gaseous viscosity
Hydrogen 8.8 × 10−6 [71]

Krypton 2.538 × 10−5

10−5 Upper range of gaseous viscosity [72]
Neon 3.175 × 10−5

Pentane 2.24 × 10−4 [62]

10−4 Lower range of liquid viscosity Gasoline 6 × 10−4

Water 8.90 × 10−4

Ethanol 1.074 × 10−3 [62]

Typical range for small-molecule Mercury 1.526 × 10−3

10−3 Newtonian liquids
Whole milk (20 °C) 2.12 × 10−3 [65]

Blood 4 × 10−3
Linseed oil 0.028

Olive oil 0.084 [65]

SAE 10 Motor oil 0.085 to 0.14

Castor oil 0.1
10−2 – 100 Oils and long-chain hydrocarbons SAE 20 Motor oil 0.14 to 0.42
SAE 30 Motor oil 0.42 to 0.65
SAE 40 Motor oil 0.65 to 0.90
Glycerine 1.5
Pancake syrup 2.5

Ketchup [68]
≈ 101
Mustard
Pastes, gels, and other semisolids
101 – 103 (generally non-Newtonian)
Sour cream
≈ 102
Peanut butter [69]

Lard ≈ 103

≈108 Viscoelastic polymers Pitch 2.3 × 108 [61]

Certain solids under a viscoelastic

≈1021 Mantle (geology) ≈ 1019 to 1024 [73]
description

See also
Dashpot Kaye effect
Deborah number Microviscosity
Dilatant Morton number
Herschel–Bulkley fluid Oil pressure
High viscosity mixer Quasi-solid
Hyperviscosity syndrome Rheology
Intrinsic viscosity Stokes flow
Inviscid flow Superfluid helium-4
Joback method (estimation of liquid viscosity from Viscoplasticity
molecular structure) Viscosity models for mixtures

References

Footnotes
a. The discussion which follows draws from Chapman & Cowling 1970, pp. 232–237
b. These materials are highly non-Newtonian.
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(4): 372–377. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.12.017 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jfoodeng.2004.12.017).
Zhmud, Boris (2014). "Viscosity Blending Equations" (http://
www.lube-media.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Lube-
Tech093-ViscosityBlendingEquations.pdf) (PDF). Lube-
Tech:93. Lube. No. 121. pp. 22–27.

External links
Fluid properties (http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/fluid/) – high accuracy calculation of viscosity for frequently
encountered pure liquids and gases
Gas viscosity calculator as function of temperature (http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/calculators/physical-properties/gas-
viscosity/)
Air viscosity calculator as function of temperature and pressure (http://www.enggcyclopedia.com/calculators/physical-pro
perties/air-viscosity-calculator/)
Fluid Characteristics Chart (http://www.engineersedge.com/fluid_flow/fluid_data.htm) – a table of viscosities and vapor
pressures for various fluids
Gas Dynamics Toolbox (http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~alexeenk/GDT/index.html) – calculate coefficient of viscosity for
mixtures of gases
Glass Viscosity Measurement (http://glassproperties.com/viscosity/ViscosityMeasurement.htm) – viscosity measurement,
viscosity units and fixpoints, glass viscosity calculation
Kinematic Viscosity (https://web.archive.org/web/20100113072736/http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/k/i/kinem
atic%20viscosity/source.html) – conversion between kinematic and dynamic viscosity
Physical Characteristics of Water (http://www.thermexcel.com/english/tables/eau_atm.htm) – a table of water viscosity as
a function of temperature
Vogel–Tammann–Fulcher Equation Parameters (http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0953-8984/12/46/305)
Calculation of temperature-dependent dynamic viscosities for some common components (http://ddbonline.ddbst.de/Vog
elCalculation/VogelCalculationCGI.exe)
 "Test Procedures for Testing Highway and Nonroad Engines and Omnibus Technical Amendments" (http://www.epa.gov/
EPA-AIR/2005/July/Day-13/a11534d.htm) – United States Environmental Protection Agency
Artificial viscosity (http://www.astro.uu.se/~bf/course/numhd_course/2_5_2Artificial_viscosity.html)
Viscosity of Air, Dynamic and Kinematic, Engineers Edge (https://www.engineersedge.com/physics/viscosity_of_air_dyn
amic_and_kinematic_14483.htm)

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