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Civil-V-Transportation Engineering-1 Notes
Civil-V-Transportation Engineering-1 Notes
Civil-V-Transportation Engineering-1 Notes
asia 1
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING I
PART – A
UNIT – 1
UNIT – 2
Road types and classification, road patterns, planning surveys, master plan – saturation
system of road planning, phasing road development in India, problems on best
alignment among alternate proposals Salient Features of 3rd and 4th twenty year road
development plans and Policies, Present scenario of road development in India (NHDP
& PMGSY) and in Karnataka (KSHIP & KRDCL) Road development plan - vision
2021.
06 Hrs
UNIT – 3
Sight Distance- Restrictions to sight distance- Stopping sight distance- Overtaking sight
distance- overtaking zones- Examples on SSD and OSD- Sight distance at intersections,
Horizontal alignment-Radius of Curve- Super elevation – Extra widening- Transition
curve and its length, setback distance – Examples, Vertical alignment-Gradient-summit
and valley curves with examples.
07 Hrs
UNIT – 5
PAVEMENT MATERIALS:
PAVEMENT DESIGN:
Pavement types, component parts of flexible and rigid pavements and their functions,
design factors, ESWL and its determination-Examples, Flexible pavement- Design of
flexible pavements as per IRC;37-2001-Examples, Rigid pavement- Westergaard‟s
equations for load and temperature stresses- Examples- Design of slab thickness only as
per IRC:58-2002
06 Hrs
UNIT – 7
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION:
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE:
HIGHWAY ECONOMICS:
Highway user benefits, VOC using charts only-Examples, Economic analysis - annual
cost method-Benefit Cost Ratio method-NPV-IRR methods- Examples, Highway
financing-BOT-BOOT concepts
06 Hrs
TEXT BOOKS:
REFERENCE BOOKS:
LIST OF CONTENTS
Introduction 09
Importance of Transportation 10
Introduction 19
Classification of roads 21
Road patterns 22
Planning Surveys 23
Master plan 25
Saturation System 26
Alignment 30
Requirements 30
Introduction 33
Camber 35
Width of carriageway 36
Kerbs 36
Road margins 37
Shoulders 37
Parking Lanes 37
Bus- Bays 37
Service roads 38
Footpath 38
Guard Rails 38
Width of Formation 38
Right of way 39
Sight Distance 40
Overtaking zones 45
Horizontal curves 46
Analysis of super-elevation 48
Setback Distance 54
Vertical alignment 57
Gradient 58
Summit Curve 58
Valley curve 61
Introduction 65
Subgrade Soil 65
Desirable Properties 65
Soil Classification 66
AGGREGATES 73
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS 75
Tests on Bitumen 76
Bituminous Emulsion 78
Requirements of a pavement 82
Types of pavements 82
Flexible Pavements 82
Rigid Pavements 83
Introduction 95
Earthwork 95
Introduction 117
Introduction 122
INTRODUCTION
Basic Definition: A facility consisting of the means and equipment necessary for the
movement of passengers or goods. At its most basic, the term “transportation system”
is used to refer to the equipment and logistics of transporting passengers and goods. It
covers movement by all forms of transport, from cars and buses to boats, aircraft and
even space travel. Transportation systems are employed in troop movement logistics
and planning, as well as in running the local school bus service.
designed to inform the user of where each vehicle in the fleet is expected to be at any
given point in time. These timetables are developed alongside an array of route plans
one location.
Size: Transportation systems are developed in a wide variety of sizes. Local transport
networks spanning the bus network for a city and its suburbs are common, as are
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IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION
The world that we live in now will most likely be impossible had it not been for
innovations in transportation. There would not have been any great infrastructure,
industrialization, or massive production, if transportation was incompetent. Life would
not have kept up with the fast changing times if there were no huge trucks, bulldozers,
trailers, cargo ships, or large aircrafts to carry them to different places. In other words,
the global society would not have experienced comfort and convenience had it not been
for advancements in the transportation sector. Today, humanity has technology to thank
for all the wonderful things that it currently enjoys now.
Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since every
transportation is required for carrying raw materials like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc.
In the distribution stage transportation is required from the production centre‟s viz;
farms and factories to the marketing centres and later to the retailers and the consumers
for distribution.
The transportation has lots of advantages and even disadvantages. The more
focus is on advantages as we cannot think about the life without transportation. The
importance of transportation may include:
one place to another place. These goods which are produced at one place are
transported
to other distant places for their usage. It flexibly moves the goods from one place
to another place.
Enhances the Standard Of Living: It improves the standard of living. As the
transportation of each and every good is being done then the productivity
increases which results in the reduced or the effective costs. Because of
reduction in the cost they can use different commodities for different purposes
and can lead a secure life.
Helps a lot during the emergencies and even during natural disasters:
Transportation helps during the natural disturbances. It helps in quick moving
from one place to another place and supplies the required operations.
Helps for the employment: Transportation provides employment for many
people as drivers, captains, conductors, cabin crew and even the people are used
for the construction of different types of transportation vehicles. And even by the
use of transportation the remote people are being employed with the access to
the urban facilities and the opportunities.
Helps in mobility of the laborers: Many people are traveling to other countries
on their employment basis. Transportation plays an important role in such cases.
Helps for bringing nations together: Transportation on the whole is used for
globalization i.e. it brings nations together and it creates awareness about the
cultural activities and even about the industries and helps a lot for importing and
exporting of different goods.
These above are some of the necessities which make us to use transportation.
Economic Activity: Two important factors well known in economic activity are:
Social Effects: The various social effects of transportation may be further classified into:
Sectionalism and transportation
Three basic modes of transport are by land, water and air. Land has given
development of road and rail transport. Water and air have developed waterways and
airways respectively. Apart from these major modes of transportation, other modes
include pipelines, elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and monorails.
Pipe lines are used for the transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles
Roadways or highways
Railways
Airways
Waterways.
Airways:
Air also provides more comfort apart from saving in transportation time for the
passengers and the goods between the airports.
Waterways:
This mode needs minimum energy to haul load through unit distance
The transportation by water is possible between the ports on the sea routes or along
Railways:
The energy requirement to haul unit load through unit distance by the railway is
only a fraction (one fourth to one sixth) of the required by road.
Hence, full advantage of this mode of transportation should be taken for the
transportation of bulk goods along land where the railway facilities are
available.
Roadways:
The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service
to one and all.
The road or highways not only include the modern highway system but also the
city streets, feeder roads and village roads, catering for a wide-range of road
vehicles and the pedestrians.
This mode has also maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route,
direction, time and speed of travel etc. through any mode of road vehicle.
The other three modes (railways; water ways; airways) has to depend on the
roadway for the service.
Ultimately, road network is therefore needed not only to serve as feeder system
for other modes of transportation and to supplement them, but also to provide
independent facility for road travel by a well planned network of roads
throughout
It is accepted that the fact road transport is the nearest to the people. The
passengers and goods have to be first transported by road before reaching a railway
station or an airport. It is seen that road network alone could serve the remotest villages
of the vast country like occurs.
Roadways:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Speed is related to accidents and more accidents results due to higher speed.
Railways:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Waterways:
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Airways:
Advantages:
RECOMMENDATIONS: Over a period after the First World War, motor vehicles
using the roads increased and this demanded a better road network which can carry
mixed traffic conditions. The existing roads when not capable to withstand the mixed
traffic conditions. For the improvement of roads in India government of India appointed
Mr. Jayakar Committee to study the situations and to recommend suitable measures for
road improvement in 1927 and a report was submitted in 1928 with following
recommendations:
Extra tax to be levied from the road users as fund to develop road.
The consumers of petrol were charged an extra levy of 2.64 paisa/litre of petrol
to buildup this road development fund.
The accounts of the CRF are maintained by the Accountant General of Central
Revenues.
IRC has played an important role in the formulation of the 20-year road
development plans in India.
Engineering.
This institute is mainly engaged in applied research and offers technical advice to
INTRODUCTION `
It is during the first three stages, planning, project development, and design, that
designers and communities, working together, can have the greatest impact on the final
design features of the project. In fact, the flexibility available for highway design during
the detailed design phase is limited a great deal by the decisions made at the earlier
stages of planning and project development. This Guide begins with a description of the
overall highway planning and development process to illustrate when these decisions are
made and how they affect the ultimate design of a facility
Road: A road is a thoroughfare, route or way on land between two places, which
typically has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance,
including a horse, cart, or motor vehicle.
Highway: A highway is a public road, especially a major road connecting two or more
destinations. Any interconnected set of highways can be variously referred to as a
"highway system", a "highway network", or a "highway transportation system". Each
country has its own national highway system.
TYPES OF ROAD:
Basically, different types of roads can be classified into two categories namely,
All-weather roads
and
Fair-weather roads.
All-weather roads: These roads are negotiable during all weather, except at major
rivercrossings where interruption of traffic is permissible upto a certain limit extent, the
road pavement should be negotiable during all weathers.
Fair-weather roads: On these roads the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon
season atcauseways where streams may overflow across the roads.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS:
Paved Roads: These roads are provided with a hard pavement course which
should be atleast a water bound macadam (WBM) layer.
Unpaved Roads: These roads are not provided with a hard pavement course of
atleast a WBM layer. Thus earth roads and gravel roads may be called as
unpaved roads.
Surface Roads: These roads are provided with a bituminous or cement concrete
surfacing.
Unsurfaced Roads: These are not provided with bituminous or cement concrete
surfacing.
Roads which are provided with bituminous surfacing are called as black toped
roads and that of concrete are referred to as concrete roads respectively.
Department of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 20
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Heavy
Medim
Light traffic roads.
National Highways (NH): The NH connects the capital cities of the states and
the capital cities to the port. The roads connecting the neighbouring countries
are also called as NH. The NH are atleast 2 lanes of traffic about 7.5m d wide.
The NH are having concrete or bituminous surfacing.
State Highways (SH): SH are the main roads within the state and connect
important towns and cities of state. The width of state highways is generally
7.5m.
Major District Roads (MDR): These roads connect the areas of production and
markets with either a SH or railway. The MDR should have atleast metalled
single lane carriage way (i.e., 3.8m) wide. The roads carry mixed traffic.
Other District Roads (ODR): these roads connect the village to other village or
the nearest district road, with ghat, river etc. these roads have a single lane and
carry mixed traffic.
Village Roads (VR): these roads, like other district roads, connect the village or
village or nearby district road. The roads carry mixed traffic.
Arterial roads
Sub-arterialroads
Collector Streets
Local Streets
Collector streets provide access to arterial streets and they collect and distribute
traffic from and to local streets which provide access to abutting property.
ROAD PATTERNS:
There are various types of road patterns and each pattern has its own advantages
and limitations. The choice of the road pattern depends upon the various factors
such as:
Locality
Layout of the different towns, villages, industrial and production centres.
Planning Engineer.
Radial or star and block pattern: In this, roads radially emerge from the
central business area in all directions and between two built-up areas will be
there. The main advantage in this, central place is easy accessible from all the
directions. Eg: Nagpur
Radial or star and circular pattern: In this roads radiate in all the directions
and also circular ring roads are provided.
Advantages: Traffic will not touch the heart of the city and it flows radially and
reaches the other radial road and thereby reducing the congestion in the centre of
the city. This ring road system is well suited for big cities where traffic problems
are more in the heart of the city. Eg: Connaught place in New Delhi.
Radial or star and grid pattern: It is very much similar to star and the circular
pattern expects the radial roads are connected by grids. In this pattern a grid is
formed around the central point which is a business centre. Eg: Nagpur road
plan.
Minimum travel pattern: In this type, city is divided into number of nodal
points around a central portion by forming sectors. And each sector is divided
again in such a way that from each of the nodal centre, the distance to the central
place is minimum.
PLANNING SURVEYS:
Topographic study
Soil details
MASTER PLAN:
In India targeted road lengths were fixed in various road plans, based on
population, area and agricultural and industrial products. The same way it may be taken
as a guide to decide the total length of road system in each alternate proposal while
preparing a master plan for a town or locality.
Preparation of Plans:
Plan-1: This plan should give the topographical details related to existing road
network, drainage, structures, towns and villages with population, agricultural,
industrial and commercial activities.
Plan-2: Should give the details pertaining to the distribution of
population
Plan-3: Should indicate the location of places with productivity.
Plan-4: Should indicate the existing network of roads and proposals
received. Ultimately, the Master plan is the one to be implemented.
SATURATION SYSTEM:
In this system optimum road length is calculated for an area based on the
concept of attaining maximum utility per unit length of the road. This is also
called as maximum utility system.
The various steps to be taken to obtain maximum utility per unit length are:
Optimum Road length: Based on the master plan the targeted road length is
fixed for the country on the basis of area or population and production or both.
And the same may be taken as a guide to decide the total length of the road
system in each proposal.
The first attempt for proper planning of the highway development programme in
India on a long term basis was made at the Nagpur Conference in 1943. After, the
completion of the Nagpur Road Plan targets, the Second Twenty year Plan was drawn
for the period 1961-1981. The Third Twenty Year Road Development Plan for the
period 1981-2001 was approved only by the year 1984.
This plan was formed in the year 1943 at Nagpur. The plan period was from
1943-1963.Two plan formulae were finalized at the Nagpur Conference for deciding
two categories of road length for the country as a whole as well as for individual areas
(like district). This was the first attempt for highway planning in India. The two plan
formulae assumed the Star and Grid pattern of road network. Hence, the two formulae
are also called “Star and Grid Formulae”.
The formulae were based on star and grid pattern of road network and were
I –Category: NH/SH/MDR
II-Category: ODR/VR
NH/SH/MDR are meant to provide main grids and ODR/VR as internal road
system the development allowance is 15%
As the target road length of Nagpur road plan was completed nearly
earlier in 1961 a long term plan was initiated for twenty year period which was
initiated by IRC. Hence, the second twenty year road plan came into picture which
was drawn for the period of 1961-81. The second twenty year road plan was
envisaged overall road length of 10, 57,330 km by the year 1981.
Alignment
The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths. Vertical alignment
includes level and gradients. Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment
will enhance the construction, maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Once an alignment
is fixed and constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land
and construction of costly structures by the roadside
Requirements
The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible
be straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should
be provided.
It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially
at slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.
The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the
initial cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum.
We have seen the requirements of an alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy al
these requirements. Hence we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
Obligatory points these are the control points governing the highway alignment.
These points are classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass
and points through which it should not pass. Some of the examples are:
Bridge site: The Bridge can be located only where the river has straight and
permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded.
The road approach to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should be
avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be
changed.
Mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various alternatives
are to either
Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for
any purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
Lakes/ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
Necessitate deviation of the alignment.
Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the origin-
destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment
should be drawn keeping in view the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
Economy: The alignment finalized should be economical. All the three costs i.e.
construction, maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The
construction cost can be decreased much if it is possible to maintain a balance
between cutting and filling. Also try to avoid very high embankments and very
deep cuttings as the construction cost will be very higher in these cases.
Other considerations: various other factors that govern the alignment are
drainage considerations, political factors and monotony.
The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway. The emphasis of the geometric design is to address the
requirement of the driver and the vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc. The
features normally considered are the cross section elements, sight distance consideration,
horizontal curvature, gradients, and intersection.
Design speed:
o Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric design.
It directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of vertical
curves. Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc, a design speed is
adopted for all the geometric design.
Topography:
o It is easier to construct roads with required standards for a plain terrain. However,
for a given design speed, the construction cost increases multi form with the
gradient and the terrain.
Traffic:
It will be uneconomical to design the road for peak traffic flow. Therefore a
reasonable value of traffic volume is selected as the design hourly volume which is
determined from the various traffic data collected.
Environmental:
o Factors like air pollution, noise pollution etc. should be given due consideration in
the geometric design of roads.
Economy:
o The design adopted should be economical as far as possible. It should match with
the funds allotted for capital cost and maintenance cost.
Others:
o Geometric design should be such that the aesthetics of the region is not affected
The feature of the cross-section of the pavement influences the life of the pavement as
well as the riding comfort and safety.
For a safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are
important;
Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the
design of horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also affects the
acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause
skidding or slipping of vehicles.
The choice of the value of f is a very complicated issue since it depends on many
variables. IRC suggests the coefficient of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on
the speed and coefficient of later friction as 0.15.
Unevenness
It affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel
consumption and wear and tear of tires. Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness
which is the cumulative measure of vertical undulation of the pavement surface recorded
per unit horizontal length of the road.
Light reaction
White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during day
time. Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at
night
Drainage
Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in
the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in
n or n% (Eg. 1 in 50 or2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface.
Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic
lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and
the clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.
Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or
islands or footpaths. Different types of kerbs are (Figure 12:3):
These types of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to remain in
the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little
difficulty..
When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their height is 15 cm
above the pavement edge.
They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They
are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are
placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter.
Submerged kerbs:
They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between
the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability to the
pavement.
Road margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be
generally called road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given
below.
Shoulders
A shoulder are provided along the road edge and is intended for accommodation of
stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for
base and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a
fully loaded truck even in wet conditions.
Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving in the road. The parking lane should
have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking
.
Bus-bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that
they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way.
Service roads
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like
freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually
isolated by a separator and access to the highway will be provided only at selected
points.
Cycle track
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is
high Minimum width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for
every additional track.
Footpath
Guard rails
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running On the
embankment, especially when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m.
Width of formation
Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the
highway and may reasonably provide for future development.:
Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
Sight distance
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the
visibility of the road ahead of the driver.
Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over
which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary
or moving objects. Three sight distance situations are considered for design:
Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be split up
into four components based on PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are usually
combined into a total perception- reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as for
easy measurement.
The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed, more
time will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed increases,
sight distance also increases.
Efficiency of brakes
The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the
brakes are applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency.
The frictional resistance between the tire and road plays an important role to bring the
vehicle to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately.
Thus sight required will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is provided
while computing the sight distance.
Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the
vehicle can stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less.
SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely
without collision with any other obstruction.
Lag distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the reaction time t and is given by
vt, where v is the
velocity in m/sec.
Braking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking operation. For a
levelroad this is obtained by equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and the
kinetic energy of the vehicle. If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the
braking distance is l, then work done against friction in stopping the vehicle is
Therefore, the SSD = lag distance + braking distance and given by:
SSD = vt + v2/
2gf
Where v is the design speed in m/sec, t is the reaction time in sec, g is the acceleration
due to gravity and f is the coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction f is given
below for
When there is an ascending gradient of say +n%, the component of gravity adds to
braking action and hence braking distance is decreased. The component of gravity acting
parallel to the surface which adds to the braking force is equal to W sin α = W tanα =
Wn=100. Equating kinetic energy and work done:
The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the
driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic
in the opposite direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is
measured along the center line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2m
above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface. The
factors that affect the OSD are: Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle
and of the vehicle coming in the opposite direction.
d3 is the distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation (T).
Therefore:
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
It is assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to vb, the speed of the slow
moving vehicle Band travels behind it during the reaction time t of the driver. So d1 is
given by:
d1 = vbt
Then the vehicle A starts to accelerate, shifts the lane, overtake and shift back to the
original lane. The vehicle A maintains the spacing s before and after overtaking. The
spacing s in m is given by:
s = 0:7vb + 6
Let T be the duration of actual overtaking. The distance traveled by B during the
overtaking operation is2s+vbT. Also, during this time, vehicle A accelerated from initial
velocity vb and overtaking is completed while reaching final velocity v. Hence the
distance traveled is given by:
The distance traveled by the vehicle C moving at design speed v m=sec during
overtaking operation is given by:
Where vb is the velocity of the slow moving vehicle in m=sec2, t the reaction time of the
driver in sec, s is the spacing between the two vehicle in m given by equation and a is the
overtaking vehicles acceleration in m=sec2. In case the speed of the overtaken vehicle is
not given, it can be assumed that it moves 16 kmph slower the design speed. The
acceleration values of the fast vehicle depends on its speed and given in Table
Overtaking zones
Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the
length of the highway. These are zones dedicated for overtaking operation, marked with
wide roads. The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 time OSD and the minimum is
three times OSD (Figure 13:2).
Department Of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 45
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Horizontal curve
The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is reactive force
acting outward on a vehicle negotiating it. Centrifugal force depends on speed and
radius of the horizontal curve and is counteracted to a certain extent by transverse
friction between the tyre and pavement surface. On a curved road, this force tends
to cause the vehicle to overrun or to slide outward from the centre of road
curvature. The centrifugal force P in kg=m2 is given by
P =Wv2/gR
where W is the weight of the vehicle in kg, v is the speed of the vehicle in m=sec,
g is the acceleration due to gravity in m=sec2 and R is the radius of the curve in
m. The centrifugal ratio or the impact factor P/W is given by P/W=b/2h
The centrifugal force has two effects: a tendency to overturn the vehicle about the
outer wheels and a tendency for transverse skidding. Taking moments of the
forces with respect to
the other when the vehicle is just about to override is give as:
Ph = W b
2
At the equilibrium over turning is possible when
V2 = b
gR 2h
And for safety the following condition must satisfy:
b/2h>v2/gR
The second tendency of the vehicle is for transverse skidding. i.e. When the centrifugal
force P is greater than the maximum possible transverse skid resistance due to friction
between the pavement surface and tire. The transverse skid resistance (F) is given by:
F = FA + FB
= f(RA + RB)
= fW
where FA and FB is the fractional force at tire A and B, RA and RB is the reaction at
tire A and B, f is the lateral coefficient of friction and W is the weight of the vehicle.
This is counteracted by the centrifugal force (P), and equating:
P = fW or
P= i
At equilibrium, when skidding takes place (from equation14.2)
P = f = v2
W gR
If this equation is violated, the vehicle will overturn at the horizontal curve and if
equation 14.4 is violated, the vehicle will skid at the horizontal curve
Analysis of super-elevation
At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we get,
At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we get,
P cosθ = W sin θ + FA + FB
where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the coefficient of
friction, f is the transverse slope due to super elevation. Dividing by W cos θ, we get:
Attainment of super-elevation
Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross slope is
rotated about the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the same
plane as the inner half.
There are two methods of attaining super elevation by rotating the pavement
Rotation about the center line : The pavement is rotated such that the inner edge is
depressed and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount of super
elevation, i.e., by E=2 with respect to the centre
Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer edge
as well as the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of
superelevation with respect to the inner edge.
Mechanical widening
The reasons for the mechanical widening are: When a vehicle negotiates a
horizontal curve, the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front wheels as
shown in figure. this phenomenon is called off tracking, and has the effect of increasing
the effective width of a road space required by the vehicle. Therefore, to provide the same
clearance between vehicles travelling in opposite direction on curved roads as is provided
on straight sections, there must be extra width of carriageway available.. The expression
for extra width can be derived from the simple geometry of a vehicle at a horizontal curve
as shown in figure Let R1 is the radius of the outer track line of the rear wheel, R2 is the
radius of the outer track line of the front wheel l is the distance between the front and rear
wheel, n is the number of lanes, then the mechanical widening Wm (is derive below:
If the road has n lanes, the extra widening should be provided on each lane. Therefore,
the extra widening of a road with n lanes is given
by,
Psychological widening
Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also. There is a
tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves. Some extra
space is to be provided for more clearance for the crossing and overtaking operations on
curves. IRC proposed an empirical relation for the psychological widening at horizontal
curves Wps
1. To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the
beginning of the circular curve, avoiding sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the
comfort of passengers.
To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and security
Different types of transition curves are spiral or clothoid, cubic parabola, and
Lemniscates. IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because:
(b) Radius of the transition curve is 1 at the straight edge and changes to R at the curve
point (Ls / 1R) and calculation and field implementation is very easy.
The length of the transition curve should be determined as the maximum of the
following three criteria: rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, rate of change of super
elevation, and an empirical formula given by IRC.
At the tangent point, radius is infinity and hence centrifugal acceleration is zero. At
the end of the transition, the radius R has minimum value R. If c is the rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration, it can be written as:
The length of the transition curve Ls1 in m is
Ls1 = V3
cR
Raise (E) of the outer edge with respect to inner edge is given
by E = eB = e(W +We). The rate of change of this raise from 0 to
E is achieved gradually with a gradient of 1 in N over the length
of the transition curve (typical range of N is 60-150). Therefore,
the length of the transition curve Ls2 is:
Ls2 = Ne (W +W e)
3. By empirical formula
Ls3 = 35v2
R
Setback Distance
Setback distance m or the clearance distance is the distance required from the centerline of
a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate
sight distance at a horizontal curve. The set back distance depends on:
Curve Resistance
When the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of the front and
the r ear wheels are different. The front wheels are turned to move the vehicle along the
curve, whereas the rear wheels seldom turn. This is illustrated in figure 16:4.The rear
wheels exert a tractive force T in the PQ direction. The tractive force available on the
front wheels is Tcosθ in the PS direction as shown in the figure 16:4. This is less than the
actual tractive force, T applied. Hence, the loss of tractive force for a vehicle to negotiate
a horizontal curve is:
CR = T -- T cosα
Vertical alignment
Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided designing the vertical curve.
Before finalising the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost and the
practical problems in the site also has to be considered.
Types of gradient
Many studies have shown that gradient upto seven percent can have considerable
effect on the speeds of the passenger cars. On the contrary, the speeds of the heavy
vehicles are considerably reduced when long gradients a sat as two percent is adopted.
Although, atter gradients are desirable, it is evident that the cost of construction will also
be very high.
Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the
designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain,
length of the grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal
curve. In atter terrain, it may be possible to provide at gradients, but in hilly terrain it is
not economical and sometimes not possible also.
Minimum gradient
Limiting gradient
This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous increase in
cost of construction. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary to
adopt limiting gradient.
Exceptional gradient
Summit curve
Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. They are formed when
two gradients meet as illustrated in figure below in any of the following four ways:
Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results; the common practice
has been to use parabolic curves in summit curves. This is primarily because of the
ease with it can be laid out as well as allowing a comfortable transition from one
gradient to another.
The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length
of the curve which is parabolic. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided by the
sight distance consideration.
The situation when the sight distance is less than the length of the curve
When stopping sight distance is considered the height of driver's eye above the road
surface (h1) is taken as 1.2 meters, and height of object above the pavement surface (h2)
is taken as 0.15 meters. If overtaking sight distance is considered, then the value of
driver's eye height (h1) and the height of the obstruction (h2) are taken equal as 1.2
meters.
Valley curve
Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards. They
are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated in figure below in any of the
following four ways:
1. When a descending gradient meets another descending gradient
2. When a descending gradient meets a at gradient
3. When a descending gradient meets an ascending gradient
4. When an ascending gradient meets another ascending gradient
The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition curves of
equal length The transitional curve is set out by a cubic parabola y = bx3 where b =
2N3/L2 The length of the valley transition curve is designed based on two criteria:
2. Safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight sight distance at any
part of the country.
Comfort criteria
The length of the valley curve based on the rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration that will ensure comfort: Let c is the rate of change of acceleration, R the
minimum radius of
the curve, v is the design speed and t is the time, then c is given as:
Ls = v3/CR
R = Ls N
Safety criteria
Length of the valley curve for headlight distance may be determined for two conditions:
Case 1: Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance (L > S)
The total length of valley curve L is greater than the stopping sight distance SSD.
The sight distance available will be minimum when the vehicle is in the lowest point in
the valley. This is because the beginning of the curve will have infinite radius and the
bottom of the curve will have minimum radius which is a property of the transition curve.
Where L is the total length of valley curve, N is the deviation angle in radians or tangent
of the deviation angle or the algebraic difference in grades, and c is the allowable rate of
change of centrifugal acceleration which may be taken as 0:6m/sec 3.
Where N is the deviation angle in radians, h1 is the height of headlight beam, α is the
head beam inclination in degrees and S is the sight distance. The inclination α is = 1
degree.
Case 2 Length of valley curve less than stopping sight distance (L < S)
The length of the curve L is less than SSD. In this case the minimum sight distance
is from the beginning of the curve. The important points are the beginning of the curve
and the bottom most part of the curve. If the vehicle is at the bottom of the curve, then its
headlight beam will reach far beyond the endpoint of the curve whereas, if the vehicle is
at the beginning of the curve, then the headlight beam will hit just outside the curve.
Therefore, the length of the curve is derived by assuming the vehicle at the beginning of
the curve. The case is shown in figure below.
The gradients are very small and are acceptable for all practical purposes. We will not be
able to know prior to which case to be adopted. Therefore both has to be calculated and
the one which satisfies the condition is adopted.
Introduction
Subgrade soil
Subgrade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure which directly
receives the traffic load from the pavement layers. The subgrade soil and its properties are
important in the design of pavement structure. The main function of the subgrade is to
give adequate support to the pavement and for this the subgrade should possess sufficient
stability under adverse climate and loading conditions.
The formation of waves, corrugations, rutting and shoving in black top pavements
and the phenomena of pumping, blowing and consequent cracking of cement concrete
pavements
are generally attributed due to the poor subgrade conditions.
Desirable Properties
Stability
Incompressibility
Permanency of strength
Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and
ground water
Good drainage, and
Ease of compaction.
Soil classification
According to size of grains soil is classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay. As per
Indian standard classification the limits of grain size are as follows.
0.6 0.2
0.02 0.006 0.006 0.002
A-1 soils are well graded mixture of stone fragments, gravel coarse sand, fine sand
and non-plastic or slightly plastic soil binder. The soils of this group are subdivided into
two subgroups, A- 1-a, consisting predominantly of stone fragments or gravel and A-I-b
consisting predominantly of coarse sand.
A-2 group of soils include a wide range of granular soils ranging from A- 1 to A-3
groups, consisting of granular soils and upto 35% fines of A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7 groups.
Based on the fines content, the soils of A-2 groups are subdivided into subgroups A-2-4,
A-3 soils consist mainly, uniformly graded medium or fine sand similar to beach
sand or desert blown sand. Stream-deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand with
some coarse sand and gravel are also included in this group.
A-4 soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in nature with
liquid limit and plasticity index values less than 40 and 10 respectively
A-5 soils are also silty soils with plasticity index less than 10%, but with liquid
limit values exceeding 40%. These include highly elastic or compressible, soils, usually
of diatomaceous of micaceous character.
A-6 group of soils are plastic clays, having high values of plasticity index
exceeding 10% and low values of liquid limit below 40%; they have high volume change
properties with variation in moisture content.
A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils, but with high values of both liquid limit and
plasticity index
Cylindrical mould
Mould 150mm dia, 175mm height with 50mm collar height, detachable perforated
base with spacer disc of 148mm dia and 47.7mm thick is used to obtain a
specimen of exactly 127.3mm height.
Loading Machine
Compaction rammer
Type of compaction No of layers Wt of hammer Fall (cm) No of blows
(kg)
Light compaction 3 2.6 31 56
Heavy compaction 5 4.89 45 56
2.5 Kgs of surcharge wt of 147mm dia are placed on specimen both at the soaking
and testing of prepared samples.
Procedure:
About 5kgs of soil is taken passing though 20mm IS sieve and retained on 4.75mm IS
sieve
The spacer disc is placed at the bottom of the mould over the base plate & a coarse
filter paper is placed over the spacer disc.
Then the moist soil sample is to be compacted over this in the mould by adopting
either IS light compaction or IS heavy compaction.
After compacting the last layer, The collar is removed and the excess soil above the
top of the mould is evenly trimmed off by means of straight edge (of 5mm thickness).
Clamps are removed ant the mould with compacted soil is lifted leaving below the
perforated base plate & the spacer disc which is removed.
Filter paper is placed on the perforated base plate & the mould with compacted soil is
inverted & placed in position over the base plate.
Another filter paper is placed on the placed on the top surface of the sample & the
perforated plate with adjustable stem is placed over it.
Now surcharge weights of 2.5 or 5kgs are placed over the perforated plate & the
whole mould with the weights is placed in a water tank for soaking such that water
can enter the specimen both from the top & bottom.
The initial dial gauge readings is recorded & the test set up is kept undisturbed in the
water tank to allow soaking of the soil specimen for full 4 days or 96 hrs.
The final dial gauge reading is noted to measure the expansion & swelling of the
specimen due to soaking.
The swell measurement assembly is removed, the mould is taken out of the water tank
& the sample is allowed to drain in a perpendicular position for 15 min surcharge wt,
perforated plate with stem, filter paper are removed.
The mould with the soil subgrade is removed from the base plate & is weighed again
to determine the wt of water absorbed.
Then the specimen is clamped over base plate surcharge wt‟s are placed on specimens
centrally such that the penetration test could be conducted.
The mould with base plate is placed under the penetration plunger of loading machine.
The penetration plunger is seated +at the centre of the specimen & is brought in
contact with the top surface of the soil sample by applying a seating load of 4kgs.
The dial gauge for measuring the penetration values of the plunger is fitted in
position The dial gauge of proving ring & the penetration dial gauge are set to 0.
The load is applied though the penetration plunger at a uniform rate of 1.5mm/min
The load reading are recorded at penetration reading 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5,
7.5, 10 & 12.5mm.
In case the load reading starts decreasing before 12.5mm penetration, the max load &
the corresponding penetration values are recorded.
After the final reading the load is released & the mould from loading machine.
The proving ring calibration factor is noted so that load dial gauge value can be
converted into the load in kg.
Calculation :
Where,
Generally CBR value @ 2.5mm penetration is higher & this value is adopted.
The initial upward concavity of the load penetration is due to the piston surface not
being fully in contact with top of the specimen.
The plate bearing test has been devised to evaluate the supporting power of
subgrade or any other pavement layer by using plates of larger diameter.
Plate bearing test was originally meant to find the modulus of subgrade reaction in
the westergards‟s analysis for wheel load stresses in cement concrete pavement.
In the plate bearing test a compressive stress is applied to the soil or pavement layer
through rigid plates of relatively large size & the deflection are measurement for
various stress values.
K may be defined as the pressure sustained per unit deformation of subgrade at specified
pressure level using specified plate size.
The standard palte size for finding K value is 75cm dia in same test a smaller plate of
30cm dia is also used (75,60,45,30 & 22.5 cm dia).
Apparatus used
Bearing plate:
Loading equipment:
Reaction frame or dead load applied may be measured either by a proving ring or dial
gauge assembly.
Settlement measurement:
It may be made by means of 3 or 4 dial gauge fixed on the periphery of the bearing plate
from an independent datum frame. Datum frame should be supported from the loaded
area.
Procedure
At the test site, about 20cm top soil is removed & the site is leveled & the plate is
properly seated on the prepared surface.
The stiffening plates of decreasing dia are placed & the jack & proving ring assembly
are fitted to provide reaction against the frame.
3 or 4 dial gauges are fixed on the periphery of the palte from the independent datum
frame for measuring settlement.
A seating load of 0.07 kg/cm2 (320kgs for 75 dia) is applied & released after a few
sec. The settlement dial gauges reading are now noted corresponding to zero load.
In some cases the load capacity may not be adequate to cause 75cm dia plate to settle
0.175cm.
In such a case a plate of smaller dia (say 30cm) may be used.
Then K value should be found by applying a suitable correction for plate size.
Assuming the subgrade to be an elastic medium with modulus of elasticity E
(kg/cm2), the theoretical relationship of deformation (cm) under a rigid plate of radius
a (cm) is given by
Delta = 1.18Pa
E
But, K = P
D
Substitute the value of D in K
Therefore K = P x E
1.18 Pa K= E
1.18a
If the value of E is taken as constant for a soil, Then k x a = constant
i.e. Ka = ka or K = ka
A
Hence if the test is carried out with a smaller plate of radius a & the modulus of subgrade
reaction K is found.
Then the corrected value of modulus of subgrade reaction K for std plate of radius a, is
given by K = k1 a1
A
AGGREGATES
Introduction
Aggregates form the major portion of pavement structure and they form the prime
materials used in pavement construction. Aggregates have to bear stresses occurring due
to the wheel loads on the pavement and on the surface course they also have to resist wear
due to abrasive action of traffic.
Strength
Toughness
Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel
loads. Sever impact like hammering is quite move on water bound macadam roads where
stones protrude out especially after the monsoons.
Durability
The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist
disintegration due to the action of weather. The property of the stones to withstand the
adverse action of weather may called soundness.
Shape of Aggregates
The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve opening
through which an aggregate may pass, and not by the shape. Aggregates which happen to
fall in a particular size range may have rounded, cubical, angular flaky or elongated shape
of particles. It is e and donated particles will have less strength and durability when
compared with cubical angular or rounded articles of the same Stone. Hence too flaky and
too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water
when compared with bituminous materials, otherwise the bituminous coating on the
aggregate will be stripped off in presence of water.
In order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in construction, the
following tests are carried out:
(d) Soundness
The essential features of these tests are discussed below. Separate tests are
available for testing cylindrical stone specimens and coarse aggregates for crushing,
abrasion and impact tests. But due to the difficulties of preparing cylindrical stone
specimen which need costly core drilling, cutting and polishing equipment, the use of
such tests are now limited. Testing of aggregates is easy and simulate the field condition
better, as such these are generally preferred.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Introduction
(i) paving bitumen from Assam petroleum, denoted as A-type and designated as
grades A35, A 90, etc.
(ii) paving bitumen from other sources denoted as S-type and designated as grades S
35, S 90, etc.
(ii) Tar
Bitumen may be further divided as petroleum asphalt or bitumen and native asphalt. There
are different forms in which native asphalts are available. Native asphalts are those which
occur in a pure or nearly pure state in nature. Native asphalts which are associated with a
large proportion of mineral matter are called rock asphalts.
Bitumen
Crude petroleum obtained from different places are quite different in their
composition. The portion of bituminous material present in the petroleum‟s may widely
differ depending on the source. Almost all the crude petroleum‟s contain considerable
amounts of water along with crude oil. Hence the petroleum should be dehydrated first
before carrying out the distillation. General types of distillation processes are fractional
distillation and
Tests on Bitumen
(d) Float test (e) Specific gravity test (f) Softening point test
(g) Flash and Fire point test (h) Solubility test (i) Spot test
Cutback Bitumen
Cutback bitumen is defined as the bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced by a
volatile dilutant. For use in surface dressings, some type of bitumen macadam and soil
bitumen it is necessary to have a fluid binder which can be mixed relatively at low
temperatures. Hence to increase fluidity of the bituminous binder at low temperatures the
binder is blended with a volatile solvent. After the cutback mix in construction work, the
volatile gets evaporated and the cutback develops the properties. The viscosity of the
cutback and rate of which it hardens on the road depend on the characteristics and
quantity of both bitumen and volatile oil used as the diluent. Cutback bitumens are
available in three types, namely,
This classification is based on the rate of curing or hardening after the application. The
grade of cutback or its fluidity is designed by a figure which follows the initials; as an
example RC-2 means that it is a rapid curing cutback of grade 2.The cutback with the
lowest viscosity is designated by numeral 0, such as RC-0 and SC-0. Suffix numerals 0,
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 designate progressively thicker or more viscous cutbacks as the numbers
increase. This number indicates a definite viscosity irrespective of the type of cutback; in
other words, RC-2, MC-2 all have the same initial viscosity at a specified temperature.
The initial viscosity values (in seconds, standard tar viscometer) of various grades of
cutbacks as per ISI specifications are given in Table 6.7.
Thus lower grade cutbacks like RC-0, RC-l etc. would contain high prop solvent
when compared with higher grades like RC-4 or RC-5, RC-0 and MC-0 may contain
approximately 45 percent solvent and 55 percent bitumen, whereas, RC-5 and MC-5 may
contain approximately 15 percent solvent and 85 percent bitumen.
Rapid Curing Cutbacks are bitumens, fluxed or cutback with a petroleum Distillate such
as naphta or gasoline which will rapidly evaporate after using in construction, leaving the
bitumen binder. The grade of the R.C. cutback is governed by the proportion of the
solvent used. The penetration value of residue from distillation up to 3600C of RC
cutback bitumen is 80 to 120.
Medium curing cutbacks are bitumen fluxed to greater fluidity by blending with a
intermediate-boiling-point solvent like kerosene or light diesel oil. MC cutbacks
evaporate relatively at slow rate because the kerosene-range solvents will not evaporate
rapidly as the
gasoline-range solvents used in the manufacture of RC cutbacks. Hence the designation
„medium curing‟ is given to this cutback type. MC products have good wetting properties
and so satisfactory coating of fine grain aggregate and sandy soils is possible.
Slow curing cutbacks are obtained either by blending bitumen with high-boiling-
point gas oil, or by controlling the rate of flow and temperature of the crude during the
first cycle of refining. SC cutbacks or wood soils harden or set way slowly as it is a semi
volatile material.
(c) Penetration test, ductility test and test for matter soluble in carbon disulphide on
residue from distillation up to 360°C
(d) Flash point test on cutback using Pensky Martens closed type apparatus.
Bituminous Emulsion
Some of the general properties of road emulsions are judged by the following tests
(i) Residue on Sieving: It is desirable to see that not more than 0.25 percent by w of
emulsion consists of particles greater than 0.15 mm diameter.
(ii) Stability to Mixing with Coarse Graded Aggregate: This test carried out to fit the
emulsion breaks down and coats the aggregate with bitumen too early before
mixing is complete.
(iii) Stability to Mixing with Cement : This test is carried out to assess the stability
emulsions when the aggregate contains large proportions of fines.
(iv) Water Cement: To know the percentage water in the emulsion which depend the
type of the emulsion.
(v) Sedimentation: Some sedimentation may occur when a drum of emulsion is
standing before use, but on agitation, the emulsion redisperses and can be used.
(vi) Viscosity: The viscosity of emulsified bitumen should be low enough to be
sprayed through jets or to coat the aggregates in simple mixing.
Three types of bituminous emulsion are prepared, viz., (i) Rapid Setting (RS),
Medium Setting (MS) and (iii) Slow Setting (SS) types. Rapid Setting type emulsion is
suitable for surface dressing and penetration macadam type of construction. Medium
Setting type is used for premixing with coarse aggregates and Slow Setting type emulsion
is suitable for fine aggregate mixes.
Tar:
Tar is the viscous liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood and
coal carbonized or destructively distilled in the absence of air. Based on the material from
which tar is derived, it is referred to as wood tar or coal tar; the latter is more widely used
for road work because it is superior. Three stages for the production of road tar are
(iii) Blending of distillation residue with distillate oil fraction to give the desired road
tar.
There are five grades of roads tars, viz., RT- I, RT-2, RT-3, RT-4 and RT-5,
based on their viscosity and other properties. RT-l has the lowest viscosity and is used
for surface painting under exceptionally cold weather as this has very low viscosity. RT-
2 is recommended for standard surface painting under normal Indian climatic
conditions. RT-3 may be used for surface painting, renewal coats and premixing chips
for top course and light carpets. RT-4 is generally used for premixing tar macadam in
base course. For grouting purposes RT-5 may be adopted, which has the highest
viscosity among the road tars.
The various tests that are carried out on road tars are listed below
(viii) Distillation fraction on distillation upto 200°C, 200°C to 270°C and 270°C
to 3 30°C.
The requirements for the five grades of road tars based on the above test results are given
by the ISI. Bitumen and tar have black to dark brown colour. But bitumen is a petroleum
product whereas tar is produced by the destructive distillation of coal or wood .
Bitumen Tar
It has black to dark brown color It also has black to dark brown in color
It has better weather resisting property It has inferior weather resisting property
It neither binds the aggregate well nor retains It binds aggregate more easily & retain it
the presence of water better in the presence of water.
The mix design should aim at an economical blend, with proper gradation of
aggregates and adequate proportion of bitumen so as to fulfil the desired properties of
the mix. Bituminous concrete or asphaltic concrete is one of the highest and costliest
types of flexible pavement layers used in the surfacing course. The desirable properties
of a good bituminous mix are stability, durability, flexibility, skid resistance and
workability.
Mix design methods should aim at determining the properties of aggregates and
bituminous material which would give a mix having the following properties.
(i) Sufficient stability to satisfy the service requirements of the pavement and the
traffic conditions, without undue displacement
Requirements of a pavement
Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the
sub-grade soil
Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed
upon it Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of
vehicles
Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed
Types of pavements
The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two,
flexible pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are
transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The
flexible pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous
road). On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil
by flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement
concrete roads).
Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure (see Figure 19:1). The
wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic
The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and less quality material can
be used. Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be
either in the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments generally
found on low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on high
volume roads such as national highways) pavement layer
Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality expensive
materials are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials
are placed in lower layers.
Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on
the soil subgrade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are
not available.
Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate
layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed
above the sub-grade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-
grade and protect from surface water
Rigid pavements
Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a
wider area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure below
Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared
sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material.
Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer
can be called as base or sub-base course. In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab
action, and the pavement behaves like an elastic plate resting on a viscous medium Rigid
pavements are constructed by Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by
plate theory instead of layer theory.
30m. Dowel bars are required for load transfer. Reinforcements help to keep the slab
together even after cracks.Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement Complete
elimination of joints are achieved by reinforcement.
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors
include contact pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load
repetitions.
Contact pressure
The tire pressure is an important factor, as it determines the contact area and the
contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of
the contact area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often
considered.
Wheel load
The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the
pavement required to ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration
affects the stress distribution and deflection within a pavement. Many commercial
vehicles have dual rear wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within the limits.
The normal practice is to convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel load so that
the analysis is made simpler.
Axle configuration
The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by the
introduction of multiple axles.
Moving loads
The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at creep
speed. Many studies show that when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the
Repetition of Loads
The influence of traffic on pavement not only depends on the magnitude of the
wheel load, but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application
causes some deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these
Environmental factors
Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause
various damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types,
temperature and precipitation.
To carry maximum load within the specified limit and to carry greater load, dual
wheel, or dual tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is
the single wheel load having the same contact pressure, which produces same value of
maximum stress, deflection, tensile stress or contact pressure at the desired depth. The
procedure of finding the ESWL for equal stress criteria is provided below. This is a semi-
rational method, known as Boyd and Foster method, based on the following assumptions:
equalancy concept is based on equal stress; contact area is circular; influence angle is
450; and soil medium is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic half space.
Where P is the wheel load, S is the center to center distance between the two wheels, d is
the clear distance between two wheels, and z is the desired depth.
Vehicles can have many axles which will distribute the load into different axles,
and in turn to the pavement through the wheels. A standard truck has two axles, front axle
with two wheels and rear axle with four wheels. But to carry large loads multiple axles
are provided. Since the design of flexible pavements is by layered theory, only the wheels
on one side needed to be considered. On the other hand, the design of rigid pavement is
by plate theory and hence the wheel load on both sides of axle need to be considered.
Legal axle load:
The deformation of pavement due to a single application of axle load may be small
but due to repeated application of load there would be accumulation of unrecovered or
permanent deformation which results in failure of pavement.
An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage per pass to a pavement
by the ith type of axle relative to the damage per pass of a standard axle load. While
_finding the EALF, the failure criterion is important. Two types of failure criteria‟s are
commonly adopted: fatigue cracking and rutting. The fatigue cracking model has the
following form:
Where, i indicate Ith vehicle, and std indicate the standard axle. Now if we assume that
the strain is proportional to the wheel load,
where Nd is the permissible design rut depth (say 20mm), s the compressive strain at the
top of the subgrade,
and f4; f5 are constants. Once we have the EALF, then we can get the ESAL as given
below. Equivalent single axle load, ESAL =
Where, m is the number of axle load groups, Fi is the EALF for ith axle load group, and
ni is the number of passes of ith axle load group during the design period.
Example Let number of load repetition expected by 80 KN standard axle is 1000, 160
KN is 100 and 40 KN is 10000. Find the equivalent axle load. Solution:
Design traffic
Initial traffic
Initial traffic is determined in terms of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD). For
the structural design of the pavement only commercial vehicles are considered assuming
laden weight of three tones or more and their axle loading will be considered. Estimate of
the initial daily average traffic flow for any road should normally be based on 7-day 24-
hour classified traffic counts (ADT). In case of new roads, traffic estimates can be made
on the basis of potential land use and traffic on existing routes in the area.
Traffic growth rate
Design life
For the purpose of the pavement design, the design life is defined in terms of the
cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before strengthening of the
pavement is necessary. It is recommended that pavements for arterial roads like NH, SH
should be designed for a life of 15 years, EH and urban roads for 20 years and
The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of
commercial vehicles of different axle loads and axle configurations to the number of
standard axle-load repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per
commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the axle configuration, axle loading, terrain,
type of road, and from region to region. The axle load equivalency factors are used to
convert different axle load repetitions into equivalent standard axle load repetitions. For
these equivalency factors refer IRC: 37 2001. The exact VDF values are arrived after
extensive field surveys.
Vehicle distribution
Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two
lane roads and to allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design
should be based on total number of commercial vehicles in both directions
Dual carriageway roads: For the design of dual two-lane carriageway roads
should be based on 75 % of the number of commercial vehicles in each direction.
For dual three-lane carriageway and dual four-lane carriageway the distribution
factor will be 60 % and 45 % respectively.
Numerical example
Design the pavement for construction of a new bypass with the following data:
5. Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey = 2.5 standard axle per
commercial vehicle
The cement concrete slab is assumed to be homogeneous and to have uniform elastic
properties with vertical sub-grade reaction being proportional to the deflection.
Westergaard developed relationships for the stress at
interior, edge and corner regions, denoted as _i; _e; _c in kg/cm2 respectively and
given by the equation.
where h is the slab thickness in cm, P is the wheel load in kg, a is the radius of the wheel
load distribution in cm, l the radius of the relative stiffness in cm 29.1 and b is the radius
of the resisting section in cm
Temperature stresses
Warping stress
The warping stress at the interior, edge and corner regions, denoted as ά ti; ά te; ά
tc in kg/cm2 respectively and given by the equation
Frictional stresses
Where W is the unit weight of concrete in kg/cm2 (2400), f is the coefficient of sub
grade friction (1.5) and L is the length of the slab in meters.
Combination of stresses
The cumulative effect of the different stress give rise to the following thee critical cases
Summer, mid-day: The critical stress is for edge region given by α critical = α e + α te
– αf
Winter, mid-day: The critical combination of stress is for the edge region given by α
critical = α e+ α te + α f
Mid-nights: The critical combination of stress is for the corner region given by α
critical = α c + α tc
Introduction
The roads in India are classified based on location and functions. All the roads do not cater
for the same amount of traffic volume or intensity. Since the funds available at hand for
financing the construction projects are also meager, it is necessary to have roads which
cost less. The adoption of low cost roads is now preferred in developing countries like
India where large lengths of roads are to be constructed in the rural areas with the limited
finances available in the country. Earth roads and stabilized roads are typical examples of
low cost roads. Stabilized soil roads are gaining importance in the form of low cost roads.
EARTHWORK
General
The subgrade soil is prepared by bringing is to the desired grade and camber and
by compacting adequately. The subgrade may be either in embankment or in excavation,
depending on the topography and the finalized vertical alignment of the road to be
constructed.
Excavation
Excavation is the process of cutting or loosening and removing earth including rock form
its original position. Transporting and dumping it as a fill or spoil bank. The excavation
or cutting mat is needed in soil, soft rock or even in hard rock, before preparing the
subgrade.
Embankment
When it is required to raise the grade line of a highway above the existing ground
level it becomes necessary to construct embankments. The grade line may be raised due
to any of the following reasons
ii) To prevent damage to pavement due to surface water and capillary water.
iii) To maintain the design standards of the highway with respect to the Vertical
alignment.
i) Height
iii) Settlement
Stability of slopes
Height
The height of the embankment depends on the desired grade line of the highway and the
soil profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some times governed by stability
of foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is weak.
Fill Material
Settlement
The embankment may settle after the completion of construction either due to
consolidation and settlement of the foundation or due to settlement of the fill or due to
both. If the embankment foundation consists of compressible soil with high moisture
content, the consolidation can occur due to increase in the load. The settlement of the fill
is generally due to inadequate compaction during construction and hence by proper
compaction this type of settlement may be almost eliminated. Whatever be the type of
settlement, it is desirable that the settlement is almost complete before the construction of
pavement.
Stability of Foundation
When the embankment foundation consists of weak soil just beneath or at a certain
depth below in the form of a weak stratum, it is essential to consider the stability of the
foundation against a failure. This is all the more essential in the case of high
embankments. The foundation stability is evaluated and the factor of safety is estimated
by any of the following approaches:
(b) Estimating the average shear stress and strength at the foundation layers by
approximate methods and estimating the factor of safety.
Stability of Slopes
should be checked or the slope should be designed providing minimum factor of safety of
1.5. Often much flatter slopes are preferred in highway embankments due to aesthetic and
other reasons.
Construction of embankments
Preparation of Subgrade
The preparation of subgrade includes all operations before the pavement structure
could be laid over it and compacted. Thus the preparation of subgrade would include site
clearance, grading (embankment or cut section) and compaction. The subgrade may be
situated on embankment or excavation or at the existing ground surface. In all the cases,
site should be cleared off and the top soil consisting of grass roots rubbish and other
organic matter are to be removed. Next, the grading operation is started so as to bring the
vertical profile of the subgrade to designed grade and camber. Bull dozers, scrapers and
blade graders are useful equipment to speed up this work. It is most essential to compact
the top of
Soil Compaction
The various factors influencing soil compaction include the moisture content, amount and
type of compaction, soil type and stone content. It is a well known fact that there is an
optimum moisture content (OMC) for a soil which would give maximum dry density for a
particular type and amount of compaction. Hence it is always desirable to compact the
soil at the OMC after deciding the compacting equipment.
Compacting equipment
Rollers
General
An earth road is the cheapest type of road prepared from natural soil. The pavement
sections is totally made out of the soil available at site and at near-by borrow pits. The
type of construction by and large, depends upon the type of soil at site.
keep the pavement surface free of standing water; otherwise the soil being Previous, the
water would damage the pavement section by softening it. The maximum cross slope of 1
in 20 is recommended to avoid erosion due to rain waters and formation of cross ruts.
Specification of Materials
Soil of the following properties is considered satisfactory for constructing earth roads:
Construction Procedure
The construction of earth road may be divided into the following steps:
Material. The soil survey is carried out and suitable borrow pits are located within
economical haulage distances. The borrow pits are usually selected outside the land
width. The trees, shrubs, grass roots and other organic matter including top soil a
removed before excavating earth for construction.
Location. The centre line and road edges are marked on the ground along the
alignment, by driving wooden pegs. Reference pegs are also driven to help in
following the desired vertical profile of the road during construction. The spacing of
the reference pegs depends on the estimated length of road construction per day
c) Shaping of subgrade.
The site clearance may be carried out manually using appliances like spade, pick and
shovel. Mechanical equipment like dozer, scraper and ripper may also be used for the
purpose. Construction of fills and excavation of costs to bring the road profile to the
desired grade may also be done either manually or using excavation, hauling and
compaction equipment.
Pavement construction. The borrowed soil (more than one soil type mixed to the
desired proportion, if necessary) is dumped on the prepared subgrad and pulverized. The
field moisture content is checked and additional water is added, if necessary, to bring it
upto OMC. light compaction is considered desirable. The camber of the finished
pavement surface is checked and corrected if necessary.
Opening to traffic. The compacted earth road is allowed to dry out for a few days
before opening to traffic.
General
Gravel roads are considered superior to earth roads as they can carry heavier
traffic. The road consists of a carriageway constructed using the gravels. The camber mat
be between I in 25 and 1 in 30. A well compacted crushed rock or gravel road is fairly
resilient and does not become slippery when wet.
Material
Construction Procedure
Material Gravel to be used for the construction is stacked along the sides of theproposed
road.
Preparation of subgrade. Site is cleared and fills and cuts are completed. Trench
isformed to the desired depth of construction. The width of the trench is made equal to
that of the carriageway. The trench is brought to the desired grade and is compacted.
Pavement construction. Crushed gravel aggregates are placed carefully in the trenchso
as to avoid segregations. Aggregates are spread with greater thickness at centre and less
towards the edges so as to obtain the desired camber. The layer is rolled using smooth
wheeled rollers starting from the edges and proceeding towards the centre with an
overlap of atleast half the width of roller in the longitudinal direction. Some quantity of
water may also be sprayed and rolling is done again s that the compaction is effective.
The camber is checked and corrected from time to time using a template or camber
board.
Opening to traffic. A few days after the final rolling and drying out, the road
isopened to the traffic.
General
The Water bound macadam (WBM) is the construction known after the name of
John also article 2.16 and 2.17. The term macadam in the present day means, the
pavement base course made of crushed or broken aggregate mechanically interlocked by
rolling and the voids filled with screening and binding material with the assistance of
water.
Coarse Aggregates
The coarse aggregate used in WBM generally consists of hard varieties of crushed
aggregates or broken stones. However, soft aggregates like over burnt bricks metal or
naturally occurring soft aggregates such as kankar or laterite may be used. Crushed slag
obtained from blast furnace may also be used
The crushed stone aggregate should be generally hard, durable and free from
flaky and elongated particles. The IRC specifies the following ph requirement of
coarse aggregates for WBM construction, in terms of the test value the three
pavement layers.
Quantity of Materials
Construction Procedure
The foundation for receiving the new layer of WBM may be either the subgrade or
sub-base or base course. This foundation layer is prepared to the required grade and
camber and the dust and either loose materials are cleaned. On existing road surface, the
depressions and pot-holes are filled and the corrugations are removed by scarifying and
reshaping the surface to the required grade and camber as necessary. If the existing
surface is a bituminous surfacing, ftirrows of depth 50 mm and width 50 mm cut at 1.0 m
intervals and at 45 degrees to the centre line of the carriageway before laying the Coarse
aggregate.
The coarse aggregates are spread uniformly to proper profile to even thickness
upon the prepared foundation and checked by templates. The WBM course is normally
constructed to compacted thickness of 7.5 cm except in the case of WBM sub-base course
using coarse aggregate grading no.1 which is of 10.0 cm compacted thickness.
Rolling
Application of Screenings.
After the coarse aggregates are rolled adequately, the dry screenings are
gradually over the surface to fill the interstices in three or more applications
Sprinkling and Grouting
After the application of screenings, the surface is sprinkled with water, swept
rolled. Wet screenings are swept into the voids using hand brooms. Ad• screenings are
applied and rolled till the coarse aggregates are well bonded and firmly set.
After final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set over-night. On the next
day the „hungry‟ spots are located and are filled with screenings or binding material,
lightly sprinkled with water if necessary and rolled. No traffic is allowed till the WBM
layer sets and dries out.
Introduction
Number of types and methods are in use for bituminous pavement construction. It
is attempted to broadly classify them here based on the methods of construction. The
following construction techniques are in use:
a) Penetration macadam
b) Built-up spray Grout.
Interface Treatment
Thus surface of the existing pavement layer is to be cleaned to remove dust and dir
and a thin layer of bituminous binder is to be sprayed 1.
Prime coat: Bituminous prime coat is the first application of a low viscosity
liquidbituminous material over an existing porous or absorbent pavement surface like the
WBM base course.
Tack coat. Bituminous tack coat is the application of bituminous material over existing
cement concrete pavement or a pervious surface like the WBM which has already been
treated by a prime coat.
Seal Coat
Penetration Macadam
In this group of methods the aggregates and the bituminous binder are mixed
thoroughly before spreading and compacting. It is possible to coat each particle of
aggregate with the binder still the quantity of binder used may be considerably lesser than
penetration macadam type construction. In premixed constructions, the quantity of
bitumen used could be precisely controlled and they offer increased stability of the mix
even with lower bitumen contents.
Bituminous Macadam
Premixed Carpet (PC) consists of coarse aggregates of 12.5 and 10.0 mm sizes,
premixed with bitumen or tar binder are compacted to a thickness of 20 mm to serve as a
surface course of the pavement. Being a open graded construction, the PC is to be
invariably covered by a suitable seal coat such as premixed sand-bitumen seal coat before
opening to traffic. The PC consists of all aggregates passing 20 mm and retained on
6.3mm sieve. When a fairly well graded material as per specification is used for the
construction of the bituminous carpet of thickness 20 o 25 mm, the construction method
is called semi-dense carpet.
Sheet Asphalt
Mastic Asphalt
are quite different. The mastic asphalts when cooled results in a hard, stable and durable
layer suitable to withstand heavy traffic. This material also can absorb vibrations and has
property f self-healing of cracks without bleeding. It is a suitable surfacing materials for
bridge deck slabs.
Specifications of Materials:
The grades of bitumen used are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100 penetration. Road tar RT-
4, cutback and emulsion can also be used in cold mix construction technique. The binder
content used varies from 3.0 to 4.5 percent by weight of the mix). Aggregates used are of
low porosity fulfilling the following requirements for the base Course.
For binder course the specified maximum abrasion and impact values are 40 and
30 percent respectively.
The grading of the aggregates for 75 mm and 50 mm thickness for base and binder
course instruction as specified by Indian Roads Congress are given in Table 8.4 (a) &
respectively. The quantity of aggregates required for 10 m2 of bitumen bound macadam
are 0.60 to 0.75 m3 and 0.90 to 1.0 m3 respectively, for 50 and 75 mm compacted
thickness. The bitumen quantity would be determined based on the grading adopted as
specified above.
Constructions Steps
Preparation of existing layer: The existing layer is prepared to a proper profile. Pot
holes are patched and irregularities are made even. The surface is properly cleaned.
Tack coat or prime coat application: A track coat is applied of thin layer of bitumen
binder on the existing layer either using the sprayer or a pouring can. the quantity of
application is 40 to 7.5 kg per 10 m2 for black top layer and 7.5 to 10kg per 10 m2 for
untreated WBM layer.
Rolling and finishing The paving mix. The rolling is done with 8 to 10 tones
tandemroller. The rolling is commenced from the edges of the pavement construction
towards the centre, and uniform overlapping is provided. The finished surface should
not show separate lines of markings due to defective or improper rolling. The roller
wheels are kept damp, otherwise the paving mix may partly stick to the wheels and
the finishing may not be good. A variation of 6 mm over 3 m length is allowed in the
cross profile. The number of undulations exceeding 10 nun should be less than 30 in
300 m length of pavement.
bitumen binder. The mix is prepared in a hot-mix plant. The thickness of the bituminous
concrete layer depends upon the traffic and quality of base course.
The specifications of materials and the construction steps for bituminous concrete or
asphaltic concrete (AC) surface course are given below:
Specification of Materials:
b) Aggregates and Filler: The coarse aggregates should fulfill the following
requirements
Soundness:
The gradation of aggregates and filler should conform to those given in Table 8.5.
Grading 1 Grading 2
20.00 - 100
Introduction
The Cement concrete pavement maintains a very high recognition among the
engineer and the road users alike. Due to the excellent riding surface and pleasing
appearance, the cement concrete roads are very much preferred.
The materials required for plain concrete slabs are cement coarse aggregates, fine
aggregates and water. In case reinforcement is provided, steel wire fabric or bar mats may
Department Of Civil Engineering, SJBIT Page 112
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be used of the required size and spacing. Other materials are for the construction of joints,
such as load transfer devices, joints filler and sealer.
Cement:
Coarse aggregates:
The maximum size of coarse aggregates should not exceed one fourth the slab
thickness. The gradation of coarse aggregate may range from 50 to 4.75 mm or 40 to 4.75
mm, the aggregate is collected in two size ranges, one below and the other above 20mm
size. When the grading is from 20 to 50 mm, the materials are collected in two groups,
below and above 25 mm size.:
Fine aggregate.
Natural sands should be preferred as fine aggregate though crushed Stones may
also be used.
Proportioning of concrete.
The equipment necessary for the construction of cement concrete slabs are for
batching, placing, finishing and carrying the concrete pavement. Equipment commonly
used are given below.
Concrete Mixer:
If batching by volume is required then the separate measuring boxes are provided
for the different aggregates. Each box is provided with a straight edge for striking off
excess material after filling.
Batching Device
Concrete mixer of adequate capacity of the batch type is provided. It has a rated
capacity of not less than 0.2 m3 of mixed concrete. The mixture is equipped with a water
measuring device capable of accurate measurement of water required per batch. Some
mixtures are also equipped with timing devices which automatically lock the discharge
lever during the full time of mixing and releases it at the end of mixing period.
Wheel Borrow
Wheel borrows with two wheels are used to transport concrete for short distances
from the mixer.
Vibrating Screed
Vibrating screed comprises of a wooden or mild steel screed with suitable handles
driven by vibrating units mounted thereon, propelled either electrically or by compressed
air or by a petrol engine, and travelling on side forms.
Internal Vibrators
It comprises of vibrating head with suitable motive power either of compressed air,
electricity or of a petrol driven engine right enough to ensure proper control and
manipulation in the mass of concrete. It is used to ensure compaction of the cement
concretealong with the forms and also to avoid any tendency of honey-combing at the
edges of the slab.
Tools and appliances for surface, finishing operations in common use are float,
straight edge, belt and fiber brush.
Float
The longitudinal float is of 75 cm length and 7.5 cm width and is made of hard
wood and is fixed with handle. (See Fig. 8.15). This is used for smoothing the concrete.
Straight Edge:
Belt:
Canvas belts are used for finishing the pavements surface before the concrete
hardens. The canvas is of 25 cm width and atleast 75 cm longer than the width of
pavement slab. It has two wooden handles at the end. See Fig. 8.17.
Fibre Brush:
Fibre brush broom is used to make broom marks across the pavement surface and
to make it skid resistance. Hard fibres are used projecting out of the wooden bursh of
length 45cm and width 7.5 cm, with a handle about 2 meter long.
Edging Tool
The edging tool is used for rounding the transverse edges at expansion joints and
the longitudinal edges. The vertical limb of this tool extends to the required depth. The
rounded edge of the M.S. plate has radius f 6 mm.
Other small tools d equipment such as spades, shovels and pans water pots etc.
necessary for the work are also provided.
The subgrade or sub-base for laying of the concrete slabs should comply with the
wing requirement; that no soft spots are present in the subgrade or sub-base; that the
uniformly compacted subgrade or sub-base extends atleast 30 cm on either side of the
width to be concreted; that the subgrade is properly drained; that the minimum modulus
subgrade reaction obtained with a plate bearing test is 5.54 kg/cm2.
over the soil subgrade. In such a case, the moistening of the subgrade prior to
placing of the concrete is not required.
(iii) Batching of Material and Mixing
After determining the proportion of ingredients for the field mix, the fine
aggregates and coarse aggregates are proportioned by weight in a weight-batching plant
and placed into the hopper along with the necessary quantity of cement. Cement is
measured by the bag. All batching of material is done on the basis of one or more whole
bags of cement.
The cement concrete is mixed in quantities required for immediate use and is
deposited on the soil subgrade or sub-base to the required depth and width of the
pavement section within the form work in continuous operation.
(a) Concrete as soon as placed, is struck off uniformly and screeded to the
crown and cross-section of the pavement to conform the grade.
(b) The tamper is placed on the side forms and is drawn ahead in combination
with a series of lifts and drops to compact the concrete.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
INTRODUCTION
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and
sub-soil water within the right of way this includes interception and diversion of water
from the road surface and subgrade. The installation of suitable surface and sub-surface
drainage system is an essential part of highway design and construction.
Significance of Drainage
Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its stability the
pavement is likely to fail due to subgrade failure as discussed in Article 10.1.
One of the most important causes of pavement failure by the formation of waves and
corrugations in flexible pavements is due to poor drainage.
Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavements causes failures due to stripping
of bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some of the bituminous
pavement layers and formation of pot holes.
In places where freezing temperatures are prevalent in winter, the presence of water in
the subgrade and a continuous supply of water from the ground water can cause
considerable damage to the pavement due in frost action.
The surface water from the carriageway and shoulder should effectively be drained off
without allowing it to percolate to subgrade.
The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering the
roadway. The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry
away all the
Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes should not cause
formation of cress ruts or erosion.
SURFACE DRAINAGE
The surface water is to be collected and then disposed off. The water is first
collected in longitudinal drains, generally in side drains and then the water is disposed off
at the nearest stream, valley or water course. Cross drainage structures like culverts and
small bridges may be necessary for the disposal of surface water from the road side
drains.
The water from the pavement surface is removed by providing the camber or cross
slope to the pavement. The rate of this cross slope is decided based on type of pavement
surface and amount rainfall.
where there is restriction of space, Construction of deep open drains may be undesirable.
This is particularly true when the road formation is in cutting. In such cases covered
drains or drainage trenches properly filled with layers of coarse sand and gravel may be
used. In urban roads because of the limitation of land width and also due to the presence
of foot path, dividing islands and other road facilities, it is necessary to provide
underground longitudinal
drains. Water drained from the pavement surface can be carried forward in the longitudinal
direction between the kerb and the pavement for short distances (See Fig. 4.9). This water
may be collected in catch pits at suitable intervals and lead through underground drainage
pipes. Section of a typical catch pit with grating to prevent the entry of rubbish into the
drainage system.
Drainage of surface water is all the more important in hill roads. Apart from the
drainage of water from the road formation, the efficient diversion and disposal of water
flowing down the hill slope across the road and that from numerous cross streams is an
important part of hill road construction. If the drainage system in hill road is not adequate
and efficient, it will result in complex maintenance problems.
The design of surface drainage system may be divided into two phases:
Once the design runoff Q is determined, the next step is the hydraulic design
of drains. The side drains and partially filled culverts are designed based on the
principles of flow through open channels.
The following data are to be collected for the design of road side drain:
Total road length and width of land from where water is expected to flow on the stretch
of the side drain.
Run-off coefficients of different types of surfaces in the drainage area and their respective
areas (such as paved area, road shoulder area, turf surface, etc.)
Designed Steps
Simplified steps for the design of longitudinal drains of a road to drain off the
surface water given below:
The frequency of return period such as 10 years, 25 years etc. is decided based on
finances available and desired margin of safety, for the design of the drainage system.
The values of coefficients of run-off C1, C2, C3 etc. from drainage areas A1, A2, A3
Inlet time for the flow of storm water from the farthest point in the drainage area to
the drain inlet along the steepest path of flow is estimated from the distance, slope of the
ground and type of the cover. Figure 11.3 may be used for this purpose.
Time of flow along the longitudinal drain T2 is. determined for the estimated length of
longitudinal drain L upto the nearest cross drainage or a water course and for the
allowable velocity of flow V in the drain i.e., T2 = L.
The total time T for inlet flow and flow along the drain is taken as the time of
concentration or the design value of rain fall duration, T = T1 + T2.
The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a convenient bottom width
and side slop of the drain. The actual depth of the open channel drain may be increased
slightly to give a free board. The hydraulic mean radius of flow R is determined.
The required longitudinal slope S of the drain is calculated using Manning‟s
formula adopting suitable value of roughness coefficient n.
drain in a sandy clay soil from the inlet point to the cross drainage is 540m. The velocity
of flow in the side drain may be assumed as 0.6 rn/sec so that silting and erosion are
prevented. Estimate the design quantity of flow on the side drain for a ten-years period
of frequency of occurrence of the storm.
Cross Drainage
Whenever streams have to cross the roadway, facility for cross drainage is to be
provided. Also often the water from the side drain is taken across by these cross drain in
order to divert the water away from the road, to a water course or valley. The cross
drainage structures commonly in use are culveris and small bridges. When a small stream
crosses a road with a linear waterway less than about six meter, the cross drainage
structure provided is called culvert; for higher values of linear waterway, the structure is
called a bridge.
SURFACE DRAINAGE
The Highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of subgrade, in
order that the subgrade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture.
From practical considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept atleast 1.0
to 1.2 m the subgrade. In places where water table is high (almost at ground level at
times) the best remedy is to take the road formation on embankment of height not less
than 1.0 to 1.2 meter. When the formation is to be at or below the general ground level, it
would be necessary to lower the water table.
INTRODUCTION
The government or any other agency finances highway developments. The funds for these
are generally recovered 1ins the road users in the form of direct and indirect taxations.
General Benefits
Several benefits are brought to highway users and others due to the construction of
a new highway or by improving a highway. Road user benefits are the advantages,
privileges or savings that accrue to drivers or owners through the use of one highway
facility as compared with the use of another. The various benefits due to highway
improvement may be classified into two categories: (i) quantifiable or tangible benefits in
terms of market values and (ii) non quantifiable or intangible benefits.
Quantifilab1e Benefits
Various benefits which can be quantified include benefits to road user such as
reduction in vehicle operation cost, time cost and accident cost. The other benefits
include enhancement in land value. These are briefly explained below:
Saving in vehicle operation cost is due to reduction in fuel and oil consumption and
reduction in wear and tear of tyres and other maintenance costs. A road with sharp
curves and steep grades require frequent speed changes; presence of intersections
require stopping idling and accelerating; vehicle operation on road stretches with high
traffic volume or congestion necessitates speed changes and stopping and increased
travel time.
Non-quantable Benefits
Cost dependent on time expressed as cost per year such as interest on capita
depreciation cost, registration fee, insurance charges, garage rent, driver‟s license
salaries etc. as applicable.
Cost depending on distance driven expressed as cost per vehicle-kilometer. The items
which may be included here are fuel, oil, tyres, maintenance and repairs etc.
Cost dependent on speed include cost of fuel, oil and tyre per vehicle-km-time-cost of
vehicles, travel time value of passengers, etc.
Cost dependent on type of vehicle and its condition. Operation costs of larger vehicles
are comparatively higher. The operation cost of old vehicles maintained in poor
condition is also higher.
Accident costs.
The costs of vehicle operation and time for unit distance may be taken as:
T = a+ (b+c) (14.1)
Speed
Where
pavement surface and its condition, grades, curves and traffic volumes. Also the time
costs and accident costs are taken into consideration.
Example 14.1
Calculate the operating cost of a passenger car for 100 km length of a rural
highway with no sharp curves for most economical speed of vehicles operation using
the following
HIGHWAY COSTS
General
The total Highway Cost for road user benefit analysis is the sum of the capital
costs expressed on an annual basis and the annual cost of maintenance. The total cost for
highway improvement is obtained from the estimate prepared from the preliminary plans.
The total cost of each highway engineering improvement proposal is calculated from the
following five components
Computation of total annual highway cost based on summation of the annual cost of
individual items of improvements and their average useful lives is considered to be a
proper and accurate approach.It is difficult to estimate the service lives of highway
elements as there are several variables such as soil, climate topography and traffic. Road
life studies enable estimation of lives of pavements, bridges and other roadway facilities.
(i) Administration (a portion) Personal service, building, equipment operation,
office, insurance etc.
(iv) Highway capital cost : Cost of highway components such as right of way,
damage, earthwork, drainage system. pavement bridges and traffic services
depreciation cost and interest on investment.
(v) Probable life and salvage value at the end of this period.
The average annual highway cost for a road system may be summed up by
the formula.
Ca – H + T + M + Cr
where
The annual cost is considered in the economic assessment of highway projects. Instead of
considering the overall cost of a project the annual repayment of a capital loan plus the
interest over a specified period of time of the annual capital cost is considered in the
analysis.
Methods of Analysis
There are several methods of economic analysis. Some of the common methods
are. Annual-cost Method, Rate-of-Return Method and Benefit-Cost Method.
Annual-Cost Method
by the appropriate CRF value calculated for the assume life span. The annual cost Cr
may be found using the relation (Eq. 14.3).
C1 = P. i(1+i)n = P(CRF)
(1+i)n-1
Rate-of-Return Method
There are number of variations for the determination of raw of return of a
highway improvement. In the rate of return method, die interest rate at which two
alternative solutions have equal annual cost is found, If the rate of return of all proposed
projects are known, the priority for the improvement could be established.
= R – R1
H1 - H
improvement
The benefit-cost ratios are determined between alternate proposals and those
plans dub are not attractive are discarded. Then the benefit cost ratios for various
increments of added investment are computed to arrive at the best proposal. hi order to
justify the proposed improvement, the ratio should be greater than 1.0. However, the
choice of interest rate would affect the results of the benefit-cost solutions.
HIGHWAY FINANCE
Pay-as-you-go method
operation is made from the central revenue. In credit financing method, the payment
for highway improvement is made from borrowed money and this amount and the
interests are
re-paid from the future income.
The question of distributing highway cost among the Government, road-user and
other has been a disputed task in several countries. Many economists are of the view that
the financial responsibility for roads should be assigned only among the beneficiaries on
the basis of the benefit each one receives.
There are several theories suggesting the method of distribution of highway taxes
between passenger cars and other commercial vehicles like the trucks. However in India
the annual revenue from transport has been much higher than the expenditure on road
development and maintenance. Therefore there is no problem of distributing the highway
cost among other agencies. Also the taxation on vehicles is being considered separately
by the states and there seems to be no theory followed for the distribution of taxes
between various classes of vehicles.
Sources of Revenue
The various sources from which funds necessary for highway development
and maintenance may be made available, are listed below:
Duties and taxes on new vehicles and spare part including tyres
Property taxes
Toll taxes
The responsibility of financing different roads lies with the Central Government,
State Governments and local bodies including Corporations, Municipalities, District
Boards and Panchayats.
Ever since the introduction of Central Road Fund (CRF) in the year 1929 by taxing motor
fuel, this has been the main source of finance for the State Government to meet the road
development needs, without having to go through the time consuming process of special
sanctions each time. However of late the CRF is also being merged with the general
revenue, in March 1976 the Lok Sabha has passed the resolution Of the Ministry of
Transport ensuring