Syllabus

UNIT-I
BLOCK SCHEMATICS OF MEASURING SYSTEMS AND PERFORMANCE METRICS

Performance characteristics, Static characteristics, Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, Types of errors, Gaussian
error, Root sum squares formula, Dynamic characteristics, Repeatability, Reproducibility, Fidelity, Lag.

UNIT-II
SIGNAL GENERATORS.

AF, RF signal gene_rators, Sweep frequency generators, Pulse and square wave generators, Function
generators, Arbitrary waveform generator and specifications.

UNIT-Ill
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

D.C voltmeters, D'Arsonval -movement, D.C current meters, A.C voltmeters and current meters, Ohmmeters,
Multimeters, Meter protection, Extension of range, True RMS responding voltmeters, Specifications of
instruments. CRT, Block schematic of CRO, Time base circuits, Lissajous figures, CRO probes.

UNIT-IV ,
RECORDERS

X-Y plotter, Curve tracer, Galvanometric recorders, Servo transducers, Pen driving mechanisms, Magnetic ·
recording, Magnetic recording te·chniques.

·UNIT-V
TRANSDUCERS

Classification, .Strain gauges, Bounded, -Unbounded, Force and disp_lacement transducers, Resistance
thermometers, Hotwire anemometers, LVDT, Thermocouples, Synchros, Special resistance thermometers,
Digital temperature sensing system, Piezoelectric transducers, Variable capacitance transducers, Magneto
strictive.transducers.

I
 UNIT _a.L OCK SCHEMATICS OF
:MEASURING SYSTEMS AND
PERFORMANCE METRIC~ S14 GROUP

PART-A .
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. What are the objectives of measure1J1ent? Explain.

Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(b)

· The term "Measurement" is an act of 1comparing the two quantities i.e., one unknown quantity with a known standard.
The process of converting a physical parameter into a numerical value is called measurement. Measurement plays a vital role in
achieving the objectives and goals in all branches of engineering.
The objectives of measurement are,
1. · It provides a proof to·the method employed and the apparatus ~sed.
2. Provides accuracy of the parameter being measured: ,
3. To determine the authenticity of the design. •
4. It maintains the data, which is to be used for further evaluations.
5. It analyzes the capacity of the instrument such as volume, size, magnitude in advance. ,·
6. Maintenance of proper operation.
Measll(ements involves different types of instruments, which is based on the data being us~d. The data used iri the instru-
ments can be a steady state data, dynamic data or a transient data depending upon the application being required.
Thus, measurements are requited in all types of fields such as engineering, meteorology , biomedical, radar engineering,
instrumentation etc., for better and accurate results.
Q2. What are the advantages of instrumentati9.n system? Explain.
Ans: ,
The ~easurements involving with various physical parameters with the help of sensors, transducers etc., is known as
Instrumentation.
The instrumentation systems is a group of physical instruments designed to give a desired output. The electronic amplifier,
steam turbine, satellite etc., are examples of instrumentation systems, which in turn composed of inany devices.
The various advantages of instrumentation systems are,
1. Process and operations monitoring.
2. Measurement of the quantities which are at a greater distances.
3. Accurate and precise measurements.
4. Process control.
s. Experimental engineering analysis.
6. Measurement of parameters in unfavourable conditions'.
7. It provides the ease of data recording, printouts ,etc.
8. The various components are integrated on a suitable device, hence reduce the size of an instrument.
9. It gathers•the information from the remo!e areas and can change_the field parameters if required.

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 1.2 URING INS TR UM EN TS [JN
ELECTRONIC MEAS TU -HY DE ~
QJ. Def ine err or and Exp ect ed Tl1 accuracy of the who le sys A~~
val ue. (; · ·d
tem dep end ~\
An s: . f each · I . tr
10d1v1 ua ms um ents in ths u
ccurac1es o f h Pon"
Mod el Pape r-Ill, Q1(a) a II .
Err or: In any dev ice, whe n the Genera Y, the acc. ura cyf o h t ·e inst rum ent dep at sYstc,~ ,
tural limitat10ns o t e ms trum
valu e of mea sura nd dilTers from
measured value or indicated the na . ent as Wellends llpo·,
its true value then this differ- in the meh sure men t pro cess .
enc e betw een the mea sure d valu shortcomings · as on tk'
e and true value is refl!rred as . '
erro r. . Consider the mea sure men t of
Example. Th kno wn cli
·
In an idea l dev ice the erro r is 20 mm w1·th a micrometer. e mic rom eter is said. anieter"'
zero i.e., the output is accurate de vice if its outp ut clos e 1y reac hes true dia to 1.. • 1

Ineter •~
alw ays equ al to the true valu . vc
e of the measurand. When the 20.01 or 19.99.
mea sure d valu e exc eed s the true l.c,
valu e of measurand the error
is said to be pos itiv e. By min imi · The micrometer is said to be an
zing the erro r of the device, its inac cura te dev· ..
acc ura cy can be increased. outpu t m. dicates a value wh1.c h ,s . f: fr
ar om true diarn ice if ·
t
Exp ect ed Val ue: It is noth ing 20.4 or 19.5. e er i,ct~
but the design value. It is the ·,
mo st pos sibl e valu e that com Q7. ·Define precision wit h sui tab le exa mp 1;- -.-
put atio ns des crib e one should
exp ect to mea sure :
.
Ans :
Q4 . De fine res olu tion wit h exa
mp l~. Precision: The instruments abil ity
An s: t~ rep rod uce a certain grou
ofreadings within a given acc urac
Mod el Pape r-I, Q1(b} y 1s kno wn as precision i P
Res olu tion : Resolution of a mea if a number of measurements are
suri ng inst rum ent can be stated mad e on the sa~ e true v~i:;•
as 'any sma lles t incr eme nt in then the degree .o f closeness of
the mea sure d vari able that can thes e mea sure men ts is called
be noti ced or detected by that inst precision. •.
rum ent with certainty'. If an
inst rum ent has high reso luti on then Precision of an inst rum ent dep
it can distinguish very small end s upo n the random
cha nge s in the input qua ntit y. errors. It refers to the ability of an
inst rum ent to give its read.
Exa mp le: Con side r a mer cury ings again and again in sam e man
glas s ther mom eter is kept at a ner f?r con stan t input signals.
tem pera ture of2 l O°C. lfth e ther Instruments having high acc urac y
mom eter requires an alteration sho uld also be highly precise.
of ± 0.21 °C at 210 °C to indi cate Example: Con side r the sam e exa
the ther mom eter at a slight mp le of measurement of
cha nge then the resolution of known diameter of 20 mm wit h a
the ther mom eter in percentage mic rom eter .
is give n as,. 0

Let the mea sure men t is con duc ted

sev eral times [say9
times] under specified con diti on wit
h in a giv en accuracy and if
the outputs indicated.by the mic rom
% Res olut ion = ±0.2 l °C x 100 eter are 19.91, 19.92, 19.91,
= + 0.1 % 19.93, 19.92, 19.93, 19.91, 19.9 2,
210 °c - 19.9 4.
Q5. De fin e sta tic cha rac ter isti Then the mic rom eter is said to hav
cs and dyn am ic e hig h precision since
cha rac teri stic s. all the output values are clos e to
eac h other.
An s: If the outputs indi cate d by the
mic.rometer are 19.91,
Sta tic Cha rac teri stic s: The cha 19.5, 19.1, 19.75, 19.25, 19.36,
racteristic~ whi ch describe the 19.4 2, 19.8 5.
perf orm anc e of mea suri ng inst rum ·The_n the mic rom eter is said to hav
ents os medical instruments e low precision since
whe n sub ject ed to low freq uen the output values are not clos e ~o
cy inpu ts or D.C inputs are eac h other.
refe rred to as static cha ract eris tics
. as. Define static err or and sta tic correc
Dyn ami c Characteristics: The tion.
characteristics ofa n instrument An s:
whi ch are con side red whi le· mea Mod el Paper-II, 011 1
'
suri ng a quantity that varies .
with time (i.e. measurand is time Static Error: Static.
-variant) are known as dynamic erro r is defi ned as the alge brai.c umerical
characteristics. The dyn ami c cha difference between the valu e obt n fthe
racteristics are determined from aine d by
the mat hem atic al model of the . and
quantity
mea sure men t O 11'11
syst em i.e., a differential equa- the true valu e ofth e sam e quantit 1· ~~
tion of first ord er or seco nd ord y. tis a
er with con stan t coefficients. as absolute static erro r of qua ntit
y A.
Q6 . Def ine acc ura cy wit h
sui tab le exa mp les .. 6A =A -A
m t
An s: . Where, .A m = Me asu red valu e of
qua ntit y
Acc ura cy: The clos ene ss of the
mea sure d valu e with respect A = Tru e valu e of sam e qua
to the true valu e is call ed as accu • ntit y .
. e~,\
I
racy.
Static Cor rec tion : It is defi ned . nUJll
Acc ura cy is influenced by the affe d1.ffierence betw · as the alge brai c th vatue
cts of disturbing inputs · and e
een the true valu e of the qua ntit
suc h as tem per atur e, hum idit y y
and also by the.limits of intrinsic obtained by the mea sure men t of
erro rs and inst abil ity of natural the sam e quantity.
zero. U:nder certai_n ·operating
con diti ons acc ura cy can also 6C c;:A -A
be dete rmm ed by calibrating. • I m

Wh ere, 6C = Stat ic cor rec tion

= - &A
Lo ok for the SI A GR OU
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you bUY

, ,
uNIT-1 Block Schematics of Measuring Systems and Performance Metrics 1.3
__..--_
Q . What is meant by relative error? Accuracy = I ~ (Relative error)
9
Ans: • Model Paper-I, Q1(a) A I -E ,
Rclnfive Error: The rdat1vc error is defined os the ratio of the
% Accuracy = A , I00 - ( I - e ,) x l 00
slot ic error to the true quanht). Rclattve error is also known as
~JcliC1nol error. {ii) Average Deviation
6A
Rclat1vc error, E, ..;: - The average deviation of a set of readings is defined as
A, the ratio of sum of absolute values of individual deviations to
• Where, Er - Relative error the total number of readings.

BA "'""Am -A,= Static error i.e.,

A, = True quantity
0 10. Define the following terms:
(i) Absolute error Where,
(ii) Percentage error. Jd1l, Jd2J... are absolute values of deviations
Ans: d1, d2 . .. n = Total number of readings.
{i) Absolute Error: It is defined as the difference between
The precision of a measuring device may be determined
the measured value and true value of the measurand.
Absolute error is denoted by E 0 and is given by the from the average deviation of a set of readings obtained from
following equation, the same measuring device. The precision of the instrument is
inversely related to average deviation i.e., low value of average
E 0 =xm -xI deviation indicates that the instrument is highly precise.
I

Where, xm = Measured value Q12. Define repeatability and give its importance.
x, = True value or expected value
Ans:
The absolute error E O can be either positive or negative.
Repeatability: Repeatability can be defined as the closeness
(ii) Percenta ge Error: Percentage error is given as follows, of agreement between successive or group of measurement for
Percentage error - % e, = e, x I 00 the same input quantity using same instrument under the same
operating conditions over a short period of time.
Where,
. It can also be stated as variation of scale re~ding and is
E, is the relative error and is equal to the ratio ofabsolute
random in nature.
error to the true value.
Importance: Repeatabi I ity is one of the most desired
J.C .• characteristics of any instrument or transducer. It describes the
performance standard of the transducer. As the transducers are
I lcnce. being employed in continuous control operations, repeatability
of the transducer is very important than the accuracy of the
transducer in order to obtain consistency in the quality of the
Percentage e , =e , x 100 product.

TI1e percentage error represents the amount of error with Q13. Define reproducibility and give its Importance.
respect to true value of' the measurand. Ans: Model Paper-Ill, Q1(b)·
Q11. Define the following terms:
Reproducibility: It can be defined as the degree of closeness
(i) Percentage of Accuracy with which a given value of variable is repeatedly measured
under different operating conditions at different times. The
(ii) Average deviation.
different operating conditions may include different locations,
Ans: different instruments, different operations etc.
(i) Percentage of Accuracy Importance: Reproducibility is one of the desirable
Accuracy is defined as the closeness of the measured characteristics every instrument should have. Good
value to lhe true value of the quantity being measured. Usually, reproducibility characteristic ensures interchangeability
the accuracy of an instrument is expressed in terms of error. of transducers and instruments. It also helps to check the
~thematically, Accuracy (A) is given as, consistency over prolonged periods of time at different areas.

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, 1.4
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~
'
-

PART-8
::,T
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH soLU IO
..:._:_. ,, _______
-, s
~N
ASURIHG SYSTEMS
1.1,
BLOCK SCHEMATICS Of ME d explain the sam
e.
Q14. D raw the block schematic o f a data process instrumen t afon
1 system an
•
Dec .•11 Stt
•' -l, ~
OR
. the function of each stage of this sy8
Draw the block diagram of measuring system and explain M tel'll.
~s- ~~
. . . • the magnitude of an unknown quantity Th
-~~

Measurmg System: Measurement may be defined as the process ofdetennirung . 1 1 which is proportional to th. em~
obi .. t f . 'd a oumenca va ue, e qUa
Jee 1vc o measurement system or measuring instrument 1s to provi ~ . s elements through which the measurin Oli~
of the vnnable bemg measured. Therefore a measurement system contams vanoumeasuring· . · · h · fi g PrOccts
• . ' . process 1s s own m . gure_ •
is carried out. The basic block diagram representation of a measunng system or _____
Data stora~
and
playback
element
Data conditioning element
r-------- ---- ------- ---- -------:
Pbys x:al :'' - - - - ~ - - - - , ''' Data Data
Primary : Variable Variable :
parameter to transmission presentation
sensing ' conversion ma nipulation
be measured element element element element
element 1
(meas w-dnd) I
I
I

~---------------- ----------- ---

Figure: Various Stages of a Measurement System or Measuring Process
Functions
J. Primary Sensing Element: It is the fi rst element"i n any instrumentatiorl and measurement system. ~e function of this
clement is to sense the measured (phys ica l parameter to be measured) and produce an output that corresponds to the quanti~
of applied input.
2. Vorinblc Conversion Element: The varia ble conversion element is nothing but a transducer. It accepts the output of primacy
sensmg element and converts into an electrical quantity without changing the actual signal (value of the measured).
3. Va riable Mnnipu lntlon Element: The electrical output of variable .conversion element can be a frequency, voltage,
current or any other electrical parameter of low magnitude and sometimes it may not be suitable for further operations in
the system. Therefore. the variable manipu lation element is used to manipulate (modify) the output of variable conversion
element such that it can be accepted by other elements.
One of the examples of variable manipulation element is an electrical amplifier. It amplifies the signal applied to it. In
other words. it increases the electrical signal of low magnitude to high magnitude signal.
Not only the amplification but also the operations like addition, substraction, integration, differentiation, attenuation etc.,
are done by this element.
This element and variable conversion element together are called as data conditioning or signal conditioning element.
4. Data Transmission Element: The function of this element is to transmit the measured signal from one place to another,
i.e., to transfer the measured signal from the fie ld to control station.
5. Da ta Presentation Eleme~t_: Data _presentation element is used to present (display) the value of the measured quan;:
to the op:rator. There~ore, 1t 1s possible fo r an operator to monitor, control and analyze the data. Simple examples of
presentation elements arc, ·
(i) Movement of pointer over a calibrated scale.
(ii) R ecording of m ovement of poi nter on the graph sheet.
6. . Data Storage and ~layback Elemen~: This e_lement is used to record and store the information about the rneasured
quantity. Also it provides the recorded mformat1on to the operator whenever required. _.,,/

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UNIT-1 Block Schematics of Measuring Systems and Performance Metrics
~ What is th~ difference between secondary standards and working standards?
Ans:
- Secondary Standards
The measurement standard that are compared
I.
with primary standards are known as secondary
standards.
2. These are the basic reference standards used for
the measurement in industrial laboratories.
3. These are checked against other reference
standards for attaining better accuracy.
4. These are widely found in some government,
industrial and university laboratories.
5. Secondary standards are used to check and ,
calibrate working standards.
6. These standards are usually fixed standards used
in industrial laboratories.
7. Highly accurate·.
Q16. Compare analog and digital instruments in all respects.
Ans:
Analog Instrument
' '
I. The instrument which varies cohtinuously and
dependent upon the quantity being changed is
analog instrument.
2. It can have infinite number of outputs.
3. The analog instruments are less precised
instruments.
4. The analog signals like voltage, current, power etc.,
carry the information in analog instruments.
~- The devices such as pointers, strip chart recorders,
graph paper etc., are used to display the output.
6. The errors produced in analog in~truments are
caused due to the friction, tension and spring.
7. These type bf instruments are not convenient for
readout.
8. These instruments are more flexible.
~
9. Deflection type of pressure g·auge, panel meters,
level indicators are some examples of analog
instruments.
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Working Standards
l. The measurement standard (hat are used to compare
or check the readings of the measuring devices.
2. These are the essential devices of a measurement
laboratory.
3. These are calibrated against general laboratory
instruments for attaining better accuracy.
4. · These are found in industrial applications.
5. Working standards for an instance are used to
calibrate a hand held voltmeter used in laboratory.
6. These standards are used daily in measurement
laboratories.
7. These standards have less accuracy compared t~
secondary standards.
. '
I
(Dec.-11, Set-3, Q3(b) I Model Paper-I, Q3)
Digital Instrument
1. The instrument which varies in discontinuous or
discrete manner is known as digital instrument.
2. It has only finite number of outputs.
3. The digital instruments are highly precised
instruments.
4. The digital signals which mainly consists of binary
states i.e., ON o.r OFF states are carried out in digital
instruments.
5. The devices such as microprocessor, micro
controllers, personal computers are used to display
th~ output.
6, No such errors are produced in digital instruments.
7. These are convenient in read out, either from a far
read out in low light and .from far distances.
'
8. These are le~s flexible than the analog instruments.
9. Digital revolution counter, personal computers are
the examples of digital instruments.
'34.
 1.6
G INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERA
ELECTRONIC MEASUAIN . . BAD)
017 . Draw th e bloc k schematic of electronic telemetry lnstrumenta ti o n system and explain the same .

Ans:
1
.
(Dec.-11, Set-4, Q1(a) I Model p
ilPer➔1,~
• 1or electri ca l parameters from a remote
Td en1<u .,- ""' u " " n I • t lun ~, " ' m , 1 e kmet,y mcans the measu,em'"' of physoco c,atu,e etc a,e be; ng measu,ed •ntl . ,Pl"<1
lnc
d pnrnmctcrs such M \:Oltagc current disnlaccmenL Ao"•'• pressure,veloc1t), tem~ved at the rece iver side either for d,.1rc1nsrri1,.
re to a Tcmorc l00n1ton through• su,mblc • means
·,. of transport. The data ·is th e n rece1 Spl ay •ng
-recording llnd actua1111g · 1
·
The telemetry systems consi~ts of four main elements. The)' are the m eas ur and ' a transducer, transmitter and a re ce,ver.
There arc two types of telemetry S)S1ems,
(a) rncumatic telemetry S)stems
(h) Electronic or clcctricnl telemetry systems d
( a)
· name indicates. Pneumatic,
Pn e um a tic Tclc mcl ry Syite ms: As the . compressed
. d air is used
ndent as athe
upon source an being
variable a 1so for
rnecolll llJu.
• J p
nicut1on purpose. n neumat1c · telemetry systems, th e air
· used as a source Th
1s epe tput air pressure ranges from 3 _ asured.'
The changes in output air pressure causes the variation in the parameters. e ou . Ps1.
{b) 15
.Etcctr onic or Elec trica l Telemetry Systems:_The basic block diagram
. Of an electronic telemetry 1bstrumentation systerri
is !.hown in below figure,

Measured
(Voltage, Curren t, Transducer Signal conditioning
Freq uency) Elements elements

TX
fa) Transmitter Circuit
RX

Data Display/
lh:ccivcr
Processing Recorder/
Indicator
(b) Receiver Circuit
Figure,: Basic Block Diagram of Electronic Telemetry lnstr~mentation Systems
l· lc'"ln1nk tt"lc-mc-tr) li) stems are " iJel;, used fo r larger transmission distances, because the time between sending and
IC('eJ \ ing thl" ~isnnls rue t-lllall.

Dt"Jll":ndin,g upon the p.1rnrnt"tt"r used electronic te]emell)· systems are classified as,
(i) \'ohngc• h.•lt'mc."IJ) S) :.terns
(ii) Currt'nt tekmetf) ") ste-ms
(iii) Po:-itkm tt-kmetf) ~)litems

(I\') Fre~uenc·> telemell) S.):.renh

(") Radio frc-quency tdemelT) s;, stems
(\1) Impulse tekmet1y :.) stems.

'J he dc.:.cripu on of e-ad1 block of e lectronic telemetry systems are given below,
J.
J\1t'1tsura11d: I ht' pammete1s \\ h1ch
. are 10 be measured are called measurands. In electronic telemetry systems, pa~a meters
be ,
likc:. , o hage. c urrent, position, freq uent·}, impulse are used as the source, which in turns varies with the quantity to
men,urt..-d.
2.
Transducrr: ·1rnnsduc\:r 1·s u , arrn · d ev1ce
· bl c conversion · which· accepts the measured variable and converts into a propor·

--J
tfonnte dt'ctricnl s ig nal wirhout changing the actual signal. ·

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 UNl1· 1_:::,:_:_ _ _ ___:..
Block Schematics _ _ _Systems
of, Measuring ___and_ ____
Performance _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __1.7
Metrics
~ a l Conditioning Element: The analogous or pro- 5. Threshold
3, Sog-'ionate electrical signal is being amplified, filtered,
p 11 6 Hysteresis
duloted or demodulated, conversion from analog to ·
:;ital or digital to analog is carried out in signal condi- 7. Resolution
. ,ing element based upon the further requirements. In
uoi . b • d' •
short, the signa 11s emg con 1t1oncd mto .
an appropriate 8
·
Stability
manner. 9. Reproducibility
n-ansmitter:.The main function ofa telemetry transmit- I 0. Dead zone
4. ter is to transmit the elec~rical signal over a telem~tering
channels. The telemetering channels may be w1red or II. Range and span
wireless channels. • 12, Drift
Receiver: The receiver receives the electrical signal
5. 13. Static error
transmitted by a transmitter at a remote location.
• 1. Accuracy: Accuracy can be defined as t~e degree of
Data Processing: The receivei:l signal is converted into a closeness with which the output of the instrument reaches
6.
usable fonn by data processing elements. Here, the data the true value of the quantity being·measured.
is being demodulated, converted into digital or analog
fonn. This element carries out the desired task, which The term accuracy describes how close the measurement
is suitable for display. is to tlie true measured quantity.
•
7. Oisplay/Recorders/lndicato('s: The signal after being (or)
processed by a data processing element is displayed on
It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the
the respective display devices such as CRO , recorders
measured value and true value to the true value. Generally
etc. The signal is then being stored in a· memory for
this ratio is expressed in terms of percentage of full scale
further use.
output val1;1e.
1.2 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS The accuracy of the measuring system is expressed ,as:
. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS, ACCURAC); .
PRECISION, RESOLUTION, TYPES OF · Percentage of true value ·
ERRORS, GAUSSIAN ERROR, ROOT SUM
= Measured value-Truevalue xl00
SQUARES FORMULA
True value
Q18. How the performance characteristics of an
· (or)
instrument clas,,ified? Discuss the static
characteristics. • Percentage of full scale deflection I '

Ans: Model Paper-Ill, Q2(a)

= Measured value-Truevalue xl00
Performance Characteristics: Performance characteri~tics of Maximum scale value
an instrument are classified into two types. They are, 2. Precision: The ability of the measuring system to
(i) Static characteristics reproduce the same output values among several
independent measurements under specified conditions
(1i) Dynamic characteristics or within a given accuracy is referred to as precision and
Static Characteristics: Let the measurement system or is expressed in terms of deviation in measurement.
instrumentation system be subjected to a wide range of fixe_d
Let us consider, an example in which an input of
input signals, then the quality of the measurement process is
accurately known value is applied to the transducer. With
known by the properties of the resulting output response.
this known input if the measuring instrument produces
However some sensors and measuring systems do not its output which lies between± 1%, then the precisio'n
have static characteristics because they provide the response of the measuring instrument can.be± l %. Therefore, an
?nly for time-varying input signals and do not respond to time- · instrument is said to be highly precise if it produces san;ie
~variant signals. One of the examples of such type of system output for an applied input though the measurement is
is piezoelectric device. repfated a number of times. Hence, precision can also be
stated as the degree of repeatability of a measurement.
Some of the static characteristics are.
3, Sensitivity: Sensitivity or static sensitivity is the ratio ·
l. Accuracy
of magnitude of the output to the magnitude of the
2. Precision input quantity being meastlfed.-Iri simple words it is the
3. Sensitivity transfer ratio of output signal to the input signal and it
' can be expressed as,
_ 4. Linearity
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Change irt output signal ~
Sensitivity =
Change in input signal

=> K = t.qo
t.q;

Where, K = Sensitivity
q = Value of output signal
O

q 1 = Value of input signal

Sensitivity can also be represented by slope of the calibration curve or input-output curve. The sensitivity of a meas •
system whose calibration curve is linear is illus1:fated in figure (1). The sensitivity ofan instrument is constant if the _urmf
output curve is linear. . . Input-
~

T
0
. . . K L\qo

it .
, Sensrt1vrty, =
L\q;

r 0
_____________ .J

ol"" L\4
:,,,f
0

figure {1): Linear Calibration Curve

In case. the calibration curve is not linear then the sensitivity of the-instrument changes with input quantity being measured
and can be expressed as,
. . . K
S ens1t1v1ty, !:,.qol
=- -
t:,.q I. q,

r
I
I

---------'
0
I"' (!:,. .) •I ..
sensitw rty· K = (L\q O ) J
ct I 1 (t,.q;)i

- - - - Input (4)

figure {2); Non-linear Calibration Curve

Based on the kind of input and output, sensitivity can be represented in d.ifferent units such as counts per volt and millimeter
per microampere. .

· 4. Linearity: Linearity can be defined as the closeness of actual calibration curve of the instrument to the idealized straight
line within a given range of full scale output.
(or)

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UNIT-1 Block Schematics of Measuring Systems and Performance Metrics 1.9
---jt can be stated as the deviation of oµtput curve of measuring instrument from a specified or idealized straight line, and,is
illustrated in figure (3).

Idealised straight line

I v.---r--c..._____ Maximum deviation

-r---------:i► Actual cahbration curve

---'►
!11,,. Input

Figure (3)
Since, the linearity is one of the most desirable characteristics of the measuring instrument, the design of the instrument
should be such that the output signal is a linear function of the input signal.

5. Threshold: Thresp.old of an instrument can be stated as the smallest quantity of input below which the ~utput will not be
d~tected. It can be specified as percentage of maximum scale deflection or as absolute value interms of units of input.

6. Hysteresis: It is defined as the maximum difference in the output with the same value of input (within the specified
range), when approaching first from the increasing values of the measurand and then decreasing values of the measurand.

Hysteresis can be noticed when the input/output characteristics for an instrument are different for increasing values of
inputs than for decreasing values of inp~ts. ·

7. Resolution: Resolution of a measuring instrument can be stated as 'any smallest increment in the measured variable that .
can be noticed or detected by that instrument with certainty'. If an instrument has high resolution then it can distinguish
very small changes in the input quantity.

8. Stability: It is the ability of the instrument to have the same standard of performance over a prolonged period of time. The
need for calibrating the instrument frequently is less for a instrument having high stability.

9. Reproducibility: It is nothing but the degree of closeness with which a given value of a variable may be repeatedly
measured over a period of time.

(or)

The reproducibility of an instrument is the ability to produce the same value ofoutput (response) for equal inputs applied
over a perio~ of time.
10. Dead Zone: Dead zone (dead band) can be defined as the largest v~riation ~n the value of input for which the instrument
cannot respond and produces no output.
11. Range and Span: Range is the lower and upper limits ~fthe instrument in which it is designed to function or operate to
determine, indic~te and record the measured variable is referred to as the. range <;>f that ip.strument.

Span is similarly defined as the total operating range o'f the instrument.

12. Drift: It indicates the change in the o~tput of the instrument (tr~ducer) for a zero in~ut_(i.e., the ch~ge ofbase line), or change
in its sensitivity with time, change in humidity, temperature or some other factor. D,nft 1s an undesrrable characteristic of any
instrument.
13. Static Error: The accuracy of a given instrument is calculated in_terms of its error. T~e static error of an instrument is
nothing but the difference between the measured value and the exact value of the q~antity

- i.e., Static error - Measured value - Exact (True value)

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19 m the above d1scuss1on 1t is cle
Q · Explain clearly the d"ff 1 Therefore, fr o need not be accurate and accurar th at a
and precisi on. erence betwee n accurac y . . munent
highly precise ins t beyond the precision range of the acy Cari.
Ans: be increased, but no • rneasllt,
ing system. .
What are the differe nt types of ~
. Accura cy refers to t
bemg measur ed wh he true value of the quantity 1
·
re pet·1t1venes ' ereas the · · 020
s of cert . prec1s10n refers to degree of · uring instrum ents? Explain how the" ,. can
1'1
Th e accurac y is det am set of read' ·t1 ·
· a given accuracy. meas
. mgs w1 110
ermined by p roper ca l"b - of the device be reduced.
w h ere as prec · · •
1s1on is detenn . d b i ration
. . May/June -12 s
same value of measura nd th me Y statistica l analysis. For a , et,1,Q3
· s same output
again and aga· . e instrume nt produce OR
m provide d 1·1 is · · • - ·
produce di"ffi precise. If it 1s not precise it will
erent outputs fi th
is one of the desir d or . ~ same measura nd. Precision What is meant by error and mentio n different
.
non- prec·ise mstrum e e characte nstics of any good instrument . A ·
t. types of errors?
instrum ent ma n n is no~ truS t wo~y. Howeve r an accurate
y ot necessa nly be precise, a precise instrument Ans:
need not b
t
an exam acfcurate : To describe this statemen t, let us consider
· P e O shoot1!1g practice on a target. The measuring instnune nts may not provi~e I 00¾ ac,
curate measurement i:e., the m~asure_d value may differ from the
po~sibil ities of hitting the bullets on the target point
. The actual (true) value of the quantity bemg measure d. This amount
are 111ustrated m figure, .
of difference between the measured valu,e and the true value is
known as measurement error (or) error may"also be defined as
the amount of deviation of. the measure d value from the true
value.
Error = Measured value - True value
e =M.V - T.V
'e' is known as absolute error.
(i) Low Precision and (ii) High Precision and Relative error is equal to the ratio of absolute error to the
Low Accuracy Low Accuracy true falue of the quantity. Relative error is denoted by E r and is
expressed as follows,

E = M.V-T .V
_.,_!:__
T.V~ T.V
Percentage relative error i.e.,

= E x 100 = M.V-T .V xl00

% ofE
' T.V

·liii) Low Precision and (iv) High Precision and . The measurement errors can be broadly classified into
High Accuracy three types as follows,
Average Accuracy
Figure 1. Gross errors

1. One of the possibil ity is that the shooter hits all the bul-
lets randoml y as shown in figure (i). This case indic.rtes
'.2. Systematic errors
Random errors
..
3.
low precisio n and low accuracy .
1. Gross Errors: The measure ment errors caused due to
2. In figure (ii), the shooter hits all the bullets·close to each
other on the outer circle of target plate and misses the h~an mistakes ai:;e referred as gross errors. The various
bulls eye. This conditio n indicates high precision and mistakes that can be incurred by a human while making
low accuracy . me~surements are as follows,

❖
1
3. In the third case i.e., figure (iii) the bullets are placed Improper use of the measurin g instrume nts due to
symmet rically at some distance to each other. Here the lack of instrument knowled ge.
bullets are not placed closely as in figure (ii). This indi-
Mi stakes in reading and recordin g the observations,
cates low precisio n and average accuracy.
In the last case the shooter hits all the bullets on the bulls In~orrect adjustment of instrume nts.
4.
eye (actual target point). Here all the bullets are placed. · per·
· g the results (i.e., errors in
Errors. in computm
closely. This indicate s high precision and high accuracy.

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uNIT-1 Block Schematics of Measuring Systems..and Performance Metrics
.---Only a few of the gross errors can be identified and
such errors cannot b~ analyzed through mathematical
approach. Due to th is reason, gross errors cannot be
elimihated completely. But, they can be anticipated and
0
corrected (minimized) by taking the fo llowing prccau-
tions,
❖ Reading and recording the measured data with
proper care and attention.
❖ Taking more than three readings o[the measurand
instead of being reliable on only one reading.
Systematic Errors: Systematic error can be defined
z. as a constant uniform deviation of the operation of an
instrument. Any fault in the instrument (like, overload-
ing of the instrument, wear and tear or any defect in any
part of the instrwnent) may lead to systematic error in
measurement. There are three types of systematic errors
which are as follows,
(i) Instrumental errors
(ii) Environmental errors
(iii) Observational errors
(i) Instrumental Errors: Instrumental errors are related to
the mechanical structure of the instruments (i.e., defects
in any part of the insln;llnent, ageing or wear and tear of
the instrument parts may give rise to error in measure-
ment). Instrumental errors a~e also caused due fo im-
proper calibration of the measuring device (instrument),
overloading effect, misuse or mis operation of the instru-
ment, hysteresis effect etc. For example, in D' Arsonal
movement, the irregularities in the spring tension, friction
in the bearings of moving elements, reduction in tension
of spring became a cause of instrumental errors. Such
errors cause the instrument to read too high or too low
values. Based on the type or instruments there exists
various instrumental errors. The following precautions
should be followed in order to reduce the instrumental
errors.
(a) The i~strument should be well calibrated against a
known standard.
(b) Suitable corrective measures should be taken after
the determination of instrumental errors.
(c) An appropriate instrument should be reflected for
specific measurement.
. Q21. Define dynamic error and show how it differs
(ii) Environmental Errors: The characteristics of an mstm-
. ment will be affected due to the changes in the conditions
· of the environment (such as temperature, humidi~, pres-
sure, magnetic and electrostatic fields) surrounding the
instrument which in tum lead to errors in mea surement.
Such error; produced due to environment are know~ ~s
environmental errors, w_hich can be eliminated or mini-
mized through following ways,
(a) Hermetically sealing the elements of the instrument
to prevent them from the effects of humidity, dus_t.
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(b) Maintaining the operating co nditio_ns of th e
instrument constant. For example, the envrronm~ntal
error duet~ variatio~ in tempera~e can be avoided
by encJosmg the instrument m a temperature
controlled enclosure.
(c) Similarly, the provision of magnetic shields and
electrostatic shields around the instrument prevents
the instrument from the effects of external stray
magnetic and electrostatic fields.
(iii) Observational Errors : Observational errors are those
errors that are caused due to the observer (i.e., experi-
menter) while taking the observations during the mea-
surement process. Parallax error rs the most common
observational error that occurs while reading the meter
scale (i.e., whi le observing th~ pointer_indication on a
scale). This error can be completely avoided by employ-
ing a digital display of output of the instrument.
3. Random Errors: The errors that arise due to the un-
known factors which may randomly effect the measure-
ment of a quantity are known as random errors. Usu~lly
random errors are a combination of large number of
small effects. Random errors are also known as residual
errors because these errors are found in the measurement
even after the elimination of gross errors and systematic
errors. Mathematical analysis of random errors can be
performed because the random errors follow the laws of
probability. Some of the f~ctors that contribute to random
errors are,
(i) Certain Human Error: These errors occur due to in-
consistency in estimating successive readings from the
·instrument by an observer. There errors can be reduced
by recording the observations with extreme care and
considerations.
(ii~ Errors Caused Due to the Disturbances of the Equip-
ment: Precision errors in the instrument may arise from
the outside disturbances (such as mechanical vibrations_
etc.,) to the measuring device. Poorly controlled pro-
cesses also lead to random errors.
('iii) Errors Caused by Fluctuating Experimental Condi-
tions: These errors are caused due to some uncontrolled
disturbance~ which influence tµe instrument output. The
common causes for such type of errors are fluctuations
in line vo}tage, vibration of the supports of instrument
etc.
with the type of input signal applied to the
system.
Ans:
Dynamic Erro~: The difference between the value indicated
by the measurement system and the true value of the quantity
(which is a function of time) is known as dynamic error. As the
dynamic response of a system consists of steady state response
and transient state response, the dynamic error also comprises
of transient error and steady state error.
tJrJ
 TRU MEN TS [JNT U-H YDE Ftl\
l.12 S
ELE CTR ONIC MEA SUR ING IN f . e · 13
the dyna mic error is also a., ADl
. As lhe input signal and response (outp fi ction s o um • . d t th
of time. The dvnn m 1C ut signal) of the system ar~ un dynamic signa
l) apph e o e system.
. •u11~
· • error d"IT . a1 c·
1uers \VJth the type of input sign i.e., statJC or .
ltllii
\ h . th dynamic error of the syste m co .
V en the mput signa l to the system is
a static signal. For example step s1gna l, e
the step respons~ attain . th d llsts13
only trnns1e~t error. This is beca use, the stead s e stea y state.111 llf
case. the ratio of tp y state error becomes zero, ~hen "fvity.
. . 11 lh4
ou ut s1gna ) value to input signal value 1s as
known static sens s the trans ient error c
W1?ercm.. the dyna mic error function consi onen as we 11 a
:vhen ~em sts of steady state error comp l trarnP . . . olllP.
signal or smus o,dal signal. Foron!!tit,
. put signa ls to the meas urem ent system are
mpu t signa l th dynamic signals. For exampdey state error is a
. . • e stead y state error is constant wher . • · al the stea func tion of time. In carall\p
dyna mic mpu ts th • . . eas for sl.IlUS01dal sign . 11 d as dyna mic• sens1· · · se of
. .
e sens,t1v1ty (1.e., rallo of output to mput
. hv1ty.
) o fth e UlSu•
· -nne u..,
nt 1s ca e
·
Q2 2 · How are rand om erro rs anal
yzed ? Expl ain them with exam ples .
Ans :
Mode l Paper -In "'
'"""(b)
Ana lysis of Ran dom Erro rs: Rand om error rfonning statistical analy sis of the meas
s can be analyzed and minimized by P~ antity all taken unde r same conct·ti Ure.
ment data. Stati stica l analy sis requ ires large
number ofrea ding s (measurements) of / ~u
One more requ irem ent of statistical analysis ted ~r they shou ld be smal ler th1 ons.
is that the systematic errors should bee unma
rand om error s. an the
•
Stati stica l analy sis of rand om errors involves
the calculation of the following,
I. Arith meti c mean
2. Devi ation
3. Stan dard devi ation
4. Vari ance
J. Arit hme tic Meo o: The arith meti c mean ofa
certain group of readings of the measured ~uan
prob able value of the meas ured quantity. The tity c~ be ~efi.ned as the _most
arithmetic mean ofa infinite number_ ofreadmg~
of the true value of the meas ured quantity. woul d pro~ d~ a.clo se estimate
Arithmetic mean of n number ofrea ding s (x1,
xz, X3, .. : • x) is give n as,
,.__ .
Ari uuue llc mean , X- =-"--
X1+ Xz+ X3+ ... +Xn
-=---=-- ---" '-
2. Devi ation : Devi ation of a read ingn is defined
as the difference between the reading and arith
meti c mean .
i.e., ~ = x 1 - x
Sinc e mean is the close appr oxim ate of true
value of the measurand, the deviation of the
the amo unt of rand om error in the meas ured read ing from the mean indicates
value (reading).
Aver age Devi ation
For answ er ~efer Unit -I. QI 1, Topic: Aver
age Deviation.
The prec ision of a meas uring devi ce may
be deter mine d from the avera ge deviation of
same meas uring devic e. The prec ision of the a set ofre adin'g s obta ined from the
instr umen t is inversely relat ed to avera ge devia
devi ation indic ates that the instr ume nt is tion i.e., low valu e of average
high ly precise.
3. Stan dard Deviation: Stan dard devi ation is
anot her impo rtant factor of the statistical, analy
of exte nt of rand om error in the meas urem sis. It repre sents the measure
ent.,
Stan dard devi ation of infinite num ber (i.e.,
for n > 20) ofrea ding s is the squa re root of
tions divid ed by the num ber of readi ngs. sum of squa res of indiv idua l devia-
It is deno~ed by the symb ol !cr' and expr essed
as, · ·

cr=
d/ +di +df +dJ + .. ."d;
n [for n > 20]

Stan dard devi ation of finite num ber (i.e.,

for n < 20) ofre adin g is give n as,

(j=
d 12 +d22 +d· 32 + ... d;
n-1
Jg IA
[for n < 20]
= n-1
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uNll ·1 Block Schematics of Measuring Systems and Performance Metrics 1.13
---;dance: Square of standard dcvrnhon is known as variance and it is dcnoted by the symbol •V'.
4.
r.J2
V= o 2 = -
11

xample of Analysis ~f Rundom Errors: Let us consider that from a set of measurements of rcsisU)nce of a resistor, the fol-
tloWlllS
. values arc obtamcd,
l25.Q, 125 .2. 125.4. 126.1, 125.6, 125.6, 125.1, 125.S •
There are R readings 1.c., 11 - 8

Let.
., I = 125.9, x2 '- 125.2, x3= 125.4' 4
x = 126·•s
1 x = 125 ·••6
6 x- = 125 •6• x7 = 125 ·•
l xa = 125.5
Arithmetic mean of the above readings,
- = X1 +x2 +x3 +x4 +xs +x6 +x 7 +x8
X
8
125 9 125 2
= · + · +125.4+126.1;125.6+125.6+125.1+125.5 = 125.55

Deviation of the readings from mean,

d, = Xi-X= 125.9-125.55=+0.35

d2 = X2-X= 125.2-125.55=-0.35

d) = X3 -x = 125.4-125.55 =- 0._15
d◄ = X4 -x"" 126.1 - 125.55 = + 0.55
d, = -x = 125.6 - 125.55 = + o.q5
x5

d = x6 -x = 125.6 - 125.55 =+ 0.05

6

d1 = X7 -.x = 125.1 - 125 .55 =- 0.45

dK = XK -x = 125.5 - 125.55 =- 0.05

Average deviation.

D !di!+ l"2I + 1"31 +Id.ii+ Ids!+ id6j +ld1I + Ids!

8

Io.35 I+ I -0.35 I+ 1-0.15 I+ I o.55 I+ I o.o5 I+ I o.os.1 + I- 0.45 I+ 1-0.05 I _ 2.00 _

=- . 8 , - 0.25
8
Standard deviation of the above reading.
8

Il?
_,_,]_
Standard deviation. CJ = [ ·: n < 20]
II -1
2
(0.35) 2 +(-0.35/ +(-0.15) +(0.55)2 +(0.05/ +(0.05)2 +(-0.45)2 +(-0.05) 2 ,
7

CJ= 0.33
Variance
I
of the above readings,
V = (Standard deviation)2
= (CJ)2 = (0.33)2
-..,,

,;,
V= 0.1089
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 1.14 ELECTRONIC MEA SUR ING INST RUM E_
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Q23. Discuss the follo wing ,

(i) Gaus sian curv e of error

(ii) Prob able error
(iii) Root sum squa res formula.
Ans:
(i) Gaus sian Curv e of Error: The normal or Gaussian curve
of error is the curve which represents the probability of occurr
of error in the measured values of a quantity (i.e., multi-samp ence
le test data). , _
Analy sis of random effects on measurement is performed
on the basis of normal law or Gauss ian law of errors. A'few
relate d to this law are, facts
·
1. All observations include rando m errors (i.e.,. small distur
bing effects).
2. Rand om errors may be positive or negative.
3. The probabilities of positive and negative random errors
are equal so that the proba bility of an error wilJ be symm
about zero error value. etrical
4. Small errors are more probable than large errors.
According to the law of probability, the normal occ~ ence
of deviations from the avera ge value of an infinite numb
measurements (readings) of a quantity can be expressed er of
throu gh the following equation.
h -h 2 x2
y= ✓ n.e .
Where,
x = ·Amou nt of devia tion from mean

y = Probability of occurrence of a specific <;Ieviation

h = Precision index
'y' can also be expressed as follows,

y= l (-x2/ 2cr2)
a.fin .e
A graphical plot between the deviations (x) and the proba
bilities of occur rence (y) of the respe ctive devia tions
curve known normal or Gaussian curve of probability. The yields a
figure below shows the Gauss ian curve in which the devia
x-axis are represented in terms of standard devia tion (cr). tions (x) on
·
h
y y=
~ / 7t

7t

Gaussian curve
/

- 3cr - 2cr - lcr lcr 2cr 3cr

Dev iatio n~
(2)
Figure: Normal or Gaussi~n Error Probability Curve
ii) Probable Error: The error whose chanc es f
0 occur rence
are more 1s · know · 10n
· of h
meas urem ent sySfern can be well dete~ ined in terms n as proba ble error. The prec1s t e
of proba ble error. In the Gaus sian error distri butio n
figure above , the area under the Gauss ian curve betwe graph in the
en the 1un·1·ts (-oo t +00) ·
repre sents the total numb er of observations of multi -samp o ts const·dere d as um·ty becaus e thi·s area
le test. · ,
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 Block Schematics of Measuring Systems and Performance Metrics 1.15
NIT· 1 . I
In order to determine the most probable error, it is considered that the area bounded by the
curve between the limits-r and
+r IS. P.qual
Y
to half of the total area under the curve
•

;
1,e.,
-= I
+r
h e_,,2.x2 .dx = -
fir, _, 2
1

[ ·: Let the total area be unity]

Solving the above equation, we get the value of• r' as,
0.4769
r =
h
,r' is known as probable error because as per the above consideration half of the
observations are present between the
limits ± r. Hence, the shaded portion in the figure above represents the region of probable
error.
Probable error can als? be expresse d in terms of standard deviation and average deviation
as follows,
r = 0.6745 cr
r= 0.~453 D
Where, cr = Standard deviation
D = Average deviation
(iii) Root Sum Squares Formula: In statistical analysis of estimating errors, probable errors are
associated by consider ing
the number of readings of the same par,ameters and drawing graphs. The formula used to
estimate the probable error by
considering a single set ofreadin gs is called as root sum squares foi:mula (or RSS formula).
Example: Let,
Parameter'N is a function of other parameters say u" u , u ......... , u•. i.e.,
2 3
N= j(u" u2, u3 ......... , u.)
In order to calculate N, it is required to measure the parameters u" u , u ..., u•. For each measurem
2 3 ent of u 1, u2 , u 3 ••• , u.
certain degree of error occurs. The possibility of total error that may take place in the calculation of paramete r N is expresse d
as,

Q24. A current of 5 A with a probabl e error of± 0.1 A passes through a resistor
of 500 Q with- a probabl e error
of± 10 Q. Determi ne the power dissipat ed and probable error.
Ans:
May/June-12, Set-2, Q7(b)
Given that,

Current, I= 5 A
Resistance, R = 500 Q
Af = 0.1 A
M=IOQ
(i) Power dissipated, P = ?
(ii) Probable error,
M =?
(i)
Power Dissipated, P: The power dissipation, P is given by,
P=/2 R = (5) 2 X 500 = 12.5 kW
(U)
Probable Error, llP: The prolfable error, M _is given as,

~ 6P~ (6u1~J +·,!.;)' .

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 TRONIC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD]
ELEC
:_l~-1~6---------~~~~ :::::::=~~-----~----.... ...,
Where, u 1 = The first parameter i.e., I
u2 = The second parameter i.e., R
The parameter, Nis the function of the computed value i.e., power (P)

"If P=I2R

dP dP
-=Pand - =2IR
dR dl
2
✓(M.2IR.)2 +(M./2 ) 2 ✓(0. lx2x5x500) 2 +(10 x~5) 2 ✓(500)
2
M = = = +(250)

M = 559.016 W
Thus, the power dissipated is 12.5 kW with a probable error of ± 559:016 W.

1.3 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS, R~PEATABILITY, REPRODUCTIBILITY, FIDELITY, LAG

_ Q25. ' Define the dynamic characteristics of an inst~ument.
Model Paper-Ill, Q3
Ans:
Dynamic Characteristics
For ans~er refer Unit-I, Q5, Topic: Dynamic characteristics.
The dyn~ic characteristics of an instrument are as follows ;
(i) . Speed of Response: The speed with which a system responds (i.e., produces an output) to the sudden changes in the dy-
na~c quantity applied to it is known as speed ofresponse. For a step input, the time taken by_the response of the system
to reach the steady state is specified a~ speed of response.
(ii) Measurement Lag: The time delay taken by the measuring system to produce the output in response to a change in the
quantity being measured is known as measurement lag. Measurement lag-depends only on the characteristics of the system.
(ill) Fidelity: Some of the input quantities undergo changes with respect to time. The characteristic of a measuring instrument to
respond to the changes in the·measured quantity ·afevery instant of time is known as fidelity. Excellent fidelity of a system
refers to an error-free response of the system (i.e., at all instants under steady state condition, the output signal waveform
is exactly similar to the input signal waveform).
(iv) Dynamic.Error: The difference between the value indicated by the measurement system and the true value of the quan-
tity (which is a function of time) is known as dynamic error. As the dynamic response of a system consists of steady state
respo~se and tran·s ient state resp~nse, the dynamic error also comprises of transient error and steady state error.
I
(v) Dynamic Range: The range of values of a certain quantity (for ex.ample, temperature, pressure, voltage, ... , etc.,) for which
the measuring instrument can produce a faithful response unqer dynamic conditions is knowri as dynamic range of the
instrument. Dynamic range is represented as the ratio of the maximum value to the minimum value for which the system
cari respond effectively.
•(vi) '". Ba.ndwidth: The range of frequencies within which the dyn_a mic sensitivity of the system lies withii:i a specified band
(For example,± 2% band) of static sensitivity of the system is known as 'bandwidth' of the system. The amplitude versus
.
frequency characteristics of a system are flat within the bandwidth of the system.
'

(vii). Settling Time: The' time required by the response of the system (after the application of a step input to it), to reach and
stay within the close range of the steady state output {alµe is known as 'settling time'. The settling time depicts the speed
ofresponse of the system: If the settling time is small it can be inferred that the speed ofresponse of the system is high.
(viii) Time Constant: Tim@ constant is defined as the time required for the output of the system to reach 63.2% of the final
output value. •

It is preferred to'have a low rime constant in order-to have high speed of response. Time constant depends on th~ parameters
of the system. • '

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•.
LJNlf -1 Block Schematics of Measuring Systems and Pertormance Metrics 1.17
~istinguish betw~en st
atic and dynamic characteristics of an instrument.

Ans:
Static Characteristics
i--- ...- . .
J. The performance cntena that should be met by
80 instrUIDent while measuring static quantities
(i.e., quantities that do not vary with time) are
1cnown as static characteristics of the instrument.
2. Static characteristics are described by the static
relationship between the input and output of the
instrument. Static relationships are not expressed
in differential equations. ,
3_ The static characteristics are obtained by static
calibration of the instrument. Static calibration is
a process in which the measuring system/instrument
is compared with a standard instrument
(having high accuracy) under static conditions.
4. The static characteristics of a system depend
only on the parameters of the system.
5. The various types of static characteristics of a
system are, accuracy, precision, static error,
static sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis, threshold,
reproducibility, dead-band, etc.
• I
6. Static characteristics of an instrument are
determined by subjecting the instrument to a
static quantity and then taking a number of
measurements of'the same quantity under static
and identical conditions.
Dynamic Chalacteristics
l. The performance characteristics that should be
met by an instrument while measuring dynamic
quantities (i.e., quantities that vary rapidly with
time) are known as dynamic characteristics of
the instrument.
2. The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
described by the dynamic relation between the input
and output of the instrument, with the help of
differential equations.
3. The dypamic cl)ar~cteristics are obtained from the
mathematical model of the system, which is a linear
differential equation (of 1st order/2 nd order.. ) consisting
of constant coefficients.
4. The dynamic response of a system depend on the
nature of time varying input function as well as
on the parameters of the system.
5. The terms through which the dynamic characteristics
of a system -are specified are, bandwidth,
dynamic range, dynamic error, speed of response,
time constant, fidelity, settling time and measurement
lag.
6. • Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are determined
by subjecting the instr~ent to a standard input signal
like step signal, impulse sign4I, ramp signal, parabolic or
sinusoidal signal and then analyzing the d"ynamic
response of the instrument.

Q27. How the dynamic characteristics of measuring -systems ar_e represented?

Ans:
Model Paper-II, Q3

The dynamic characteristics of a measuring system are represented by differential equations. The order of the differential •
equation represents the order of tJ:ie measuring system. However, in general, the measuring systems are classified as follows:
1. Zero-order systems
2. First-order systems
3. Second-order systems.
1.
.
Zero-order System: A measuring ~strument which is governed by zero-order differential equation is know as zero-order
system.
The differential equation of a zero-order system is given by,

Acfo = Bcf, ... (1)

Where,

x0 = Output
A0, B0 = Constants
-....,_ x1 =Input
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1.18 ,,
A measuring instrument which obeys and follows the above equation is called as zero-order.system.

The equation ( 1) can be rewrite as,

B
X0 = ~ Xx1

... (2)

B
Where, K = ___Q_ = Static sensitivity
Ao
From equation (2), it is clear that the o!itput of the measuring system follows the input (x) p_erfectlyt wit~out any delay
though the input changes w.r.t. time. Thus, the dynamic performance of a zero-orde~ measunng syS em is perfect since
there is no time Jag and no distortion in the magnitude. ·
Example: One of the example of zero-order system is a linear potentiometric device shown in figure (1).

Figur (1): linear Potentiometer Used as Displacement Transducer

'Yhe~ ~e supply voltage J,; is given to potentiometer of resist~ce R 1 with length L. The voltage resulting at the output
side 1s given by, · · · I ·

R2 (3)
V=-XV
0 RI I
•••

For length L, the resistance= R I

For an applied displacemen t X I the resistance R 2 is given by'
R1.X1
R = -.--c ... (4)
2 L

By substituting R2 in equation C3?, we get,

- R1.X; rr
V ---Xr,
0 LR I
I

V
V0 =-'
L xX.1

V0 =KXI ... (5)

Where,
V
K= l = Static sensitivity

~ oc~

Therefore, from equation (5) it is clear that tht output voltag r l fi . ·

e mear Y oll(?ws the mput displaceme nt. Hence, it is a zero·
ordet system. .

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UNIT .1 Block Schematics of Measuring Systems and Performance Metrics 1.19
;--First-order System: A measuring instrument which is governed by first-order differential equation is kno~n as first-order
system. .
The differential equation of a first-order system is given by,
dc(t)
a - - +a 0c(t) = bo"(t) ... (6)
di
I

A measuring instrument which obeys and follows the above equation is called as fµ-st-order system. It is so called since
the highest order of derivative in this system is I.
...
By dividing equation (6) by a0 on both sides, we get,

!!.l. dc(t) +c(I) = ~ r(t)

00 di a0
dc(I)
t-+c(t) =Kr(t)
di ... (7)
Where,
al .
t = - = Tl.Ille constant
. ao
bo .
K = - = Static sensitivity
ao
By applying Laplace transform, we get,
tsc(s) + c(s) = KR(s)
c(s) [ts+ 1] =KR(s)

c(s) = _!5__
R(s) ts+ 1
. c(s) K
Transfer function G(s) = - - = - - and
. R(s) 'ts+l
Nonnalized (dimensionless) transfer function,

1
G(s)= - -
1+'ts ... (8)

3. Second-order System: Differential equation of a 2nd order system is given by,

d 2c(t) dc(t)
a2- -2-+a 1 -. -+a 0c(t) =b0r(t)
dt dt ... (9)

A measurement system which obeys and follows the above equation is called as 2nd order system. The highest order of
derivative in 2nd order system is 2.
One of the examples of second order system is spring-mass-damper system and is shown in figure (2).
-
fK(t) ,
... ;::
◄~
~>

fe(t,
t +
Fiscous
Mass
~v fu:fun
-

r
Applied force f(t)

-- figure (21: Spring-mass-damper 2• Order System

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1.20 ELECTRONIC MEASURING INSTRUMEN TS [JN1U-HYDE RABADJ
Input-output relation of this system is given by,

/Ct)= M d2x(t) + B dx(t) + Kx(t) ... (IO)

dt 2 dt
By applying Laplace transform, we get,
Ms 2X(s) + Bs X(s) + KX(s) = F(s)
X(s)[M,; 2 + Bs + K] = F(s)
Transfer function of the system is given by,

X(s) I
... (11)
F(s) = Ms 2 +Bs+K

The dimensionless or normalized transfer function is given by,

G(s)=KX(s ) =Kx . l
F(s) Ms 2 +Bs+K

By dividing both numerator and denominator by M, we get,

K
M
2 Bs K
s +-+-
M M
K
M

o-i
G(s) = 2 n 2 ... (12)
s + 2sro,,s + ro,,

Where, con= g = Natural frequency

B
~ = ~ = Damping ratio
2-vKM
The equation ( 12) is the normalized transfer function of 2 nd order system and its characteristic ~quation is given by,

s2 + 2scons + (J)~ =0

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