Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109

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Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jweia

Dispersion of ultrafine particles in the wake of car models: A wind

tunnel study
Romain Rodriguez a, Fr
ed
eric Murzyn a, *, Amine Mehel b, Frederique Larrarte c
a
ESTACA West Campus, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Air Quality and Depollution Group, Rue Georges Charpak, 53000, Laval, France
b
ESTACA Paris Saclay Campus, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Air Quality and Depollution Group, Avenue Paul Delouvrier, 78066, Saint Quentin en Yvelines,
France
c
University Gustave Eiffel, IFSTTAR, Department of Geotechnics, Environment, Natural Risks and Earth Sciences, 14-20 Boulevard Newton, 77447, Marne La Vall
ee
Cedex 2, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Worldwide around 7 million annual deaths are due to air pollution. Among all pollutants, Ultrafine Particles
Dispersion (UFP) cause strong adverse effects. In this paper, the dispersion of UFP is studied in the wake of car models
Ultrafine particle characterized by different rear slant angles (ϕ). Velocities and UFP concentrations are collected in a wind tunnel.
Particle number concentration
The influence of the flow topology on the dispersion of these UFP is discussed. The results indicate that its
Ahmed body
Wake flow
structure strongly influences their dispersion. Whatever the rear slant angle is, the size of the recirculation region
Recirculation region is a key parameter governing the dispersion of these UFP. For ϕ ¼ 0 , the flow is almost symmetric and con-
Wind tunnel centration levels are higher and homogeneous in the close wake. The recirculation region is the largest one. The
LASER Doppler velocimetry dispersion is enhanced in both horizontal and spanwise directions. For ϕ ¼ 25 , the flow is attached on the rear
slant leading to a strong downwash effect. The volume of the recirculation region is the smallest. Longitudinal
vortices develop from the edges of car model entrapping particles. Particle Number Concentration field is no more
symmetric. For ϕ ¼ 35 , results are almost similar to those obtained for ϕ ¼ 0 . Comparisons with previous studies
are discussed and possible applications are suggested.

1. Introduction
Air quality improvement is a key issue with important consequences
in terms of public health and environmental issues. In France, the at-
mospheric pollution often reaches peaks above recommended thresholds
in big cities such as Paris, Lyon or Lille leading to traffic restrictions
(Mehel et al., 2019). There are huge economic related challenges as well
as health concerns. As an example, in France, the annual cost of air
pollution has been estimated to 101 Billions of Euros. This is twice as
tobacco. Per year, 650000 days of work stoppage are recorded due to air
pollution. At a larger scale, the economic shortfall in the world is about
200 Billions of Euros (Daycard-Heid, 2019). It is worthwhile to note that
other consequences are linked with this issue such as global warming or
fouling of buildings. Overall, it greatly impacts the total cost for hu-
manity as well as for the environment. The surrounding air contains
gaseous pollutants (nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide or Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC) such as benzene) and particles. According to the
French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME, 2018),
they are issued from agriculture, transports, industries, heating as well as
green waste burning … Particles can be classified according to their size
as coarse particles (diameter between 2.5 μm and 10 μm), fine particles
(diameter between 0.1 μm and 2.5 μm) and ultrafine particles (known as
UFP, diameter below 100 nm). Among all UFP emissions sources,
transportation systems contribute to up to 90% of the total emissions in
number (Mejia et al., 2007; Manigrasso et al., 2019). As it will be
explained below, these smallest particles are more toxic than the larger
ones. They are not dangerous because of their mass but because of their
number. Furthermore, they can infiltrate the car cabin increasing com-
muter’s exposure (Airparif, 2007; Hudda et al., 2011; Hudda et al., 2012;
Joodatnia et al., 2013; Knibbs and de Dear., 2010; Knibbs et al., 2010;
Knibbs et al., 2011; Mehel et al., 2019; Morin et al., 2009; Polednik et al.,
2018; Xu and Zhu, 2013). It is well-known that Diesel engines play an
important role (ADEME, 2018) for primary particles and nitrogen oxide
emissions. There are other sources of emission such as brakes, tyre wear
and roadworks (dust). Such particles are also harmful because of their
small sizes and their chemical nature. Nevertheless, they are out of the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: frederic.murzyn@estaca.fr (F. Murzyn).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2020.104109
Received 26 August 2019; Received in revised form 19 January 2020; Accepted 20 January 2020
Available online 31 January 2020
0167-6105/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Rodriguez et al.
scope of the present paper. For a Diesel engine, at the exit of the tailpipe,
the particle size distribution (PSD) exhibits two peaks. The main one is
the first that corresponds to particles having a diameter around 10 nm
(nuclei mode). They are numerous but their contribution to the total
mass is weak. The second one is depicted around 200 nm (accumulation
mode). In that size range, particles are less numerous but heavier.
In the past, it has been clearly demonstrated that UFP can reach the
alveolar region of the human lung with greater efficiency than larger
particles. They can deposit in alveoli due to their rapid diffusion. They
can also damage pulmonary cells and enter blood and respiratory systems
(Buzea et al., 2007). Recently, Valentino et al. (2016) stated that
“maternal exposure to diluted diesel engine exhaust alters placental
function and induces intergenerational effects in rabbits” meaning that
UFP can cross placenta barrier exposing foetus. According to Buzea et al.
(2007), nanoparticles are able to contaminate any part of the human
body including the brain. Air pollution is responsible for aggravation of
cardiopulmonary and respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, asthma,
lung cancer and exacerbation of allergies (Araujo et al., 2008; Delfino
et al., 2005; Diaz-Sanchez et al., 2003; Manigrasso and Avino, 2012;
Manigrasso et al., 2019; Pope et al., 2002; Silverman et al., 2012; Sioutas
et al., 2005; Tissot, 1999; Valberg, 2004; Verrier et al., 2002; Zweiman
et al., 1972). Furthermore, it can be responsible for other adverse effects
such as visibility reduction for drivers (known as particle fog) which
increases the risk for accidents or a decline in agricultural yields (Bell
et al., 2004). As an example, the decrease of the latter point was assessed
to be about 10% around Paris for wheat by INRA (Daycard-Heid, 2019).
In 2019, a new study revealed even more alarming conclusions (Lelieveld
et al., 2019). The surrounding pollution may kill twice compared to
previous estimations. The worsening of air quality due to human activ-
ities may be responsible for about 8.8 millions of death per year in the
world, 2.8 millions of them being in China and 67000 in France (against
48000 commonly considered). In France, that means that air pollution
kills as much as tobacco (72000) and more than alcohol (49000).
Worldwide, previous data suggested around 4.5 millions of death.
Furthermore, Lelieveld et al. (2019) attribute 40%–80% of untimely
deaths to cardiovascular diseases linked to air pollution.
Having that in mind, it has become crucial to get a better under-
standing of pollutant’s dynamics in the wake of a vehicle. In the present
article, attention is drawn to particles emitted from the tailpipe. Once
released in the atmosphere, they can either disperse in the surrounding
environment or infiltrate the car cabin of the following vehicles
increasing commuter’s exposure. Previous studies have shown that this
infiltration can be more or less important depending on ventilation set-
tings (Mehel et al., 2019) but only a few were interested in the pollutant
dispersion from their source (Richards, 2002; Gosse, 2005; Kanda et al.,
2006; Carpentieri et al., 2012; Mehel and Murzyn, 2015). Most of them
considered gaseous pollutant and passive scalar (Richards, 2002; Gosse,
2005; Kanda et al., 2006; Carpentieri et al., 2012). Consequently, they
did not provide PNC fields that would be more relevant. Then, there is
still a lack of knowledge about real PNC exposure that prevents epide-
miologic studies to be reliable. This is the reason why it has been hard to
fix any recommendation about UFP exposure in the early 2000s ac-
cording to World Health Organization (WHO).
Mehel and Murzyn (2015) performed a preliminary study using UFP.
They measured PNC in the wake of simplified car model showing the
strong influence of the flow topology on the UFP dispersion. From a fluid
mechanics point of view, Gillieron and Kourta (2011) recalled that the
governing parameter of the flow developing in the wake of a car is the
rear slant angle. In the earlier 1980s, Ahmed et al. (1984) proposed a
simplified geometry of a vehicle called the Ahmed body. Since that, it has
been widely investigated both numerically (Corallo et al., 2015; Guil-
mineau, 2008; Tunay et al., 2016) and experimentally (Gosse, 2005;
Lienhart and Becker, 2003; Lienhart et al., 2002; Thacker et al., 2012;
Tunay et al., 2014, 2016; Rodriguez, 2018; Watkins and Vino, 2008).
From the numerical point of view, the influence of turbulence models,
aspect ratio and stilts were discussed showing, for instance, the accuracy
2
Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109
of Large Eddy Simulation (LES) to predict flow features (Tunay et al.,
2016). From wind tunnel investigations, the sensitivity to experimental
conditions was discussed by Thacker et al. (2012). On the one hand, a
drag discrepancy of 10% was depicted for the same rear slant angle (ϕ ¼
25 ) depending on the flow separation on the rear slant (sharp versus
rounded edge). On the other hand, a lot of data (velocities and pressure)
was collected and the main flow properties such as length of the recir-
culation region, the positions of vortices and their centres were clearly
depicted for 0 <ϕ < 40 and different Reynolds numbers. Then, 2D and
3D maps of mean and turbulent flow properties are available in the
literature. Rodriguez (2018) presented a detailed review of the
state-of-the-art. Based on that, it has been shown that, depending on the
rear slant angle (ϕ), different flow topologies can be generated repre-
senting real situations. Working with such car models is then relevant to
discuss UFP dispersion. Nevertheless, the correlation between PNC and
flow topology has never been studied to date. Based on this statement, a
thorough work was undertaken for different shapes of vehicles.
In this paper, an overview of results on that topic issued from wind
tunnel investigations is addressed. First, the experimental facilities, the
instrumentation, data acquisition modes and analysis methods are
detailed. The three reduced scale and simplified car models (known as
Ahmed bodies) with different rear slant angles (ϕ ¼ 0 , 25 and 35 ) are
presented. In the third section, the most significant results are exposed
for both velocity and PNC fields. Correlations between them are dis-
cussed. The fourth section aims at discussing our experimental approach
with some previous studies. In the last section, a conclusion suggests
further studies that may be undertaken in a close future.
2. Experimental facilities, instrumentation and data acquisition
and analysis
2.1. Wind tunnel tests
Measurements were conducted in the wind tunnel at ESTACA West
Campus in Laval. It is an open circuit tool manufactured by Deltalab. The
test section is 1 m in length (Lwt) and 0.3 m in both width (Wwt) and
height (Hwt). The maximum wind speed is Umax ¼ 40 m/s. A detailed and
accurate calibration of the experimental facility with an empty test sec-
tion was performed before the present study (Rodriguez, 2018) and the
most relevant properties of the incoming flow were assessed (Rodriguez,
2018). That is the boundary layer (thickness and type), the velocity
gradient and the flow homogeneity. The most important results tend to
indicate that the turbulence level was below 1% on the streamwise di-
rection (out of the boundary layer). Furthermore, our boundary layer was
turbulent with a maximum thickness (δ) of 12 mm at the exit. Lastly, the
velocity gradient was low (<4% over the whole length). Overall,
the conditions were partially developed. Fig. 1 presents the wind tunnel.
The white arrow indicates the flow direction.
Fig. 1. Overview of the test section with LASER Doppler Velocimettry (LDV)
system and a car model.
R. Rodriguez et al.
2.2. Reduced-scale car models: Ahmed bodies
The flow regime associated with the wake dynamics is linked with the
drag force. This is particularly true for Ahmed bodies. Many studies
pointed out the relation between the rear part of the car model with the
structures of the wake flow (Leclerc, 2008; Thacker, 2010; Barros
(2015)). They mentioned that the drag due to the rear part of the car
represents almost 30% of the total drag. Considering the experimental
results giving the drag coefficient as a function of the rear slant angle (ϕ)
(Ahmed et al., 1984), three behaviors were clearly depicted:
- ϕ<~10 : the flow is 2D out of the walls and considered as square
back. The streamlines reveal a toric shape of the recirculation region.
In the centreline of the car model, two counter rotating vortices
develop in the close wake;
- ~10 <ϕ<~30 : the wake flow is defined as fastback. The flow is 3D
due to the interaction of the turbulent structures developing in the
wake. In this case, it is sometimes partially detached on the rear slant.
Longitudinal vortices appear coming from the lateral sides of the
vehicle. They lead to an increase of the drag, this drag being
maximum for ϕ~30 . In the close wake the toric shape of the recir-
culation region is still observed. Its length is smaller compared to that
measured for ϕ < 10 . Overall, the structure of the wake flow is much
more complex compared to the first case. The sensitivity to experi-
mental conditions is also more effective;
- ϕ>~30 : the situation is closed to that observed for ϕ<~10 . The
flow is then considered as square back. After reaching its peak, the
drag suddenly decreases (drag crisis) and recovers a level closed to
that measured for ϕ ¼ 0 . On the rear slant, the flow is fully detached.
Out of the walls, it can be considered as a 2D flow.
In the present experiments, these three flow topologies were exam-
ined. Then, measurements were conducted in the wake of three Ahmed
bodies having rear slant angles ϕ given by ϕ ¼ 0 , 25 and 35 . Scale of
models was 0.19 with respect to the original one developed by Ahmed
et al. (1984). In terms of dimensions, they were 0.196 m in length (L),
0.054 m in height (h) and 0.073 m in width (l). The models were fixed on
the floor of the test section by a cylindrical rod (diameter 5 mm) and four
stilts. The height (hs) and diameter (ds) of these stilts were 15 mm and 6
mm, respectively. This height was chosen to be larger than the boundary
layer thickness. Accordingly, the dimensionless ground clearance was Hs
¼ hs/h ¼ 0.28. To avoid any correction of wall effects, the models were
designed so that the blockage coefficient was below 5% (West and Apelt,
1982). This coefficient is given by the ratio between the frontal area of
the car and the area of the test section (Wang et al., 2013) (Eq. (1)).
h*l
B¼ (1)
Wwt *Hwt
Three sketches of the models with below, rear and side views are
shown on Fig. 2.
O (0, 0, 0) is the origin of the coordinate system. It is located at the
bottom of the rear face of the car and on the centreline of the wind tunnel.
x is the streamwise direction (positive downstream), y is the vertical
direction (positive upwards) and z is the spanwise direction (positive
from right to left when looking from the back of the vehicle). The tailpipe
has an outer/inner diameters of 6 mm and 4 mm, respectively. These
settings were chosen taking into account the boundary layer thickness
and the averaged velocity of the UFP at the exit of the tailpipe. The exit of
the tailpipe (center) is located at X ¼ x/h ¼ 0, Y ¼ y/h ¼ 0.06 and Z ¼
z/h ¼ 0.31. One can refer to Rodriguez (2018) for more details.
2.3. Determination of experimental conditions
As presented above, the goal of the present study was to analyse
particle dispersion in the wake of car models. This phenomenom was
3
Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109
Fig. 2. Sketches of the car models: below, rear and side views (lengths in mm).
assessed in the context of air quality in transportation systems. This issue
is more crucial in cities where people are mainly exposed to air pollution.
As a consequence, the flow developing in the wake of a car in an urban
city environment was simulated. Then, according to French regulations,
the speed of the incoming flow must be 50 km/h (13.9 m/s), which is the
speed limit in cities in France. Considering the size of the wind tunnel,
the Reynolds similitude can not be achieved unless working with unre-
alistic velocities. Then, to select this upstream velocity, the ratio between
the speed of the car (U0) and the velocity of the exhausted particles at the
end of the tailpipe (Utp) was kept constant. Equation (2) gives this
relation.
   
U0 U0
¼ (2)
Utp wind tunnel Utp real situation
Here, Utp is the ratio between the flow rate (m3/s) at the tailpipe exit and
its corresponding cross section (m2).
According to Comit
e des Constructeurs Français d’Automobiles
(2017), a representative car has an average stroke volume Vcyl ¼ 1.486 L.
Following Roberge et al. (2006), the flow rate at the tailpipe Qtailpipe,
vehicle is given by Equation (3):
1
Qtailpipe; vehicle ¼ eVcyl Ωm (3)
2
Where e is the efficiency of the engine and Ωm the speed of the engine.
According to Heywood (1988) and Hancke (2009), e ¼ 0.9 and Ωm ¼
2200 RPM (Rotation Per Minute) for a vehicle in an urban environment.
Considering a tailpipe diameter of 0.055 m, then Qtailpipe, vehicle is 0.0245
m3/s. This gives Utp ¼ 10.3 m/s and U0/Utp~1.35 for real conditions.
Taking into account all relevant parameters of the experimental facilities
(for instance the diameter of the tailpipe in the wind tunnel and the
characteristics of the particle generator detailed in section 2.4.2), the
incoming air flow velocity was constant and fixed to the value U0 ¼ 14.3
m/s (Rodriguez, 2018). This ensures U0/Utp~1.35 for the experiments.
Compared to previous studies (Richards, 2002; Gosse, 2005; Kanda et al.,
2006; Carpentieri et al., 2012), this is a novelty.
Finally, the corresponding Reynolds number based on the height of
the car model (Eq. (4)) was 49500.
U0 *h
Re ¼ (4)
υ
Where ν is the kinematic viscosity of air.
It is acknowledged that the present Reynolds number is one order of
R. Rodriguez et al.
magnitude lower than it would be in real situation. Nevertheless, Barros
(2015), Lahaye (2014), Gosse (2005) and Ahmed et al. (1984) indicated
that the main flow structures remain the same for a large range of Rey-
nolds numbers as well as the velocity profiles in the wake. The recircu-
lation region was also quite stable in these studies with Reynolds
numbers up to 106. This was confirmed by comparing the present find-
ings with previous results covering a large range of Reynolds numbers
show similar trends, making the present study meaningful. Lastly, for ϕ
¼ 25 , Leclerc (2008) showed the same behavior for the pressure dis-
tributions on the rear slant for 67000<Re < 670000.
2.4. Instrumentation
2.4.1. LASER Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)
Velocity measurements were recorded with a 2D LDV system manu-
factured by DANTEC dynamics (model 2D Flow Explorer). The two pairs
of LASER beams have wavelengths of 660 nm and 785 nm. Fringe
spacings were 5.45 μm and 6.40 μm in the longitudinal and vertical di-
rections, respectively. Diameter and length of the measuring volume in
the z-direction are 168 μm and 2.81 mm respectively for the first
component (horizontal) and 200 μm and 3.34 mm for the second
component (vertical). The focal length is 500 mm and Bragg cell fre-
quency shift is 80 MHz. The LDV system was fixed on a 2D displacement
table. It was controlled by BSA Flow Software v5.03.00. The fog used in
this study for seeding was the SAFEX inside Nebelfluid Extra Clean
provided by DANTEC. The fog generator model was SAFEX S 195 G. It
had an adjustable flow rate. The mean diameter of the generated droplets
was 1.068 μm. According to Algieri et al. (2005), Rodriguez et al. (2018)
and Rodriguez et al. (2019), the accuracy of the measurements is then
ensured with respect to the present experimental conditions. Note that
the lowest point for LDV measurements was 20 mm above the bottom.
Below, the optical path of the LASER beams associated with the vertical
component of the velocity was blocked by this bottom.
2.4.2. PALAS
Particles were generated by a PALAS DNP 2000. It is a nano-scale test
generator of aerosols from monolithic graphite. The resulting carbon
agglomerates are similar to Diesel soots (Evans et al., 2003) with respect
to particle size distribution (Fig. 1). This system required nitrogen as the
carrier gas. This gas caused virtually no change in the density of the
exhaust gas being measured. From a technical point of view, PALAS was
used to generate a jump spark between two graphite electrodes under
high voltage. It then ripped tiny amount of graphite material from the
electrodes at high temperatures. The graphite material that was vapor-
ized by this spark then condensed to form extremely tiny particles. The
high number concentration can result in the coagulation of these very
small particles into agglomerates. By adding mixed air, the aerosol was
able to be diluted, enabling the defined adjustment of the agglomerate
formation. The energy converted in each spark remained constant due to
the constant sparkover voltage. This constant energy in each individual
spark guaranteed stable particle size distribution. A technically sophis-
ticated control of the distance between the electrodes during burn-off
ensured very high long-term stability. The mass flow rate was quickly
and easily adjusted within a wide range using the spark frequency. The
digital regulation of the frequency and the continuous regulation of the
voltage guaranteed a more specific regulation of the distance between
the two electrodes. This enabled a higher constancy of the particle size
distribution and the mass flow. Due to its excellent reproducibility and
high level of functional reliability, the DNP digital 2000 was especially
well suited for our experiments (Evans et al., 2003; Oberd€ orster et al.,
2004; Price et al., 2014; Mehel and Murzyn, 2015). Indeed, as mentioned
above, the generated aerosol distribution was very similar to the distri-
bution of Diesel soot particles from a combustion engine. In terms of PSD,
a preliminary study showed that more than 93% of the particles have a
diameter between 30 and 109 nm (Rodriguez, 2018).
For the present study, the spark frequency was set at 200 Hz. This is
4
Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109
the highest level to ensure highest SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) for PNC
measurements. This gave a mass flow rate of particles of about 6.5 mg/h.
Similarly, the nitrogen flow rate was set at 8 L/min. Note that the
recommendation of the manufacturer at that spark frequency was 6.5 L/
min (minimum). Taking into account the inner diameter of the exhaust
pipe (4 mm), the exit velocity of the particles was Utp ¼ 10.6 m/s.
2.4.3. Electrical low pressure impactor (ELPI)
For PNC measurements (number of UFP per cm3 for each given po-
sition), an ELPI was used. This device enabled measurement of real-time
PSD and concentration in the size range of 6 nm–10 μm with 1 Hz
sampling rate. It has been developed by the University of Tampere
(Finland). Its features include real-time stand-alone operation, wide
sample concentration range, wide particle size range and robust structure
for operation even in harsh conditions. Considering all features, the use
of the ELPI was well-suited for our measurements. It was previously used
(Mehel and Murzyn, 2015) showing its satisfying performances. Overall,
the operating principle can be divided into three major parts:
1) Particle charging;
2) Size classification throughout a cascade impactor;
3) Electrical detection by sensitive electrometers.
The particles were first charged into a known charge level in the
Corona charger. After that, the particles entered a cascade low-pressure
impactor with 14 electrically insulated collection stages. The particles
were collected in the different impactor stages according to their inertia
(aerodynamic diameter). The electric charge carried by particles into
each impactor stage was then measured in real time by sensitive elec-
trometers. This current signal was directly proportional to the particle
number concentration per stage (size range). Measured current signals
were converted to particle size distribution using particle size dependent
relations describing the properties of the charger and the impactor stages.
The result was particle number concentration and size distribution in
real-time. For more details, one can refer to Rodriguez (2018). In order to
satisfy the isokinetic condition, the velocity of the aerosol suction must
be equal to the flow velocity at the measuring point to avoid any diver-
gence of the streamlines. Nevertheless, this could not be ensured during
experimentations. So, based on the upstream velocity, this condition led
to a sampling probe diameter of ~3.86 mm. Consequently, a diameter of
4 mm for the sampling probe was chosen. At this stage, for experimental
constraints, the sampling probe was bended. It is worthwhile to note that
two models of such probes were used with lengths of 25 and 50 mm. A
preliminary calibration study proved the robustness of this choice
(Rodriguez, 2018). Fig. 3 shows the devices used for PNC measurements
as well as and the experimental arrangement. Similarly, the lowest point
for PNC measurements was 13 mm above the bottom due to the bending
of the sampling probe.
Fig. 3. Experimental arrangement for ELPI and PALAS during measurements.
R. Rodriguez et al.
2.5. Data acquisition and analysis
Preliminary studies were undertaken as a calibration work. First, the
convergence of the LDV data and their statistical accuracy were ensured.
Based on it, measurements lasted 90 s with 3000 samples as a minimum
value (Rodriguez, 2018). Measurements took place in the wake of the
three car models. The covered domain spread as follow: 0.09<X ¼ x/h <
5.65, 0.27<Y ¼ y/h < 1.3 and Z ¼ z/h ¼ 0, 0.23, 0.45 and 0.68
where X, Y and Z are the dimensionless distance in the x,y and z direction
respectively (X ¼ x/h, Y ¼ y/h and Z ¼ z/h). For ϕ ¼ 25 and 35 ,
measurements were also conducted above the rear slant. The character-
ization of the flow detachment or attachment on it was then possible. In
terms of mesh size, the step between 2 points was 10 mm in the
streamwise direction and 5 mm in the vertical direction for 0.09<X <
1.94. For 1.94<X < 5.65, it was set to 50 mm in the streamwise direction
and 5 mm in the vertical one, respectively. For a given (xy) 2D map, 195
points were considered (out of the boundary layer and the rear slant).
Fig. 4a (side view) and Fig. 4b (rear view) show these measuring points
for LDV. For more information, one can refer to Rodriguez (2018). For
the three car models, the total amount of measuring points for the LDV
part was nearly 5800 including rear slants, wakes and boundary layers.
Regarding the data treatment, the Interarrival Time and Transit Time
(ITTT) method was applied (Rodriguez, 2018; Rodriguez et al., 2018).
This new technique was developed to take into account the specificities
of our experimental setup and arrangement. It particularly tackled the
issue of non-homogeneous seeding and ensured reliable results.
For PNC measurements, based on a preliminary study, data acquisi-
tion lasted 80 s (Rodriguez, 2018). Over this period of time, three steps
were defined. The first one corresponded to the acquisition of the
ambient level. The duration of this phase was about 6 s. No particle was
injected to get access to the ambient level. Then, as a second stage,
particles are emitted from the tailpipe. PNC increased for over 5–10 s.
Then, a stabilized phase was observed which lasted at least 50 s. During
this stage, levels were almost constant. Nevertheless, a filter was applied
for the data analysis: data above  3 Root Mean Square (RMS) from the
mean level were eliminated. Then, data corresponding to the ambient
level were substracted to the ones corresponding to the stabilized phase.
All details regarding the conversion current/concentration levels and the
data treatment method are given in Rodriguez (2018). PNC were recor-
ded using two sampling bent probes. They had lengths of 25 and 50 mm,
respectively. Regarding the mesh size for the measurements, it was
different depending on the position (near wake versus far wake). For
0.57<X < 2.89 (near-wake), it was 25 mm in the streamwise direction
and 5 mm in the vertical direction starting just below (2 mm) the level of
the tailpipe. Between X ¼ 2.89 and X ¼ 7.06 (far wake), it was set to 25
mm in the horizontal direction and to 10 mm in the vertical direction. In
Fig. 4. a. Measuring points for LDV in the wake of the car models (side view). b. Measuring points for LDV in the wake of the car models (rear view).
5
Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109
the spanwise direction, 5 positions were studied (Z ¼ 0.62, 0.31, 0,
0.31 and 0.62) for X < 2.89. For X > 2.89, 7 positions were studied (Z ¼
1.85, 1.24, 0.62, 0, 0.62, 1.24 and 1.85). This was done to cover a
wider area to get a better assessment of the dispersion in the far field.
Overall, PNC were measured for 1926 positions for the three car models.
Fig. 5a (side view) and Fig. 5b (top view) show the measuring points for
PNC.
3. Results
In this section, both mean and turbulent properties of the wake for the
three car models are of interest. First, an overview of the mean flows is
presented. In a second time, the fluctuating part of the flows is depicted.
U corresponds to the horizontal component of the velocity vector while V
is the vertical one. u’ and v’ are the corresponding RMS values.
3.1. Overview of the wake flows
Firstly, the results dealing with the mean flow characteristics are
presented according to the rear slant angles. Fig. 6 is dedicated to the 2D
maps of the velocity vectors in the wake of the 3 models. The dimen-
sionless modulus of the velocity is shown as a color map. Same scales are
used to make the comparisons easier.
At this stage, the tailpipe is not installed. Nevertheless, its influence as
well as that of the exhaust flow will be discussed later. These preliminary
results are mandatory to validate the whole experimental methodology
by comparison with the existing data available in the literature.
First, the recirculation length (Lrec) is considered. It is defined as the
largest distance between the rear face of the car and the position for
which a negative component of the horizontal velocity (U) is detected.
The results are indicated in Table 1. This is in agreement with previous
findings (Tunay et al., 2014; Lahaye, 2014; Wang et al., 2013) for rela-
tively similar experimental conditions.
Furthermore, the existence of two contra-rotating vortices for each
case is pointed out. Depending on the rear slant angle, they are more or
less developed. The upper one is clockwise while the lower one is counter
clockwise. Their positions are given in Table 2.
For the case ϕ ¼ 0 (Fig. 6, (a)), the properties of U and V are
respectively almost symmetric and antisymmetric according to Y ¼ 0.5.
For ϕ ¼ 25 (Fig. 6, (b)), the general trend of the flow is pointing
downward except in the closest part of the rear face of the car model due
to the presence of the lower vortex. The attachment of the flow on the
rear slant is observed for this configuration. As a consequence, the ver-
tical component of the velocity is mostly negative. Note that the position
of the lower vortex was not possible as velocity measurements were not
allowed closed to the bottom of the wind tunnel for technical reasons. For
R. Rodriguez et al. Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109

Fig. 5. a. Measuring points for PNC in the wake of the car models (side view). b. Measuring points for PNC in the wake of the car models (top view).

Table 1
Comparison of recirculation length with the literature for similar experimental
conditions.
Lrec/h ϕ ¼ 0 ϕ ¼ 25 ϕ ¼ 35

Present study 1.39 0.58 1.06

Literature 1.50 (Lahaye, 0.57 (Tunay et al., 1.07 (Wang et al.,
2014) 2014) 2013)
Deviation from the 7% 2% 1%
literature

Table 2
Comparison of the positions (X, Y, Z) of upper and lower vortices in the symmetry
plane Z ¼ 0 with the literature for similar experimental conditions (N/A: Not
Available).
Positions of ϕ ¼ 0 ϕ ¼ 25 ϕ ¼ 35
vortices

Present study Upper: (0.62, Upper: (0.19, Upper: (0.21,

0.84, 0) 0.37, 0) 0.70, 0)
Lower: (0.70, Lower: N/A Lower: N/A
0.14, 0)
Literature Upper: (0.93, Upper: (0.17, Upper: (0.28,
0.84, 0) 0.30, 0) 0.69, 0)
Fig. 6. 2D maps (XY) of the velocity vectors and dimensionless velocity Lower: (0.68, Lower: (0.35, Lower: (0.44,
magnitude in the wake of the 3 car models (a: ϕ ¼ 0 , b: ϕ ¼ 25 , c: ϕ ¼ 35 ) in 0.20, 0) 0.05, 0) 0.11, 0)
the symmetry plane Z ¼ 0. Lahaye (2014) Tunay et al. Tunay et al.
(2014) (2014)

ϕ ¼ 35 (Fig. 6, (c)), the flow on the rear slant is detached. As a conse-
quence, the downwash effect of the flow is less important compared to ϕ (6), respectively.
¼ 25 . As for ϕ ¼ 25 , the position of the lower vortex was not deter-
mined. For comparison, results from previous studies are also provided in 1 u’2 þ v’2
TKE* ¼ (5)
Table 2 showing good agreements. 2 U 20
In terms of fluctuations, the dimensionless Turbulent Kinetic Energy
(TKE*, Eq. (5)) and Reynolds Shear Stresses (SS*, Eq. (6)) are presented u’v’
on Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. In 2D, they are given by Equation (5) and Equation SS* ¼ (6)
U 20

6
R. Rodriguez et al.
Fig. 7. 2D maps (XY) of TKE* in the wake of the 3 car models in the symmetry
plane Z ¼ 0 (a: ϕ ¼ 0 , b: ϕ ¼ 25 and c: ϕ ¼ 35 ).
The dotted lines on Figs. 7 and 8 correspond to the boundary of the
recirculation region while A and B account for the center positions of the
upper and lower vortices, respectively. A and B are determined from the
streamlines deduced from the velocity measurements. In the following
figures, large black dotted lines refer to the boundary of the recirculation
region obtained from velocity measurements while tiny black dotted
lines refer to the boundary of the recirculation region deduced from flow
symmetry. In some cases, B can not be determined for technical reasons
(too close to the bottom of the wind tunnel).
These plots provide some useful information regarding the flow dy-
namics. In the literature, it is often admitted that an increase in the
Reynolds Shear Stresses (SS) leads to an increase of Turbulent Kinetic
Energy (TKE). In other words, high gradient regions for turbulent kinetic
energy often correspond to high shear stress regions. According to
Lienhart et al. (2002, 2003), peaks of TKE are located at the same posi-
tions as peaks of turbulent shear stresses. Overall, these results were in
agreement with those findings. For ϕ ¼ 0 , high TKE levels are found in
the upper half (Y > 0.50) over a relatively large area. For ϕ ¼ 25 and 35 ,
highest values are mostly in the lower half (Y < 0.50) and spread over a
relatively smaller area. For ϕ ¼ 0 , 25 and 35 , in the symmetry plane (Z
¼ 0), the corresponding values of the peaks of TKE are given in Table 3. In
terms of magnitude, the corresponding maximum turbulence intensities
(Ix ¼ u’/U0) are 29%, 29% and 31%, respectively. Similar conclusions
were revealed for the vertical component of the velocity (Iy ¼ v’/U0).
Overall, these results are in good agreement with those of Tunay et al.
(2014) for ϕ ¼ 25 and 35 .
The shear stresses represent the correlation between the fluctuations of
the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity vector. On the one
hand, SS are negative in the upper part of the wake flow where the vertical
component V was negative and the horizontal component U was positive.
Table 3
Properties of TKE* and SS* with the corresponding positions (X, Y, Z) in the wake of the 3 car models.
Rear slant angle ϕ ¼ 0
TKE*max Position 0.07 (0.99, 0.83, 0)
SS*max Position 0.026 (1.05, 0.18, 0)
SS*min Position 0.043 (1.22, 0.83, 0)
7
Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109
Fig. 8. 2D maps (XY) of SS* in the wake of the 3 car models in the symmetry
plane Z ¼ 0 (a: ϕ ¼ 0 , b: ϕ ¼ 25 and c: ϕ ¼ 35 ).
On the other way, SS are positive in the lowest part of the flow where both
U and V are positive. For ϕ ¼ 0 , SS were almost symmetric with respect to
Y ¼ 0.5 until X~3. In terms of magnitude, they are slightly larger in the
upper part compared to the lower one. For ϕ ¼ 25 , high shear stress re-
gions were located in the lower part of the flow. It shows that the flow
seems much more unstable in this lower region for this configuration.
Nevertheless, this 2D map is not complete for the closest part of the bot-
tom. This configuration was associated with the smallest recirculation
region. For ϕ ¼ 35 , this was an intermediate situation between ϕ ¼ 0 and
ϕ ¼ 25 . The largest values are found in the lower region.
Table 3 details all these information.
Finally, this preliminary study allowed us to validate our experi-
mental setup. Indeed, these results were in good agreements with some
previous studies in similar experimental conditions. Two different re-
gions were clearly identified. One accounts for the near wake (0<X<~3,
depending on the rear slant angle) and a second one which corresponds
to the far wake. In the latter one, the flow gradually recovered its initial
(upstream) state. Furthermore, one must notice that some complemen-
tary measurements highlight important results. On the one hand, the
properties of the flow discussed above are almost symmetric with respect
to Z ¼ 0 (Rodriguez, 2018). On the other hand, Particle Imagery Veloc-
imetry (PIV) measurements realized at the University of Rouen (France)
in similar experimental conditions (same models and Reynolds number)
provided access to the 3rd component of the velocity vector. Then, the
presence of two counter-rotating vortices in the horizontal plane was
demonstrated meaning that the structure of the recirculation region in
the wake of the models was toric (Rodriguez, 2018). Longitudinal
vortices were depicted for ϕ ¼ 25 (Rodriguez et al., 2018) but not for ϕ
¼ 0 and 35 .
ϕ ¼ 25 ϕ ¼ 35
0.07 (0.26, 0.09, 0) 0.08 (0.49, 0.09, 0)
0.035 (0.32, 0.09, 0) 0.044 (0.82, 0.09, 0)
0.021 (0.65, 0.36, 0) 0.020 (0.05, 0.93, 0)
R. Rodriguez et al. Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109

3.2. Influence of the tailpipe system and exhaust flow on the wake flow
properties

Before injecting particles, a study was conducted to analyse the in-

fluence of the tailpipe system and the exhaust flow on the wake flow
properties. This is new and innovative as the previous studies compared
mass concentration fields with flow topologies without tailpipe. Fig. 9
and Fig. 10 show the results with (dots) and without (lines) the tailpipe
and the exhaust flow for ϕ ¼ 25 for 2 different vertical planes Z (Z ¼
0.23 in blue and Z ¼ 0.45 in red). Fig. 9 is for U (mean) and Fig. 10 is
for u’ (RMS of U).
These figures indicate that the results for both mean and RMS values
for the horizontal component of the velocity are similar with and without Fig. 10. Comparison of the RMS horizontal velocity (u’) with (WT) and without
the tailpipe. It means that the presence of the exhaust system does not (WOT) the tailpipe system for Z ¼ 0.23 and Z ¼ 0.45 (ϕ ¼ 25 ).
significantly affect the mean and turbulent flow dynamics in the wake of
this car model. It can be explained by the fact that the velocity difference
between the upstream flow and the exhaust one is small. Then, the deficit
of linear momentum of the latter one is easily counterbalanced by the
surrounding underbody upcoming flow. It is important to note that
comparable results were obtained for ϕ ¼ 0 and 35 for mean and RMS
values of U and V. Precisely, for the mean velocities, the difference be-
tween with and without tailpipe are below 0,04U0 while it only reaches
0,02U0 for the RMS values.

3.3. UFP concentration in the wake of the Ahmed body (ϕ ¼ 0 )

Measurements were collected in a wide 3D domain downstream of

the three car models. In this section, attention is focused on 2D maps of
PNC in the wake of the 3 car models. Dimensionless PNC (PNC*, Eq. (7))
are presented. All concentrations were divided by a reference level (Cref)
which corresponds to the PNC measured at the exit of the tailpipe
(Cref~6.96.107 part/cm3). That is:

PNC PNC
PNC* ¼ ¼ (7)
Cref 6:96*107

For the next figures, black dots correspond to the positions where
measurements were done.

a) Case ϕ ¼ 0

Fig. 11 show the results in three different vertical planes (XY) for the
squared back model (Z ¼ 0.31, 0 and 0.31). The first one (Z ¼ 0.31)
was aligned with the tailpipe while the second one (Z ¼ 0) corresponded
to the symmetry plane. The highest levels of dimensionless PNC are
found for Z ¼ 0.31. In this case, measurements were aligned with the
tailpipe exit. High levels of PNC* were measured over a wide area in both
streamwise and vertical directions. The peak for PNC* (~0.33) was
measured at (X ¼ 0.57; Y ¼ 0.04; Z ¼ 0.31). That is one third of the
level measured at the tailpipe exit. As X increases, PNC* decreases down
to 0.1 (X ¼ 1.27) and 0.01 (X ¼ 3.46). In the vertical direction, PNC* ¼
Fig. 9. Comparison of the mean horizontal velocity (U) with (WT) and without
(WOT) the tailpipe system for Z ¼ 0.23 and Z ¼ 0.45 (ϕ ¼ 25 ).
Fig. 11. 2D maps (XY) of PNC* in the wake of the Ahmed body (ϕ ¼ 0 ) for Z ¼
0.31 (a: tailpipe plane), Z ¼ 0 (b: symmetry plane) and Z ¼ 0.31 (c).
0.01 spreads up to y/h ¼ 0.90 even if ejection occurs at Y < 0. This was
almost the full height of the vehicle. It can be explained by the flow to-
pology described in the previous section. As soon as they are ejected from
the tailpipe, the particles are entrapped within the recirculation region
which is the largest for this configuration (Lrec/h ¼ 1.39). Their motions
are mostly governed by the two vortices depicted by the LDV measure-
ments in the close wake. Overall, it is still obvious that most of the par-
ticles are found in the lower part of the flow for Z ¼ 0.31. For Z ¼
0 (symmetry plane), the PNC* levels are significantly lower compared to
those measured for Z ¼ 0.31. PNC* is always below 0.10. Nevertheless,
a homogeneous distribution of PNC* is depicted for Z ¼ 0 over the total
height of the car model. In the close wake, PNC* reaches 0.03 and levels
were between 0.01 and 0.10 up to X ¼ 3.95. The toric shape of the tur-
bulent structure appearing in the recirculation region explains this
finding (Rodriguez, 2018). The combination of the lower and upper
vortices was capable of capturing particles and carrying them from the
bottom to the upper part of the flow. Similarly, the horizontal turbulent

8
R. Rodriguez et al.
structures disperse the particles in the spanwise direction. Overall, for Z
¼ 0, the PNC* map is almost symmetric with respect to Y ¼ 0.50. This
was comparable to the velocity field given for the same dimensionless
position Z. Lastly, for Z ¼ 0.31, PNC* levels are significantly lower
compared to those depicted for Z ¼ 0.31 and 0. Practically, PNC*<0.01
for X>0.80. Nevertheless, some particles are still conveyed in the span-
wise direction by the turbulent structures of the flow. Finally,
PNC*>0.001 everywhere in the 2D map. Lastly, the vertical mixing is
efficient, as the corresponding 2D velocity map tended to be symmetric.
For a full description of the dispersion of the particles in the wake of
the car model, additional 2D horizontal maps (XZ) are presented for
different dimensionless distances above the bottom of the wind tunnel
(Fig. 12). That is for Y ¼ 0.04, 0.33 and 0.70. Y ¼ 0.04 is located in
the vicinity of the tailpipe exit which is less than 2 mm below. For Y ¼
0.04, there is no black dotted line as there is no recirculation in this part
of the flow.
The highest levels are obviously measured for Y ¼ 0.04 and Z ¼
0.31, aligned with the tailpipe exit. Up to X ¼ 1.60, PNC* are larger
than 0.01. In this case, most of particles are kept in the half width
(tailpipe side) of the body. Above (Y ¼ 0.33), in the recirculation region,
horizontal mixing occurred and concentration homogenization was then
strongly enhanced. As a consequence, the PNC* field became more
symmetric with respect to Z ¼ 0 in the far wake. It was then the mixing
caused by the recirculation region that governed the particle dynamics in
the close wake. The same results were observed for Y ¼ 0.70. Particles are
brought in the upper part of the flow by the recirculation region and the
horizontal mixing led to a symmetric field of PNC* with respect to Z ¼ 0.
(b) Case ϕ ¼ 25
Fig. 12. 2D maps (XZ) of PNC* in the wake of the Ahmed body (ϕ ¼ 0 ) for Y ¼
0.04 (a: tailpipe level), Y ¼ 0.33 (b) and Z ¼ 0.70 (c).
9
Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109
Fig. 13 present three vertical maps of PNC* corresponding to the same
dimensionless positions Z ¼ 0.31, 0 and 0.31 for the case ϕ ¼ 25 .
As seen for ϕ ¼ 0 , the highest levels for PNC* are measured for Z ¼
0.31 (PNC*max ¼ 0.14 at X ¼ 0.57, Y ¼ 0.06 and Z ¼ 0.31). PNC* are
larger than 0.01 up to X ¼ 3.20. This is a shorter distance compared to ϕ
¼ 0 . The vertical spreading is weaker as well: for Y < 0.34, PNC* does
not exceed 0.01. Above, levels are even smaller. One more time, this is
caused by the flow topology downstream of the car model: the recircu-
lation region was less volumic (Lrec/h ¼ 0.58) as the flow was attached on
the rear slant leading to a more pronounced downwash effect compared
to ϕ ¼ 0 . Similarly, PNC* are between 0.001 and 0.01 up to X ¼ 2.50.
Lastly, for this flow configuration, longitudinal vortices arise from the
edges of the car model and develop downstream. Out of the recirculation
region, they become predominant. Then, they catch and carry particles
away from the symmetry plane of the model, in the same side of the
tailpipe. As a consequence, PNC* levels are very low for Z ¼ 0 and 0.31.
This is a typical feature associated with this rear slant angle. For Z ¼ 0,
PNC* are always below 0.01. The downwash effect is still strong and the
maximum values for PNC* are always found in the lower part of the flow
for X < 2. Further downstream, PNC* increases again to reach more than
0.01 for Y ¼ 0.40. Then, the distribution of PNC* is not homogeneous for
Z ¼ 0 while it was the case for ϕ ¼ 0 . For Z ¼ 0.31, PNC* is always below
0.001 even in the close wake. This behavior differs from that observed for
ϕ ¼ 0 . For ϕ ¼ 25 , the longitudinal vortices tend to play a key role in
particle entrapment.
Fig. 14 show 2D (XZ) maps of the PNC* for ϕ ¼ 25 for 3 dimen-
sionless positions Y. As for ϕ ¼ 0 , for Y ¼ 0.04, there is no black dotted
line as there is no recirculation in this part of the flow. Similarly, for Y ¼
0.70, it is above the recirculation region. So there is not a black dotted
line.
From the results corresponding to Y ¼ 0.04, it is confirmed that
longitudinal vortices influence the particle dynamics. Most of the UFP
Fig. 13. 2D maps (XY) of PNC* in the wake of the Ahmed body (ϕ ¼ 25 ) for Z
¼ 0.31 (a: tailpipe plane), Z ¼ 0 (b: symmetry plane) and Z ¼ 0.31 (c).
R. Rodriguez et al.
Fig. 14. 2D maps (XZ) of PNC* in the wake of the Ahmed body (ϕ ¼ 25 ) for Y
¼ 0.04 (a: tailpipe level), Y ¼ 0.33 (b) and Z ¼ 0.70 (c).
emitted from the tailpipe are entrapped in the half width of the tailpipe
because of the longitudinal vortex which arises from the edge of the car
model. Particle paths are diverted from the symmetry plane (Z ¼ 0) to-
wards the external part of the flow (Z < 0). Furthermore, at this
dimensionless distance above the bottom, the recirculation region is not
crossed yet. On the opposite side (Z > 0), PNC* are very low. The mixing
on the spanwise direction can not take place. Above the tailpipe level (Z
¼ 0.33), the PNC* field is still not symmetric at all while it was for ϕ ¼ 0 .
This result confirms the combined influence of the longitudinal vortices
above mentioned and the very small recirculation region due to the
downwash effect. Furthermore, at this stage, the recirculation region is
not large enough to catch particles and drive them on the other side of the
car model (Z > 0): the length of the recirculation region was only 0.58 h
for ϕ ¼ 25 (it was 1.39 h for ϕ ¼ 0 ). For Z > 0, PNC* is less than 0.001
while it reaches 0.1 for Z < 0. Z ¼ 0 can then be associated with a virtual
boundary between the longitudinal vortices emitted from the right and
left edges of the car model, respectively. In the horizontal map (Y ¼
0.70), very low levels are measured. This is mostly due to the attachment
of the flow on the rear slant. For Z > 0, above the recirculation region,
mixing can not occur and particles can not be conveyed from the tailpipe
to this upper region.
c) Case ϕ ¼ 35
Fig. 15 present the PNC* field for the last car model (ϕ ¼ 35 ) for the
same planes Z ¼ 0.31, 0 and 0.31. As for ϕ ¼ 0 and 25 , the highest
levels of PNC* are located in the tailpipe axis, that is for Z ¼ 0.31.
PNC*max is 0.20 at X ¼ 0.57, Y ¼ 0.04 and Z ¼ 0.31. Overall, the results
10
Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109
Fig. 15. 2D maps (XY) of PNC* in the wake of the Ahmed body (ϕ ¼ 35 ) for Z
¼ 0.31 (a: tailpipe plane), Z ¼ 0 (b: symmetry plane) and Z ¼ 0.31 (c).
corresponding to this position (Z ¼ 0.31) exhibit a strong correlation
with those presented for ϕ ¼ 0 at the same dimensionless position Z. Up to
X ¼ 0.88 (3.07, respectively), PNC* are above 0.10 (0.01, respectively).
The dispersion is also important in the vertical direction (PNC*>0.01 up to
Y ¼ 0.66 in the close wake). These findings confirm that the size of the
recirculation region is of primary importance regarding particle disper-
sion. Furthermore, due to the detached flow over the rear slant, there is no
more strong downwash effect compared to the case ϕ ¼ 25 . For Z ¼
0 (symmetry plane), PNC* are below 0.1. Nevertheless, the distribution
seems to be homogeneous over the height of the car model in the close
wake. This is due to the size of the recirculation (Lrec/h ¼ 1.06) region
which is larger than that measured for ϕ ¼ 25 (Lrec/h ¼ 0.58). From X ¼
2.23, PNC* decrease below 0.01. Far downstream, the homogeneity of
PNC* is lost in the vertical direction and particles tend to accumulate in the
lower part (Y < 0.50). For Z ¼ 0.31, lower levels are measured
(PNC*<0.01). Nevertheless, the recirculation region allows a mixing in the
horizontal direction in the close wake.
Fig. 16 exhibit 2D horizontal maps (XZ) for 3 different dimensionless
distances above the bottom of the wind tunnel (Y ¼ 0.04, 0.33 and
0.70). Once again, for Y ¼ 0.04, there is no black dotted line as there is
no recirculation in this part of the flow. At the tailpipe level (Y ¼ 0.04),
concentrations are relatively high. For Z < 0, PNC* are larger than 0.1 for
X < 2 while they are roughly 0.001 for Z > 0. Beyond X ¼ 2, differences
are weaker as PNC* levels are about 0.01. In this case, the PNC* distri-
bution is not strictly symmetric with respect to Z ¼ 0. More particles are
found for Z < 0 (tailpipe side). Above (Z ¼ 0.33), the recirculation area is
crossed. This enables the enhancement of the horizontal mixing even if
PNC* is still three times larger in the tailpipe side compared to the levels
observed on the other side (Z > 0). Finally, at the highest dimensionless
distance above the ground level (Z ¼ 0.70), the distribution of PNC* is
more homogeneous (PNC*~0.01) in the close wake as we are still in the
recirculation region.
R. Rodriguez et al. Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109

Table 4
Experimental conditions for Richards (2002), Gosse (2005), Kanda et al. (2006)
and Carpentieri et al. (2012).
Study Reynolds Car model and rear slant Pollutant
number angle (ϕ)

Present study 49500 Ahmed bodies, ϕ ¼ 0 , 25 Particles

and 35
Richards (2002) 335000 MIRA Gas tracer
Gosse (2005) 5600 and Ahmed bodies, ϕ ¼ 5 , 25 Heated
17600 and 40 air
Kanda et al. (2006) 7100 and Passenger car and truck Gas tracer
14000
Carpentieri et al. 12000 and Vauxhall Astravan Gas tracer
(2012) 48000

 For ϕ ¼ 0 , the recirculation region is the largest one and the flow is
also almost symmetric vertically and horizontally leading to higher
and more homogeneous PNC* levels in the close wake of the car
model;
 For ϕ ¼ 25 , the attachment of the flow on the rear slant leads to a
smaller recirculation region and prevents from a homogeneous mix-
ing over the whole height of the car model. Furthermore, the longi-
tudinal vortex on the side of the tailpipe and developing from the
edge of the car model is capable of trapping the particles in the cor-
responding half width of the model. On the other side, because of a
weaker mixing, concentrations are lower;
 For ϕ ¼ 35 , some similitudes are found with the case ϕ ¼ 0 as the
flow is detached on the rear slant angle. Nevertheless, the recircula-
tion length is smaller for ϕ ¼ 35 than for ϕ ¼ 0 .

The present results are discussed with respect to previous experi-

mental studies undertaken in wind tunnels. Four studies are considered:
Richards (2002), Gosse (2005), Kanda et al. (2006) and Carpentieri et al.
(2012). They were selected as they all dealt with pollutant dispersion in
the wake of vehicles. Table 4 summarizes their experimental conditions.
It underlines the novelty of the present study considering that previous
Fig. 16. 2D maps (XZ) of PNC* in the wake of the Ahmed body (ϕ ¼ 35 ) for Y
¼ 0.04 (a: tailpipe level), Y ¼ 0.33 (b) and Z ¼ 0.70 (c). works mostly used gas tracer or heated air while particles were used here.
Similarly, PNC fields were depicted in the present work while in the past
mass concentration fields were described.
4. Discussion
In the first one, Richards (2002) developed a numerical model to
assess pollution dispersion in the near wake of a vehicle. As part of it, she
These 2D horizontal and vertical maps of PNC highlight new insights
worked in a wind tunnel with the MIRA (Motor Industry Research As-
about particle dispersion in the wake of vehicles. Overall, they show that:
sociation) car model. She measured the concentration of a tracer gas in
the near-wake (X < 1) of her 33% scaled model by FID (Flame Ionisation
 At a distance of X ¼ 0.50 downstream of the tailpipe, PNC is rapidly
Detector). Among her most significant results, she firstly pointed out the
divided by a factor 3 to 14 depending on the rear slant angle;
influence of the recirculation region and its contra-rotating vortex
 For the three rear slant angles, highest levels of PNC are found in line
structure. Secondly, she also depicted a general upward dispersion of the
with the tailpipe exit;
tracer gas confirming that pollutant was drawn up into the recirculation
 In the close wake, the volume of the recirculation region is a key
region by the lower internal vortex. Thirdly, she stated that a rapid
parameter governing mixing and dispersion of particles in both ver-
dispersion occurred away from the source with concentration values
tical and spanwise directions;
falling to 7% of the maximum value within 50 mm of the source. Her
 Particles are emitted below the recirculation region. Nevertheless, the
findings exhibit some similarities with the present results meaning that
shearing revealed from the LDV measurements allows the carriage of
the recirculation region has a major influence on the pollutant dynamics;
UFP within the low pressure region associated with lower vortex;
let it be gas or particles.
 In a second time, another part of these UFP is shifted vertically to the
Gosse (2005) was interested in the dispersion of a passive scalar
upper part of the flow due to the interaction with the upper vortex;
(temperature) in the close wake of Ahmed bodies with three rear slant
 Meanwhile, a portion of the UFP in the recirculation region are
angles (ϕ ¼ 5 , 25 and 40 ). Scale of his models was 1/50 compared to
conveyed horizontally on both sides of the symmetry plane through
that of Ahmed et al. (1984). It is worthwhile to note that our corre-
the same turbulent system;
sponding scale is 1/20. Heated air was ejected from a tailpipe with a
velocity comparable to that of the incoming flow. His results showed a
For all conditions (ϕ ¼ 0 , 25 and 35 ), the flow dynamics is strongly
Reynolds dependence of the passive scalar field for ϕ ¼ 25 while it is
influenced by the toric vortex developing in the recirculation region. For
almost 2D for ϕ ¼ 5 and 40 whatever the Reynolds number. In the close
ϕ ¼ 25 , the longitudinal vortices emitted from the edges of the car
wake, the influence of the recirculation region on the passive scalar field
model are crucial. The turbulent structure of the wake flow plays a key
was underlined as well as the role of the longitudinal vortices for ϕ ¼ 25
role in the particle dispersion in the wake of the car models. By looking
further downstream. He also suggested that the mixing occurred rapidly
more carefully at each experimental conditions, the present results point
in the wake with a favoured dispersion in the spanwise direction. This
out that:

11
R. Rodriguez et al.
finding was mostly pronounced for ϕ ¼ 25 . Similarly, these results tend
to indicate a different feature for ϕ ¼ 25 due to these longitudinal
vortices.
Kanda et al. (2006) worked in a wind tunnel to assess exhaust gas
dispersion from two models of road vehicles (a sedan and a small-size
truck, respectively). Their scale was 1/20 compared to real size vehi-
cles. Reynolds numbers were 7100 and 14000, respectively. They
mentioned that the presence of the car enhanced the dispersion in a
significant way. They also suggested that the position of the tailpipe was
important. Indeed, for the small size truck (similar to a squared back
vehicle), they stated that the exhaust gas diffusion would have been
suppressed for an exhaust pipe on the top of the truck. Furthermore, they
affirmed that the most affected region should be in the near-wake where
mixing rapidly occurs. In the present study, the role of the near-wake
with its recirculation region is pointed out as well as the tailpipe posi-
tion on the PNC field downstream of a vehicle.
Carpentieri et al. (2012) carried out wind tunnel measurements
downstream of reduced scale car models (similar to 2004 Vauxhall Astra
Van). They worked with a 1/5 scale model for the near-wake charac-
terization and a 1/20 scale model for far-wake investigation. A passive
gas tracer was used with an exit velocity as low as possible to provide a
passive release. They highlighted the effect of the recirculation region
and the corresponding vortices. According to their measurements, the
plume was not Gaussian, especially in the near-wake. Their study was
presented as a “first step” in order to assess nanoparticle dispersion in the
wake of a vehicle. In that sense, this experimental work may be consid-
ered as a further step. Furthermore, they identified some differences
between results provided by experiments and those given by a numerical
model (CAR BUILD) which assumes a Gaussian plume. Concentrations
measured in line with the tailpipe in the wind tunnel were larger than
those predicted by the model. Indeed, this model was based on a com-
plete mixing assumption. From the experimental measurements, this
hypothesis must be obviously revised and the position of the tailpipe was
then a relevant parameter which was not taken into account in the nu-
merical model. Finally, they emphasized that nanoparticle dispersion in
the wake of a real car was a complex phenomena as “emitted particles
undergo a range of very fast transformation processes just after their
release from the tailpipe while the passive tracer gas is affected only by
dilution”. Although difficult, it should be taken into account for wind
tunnel investigations.
5. Conclusions and perspectives
In the present paper, the dispersion of UFP in the wake of three
Ahmed bodies having different rear slant angles (ϕ ¼ 0 , 25 and 35 )
was studied. This is an innovative approach as UFP were used for the first
time. Experimental results were obtained in a wind tunnel with reduced
scale models. The incoming velocity was U0 ¼ 14.3 m/s corresponding to
a Reynolds number based on the height of the vehicle of 49500. These
conditions were defined to be representative of a vehicle in an urban
environment. Velocities were recorded with a 2D LDV system. Particles
were generated with a PALAS DNP 2000 and PNC were measured using
an ELPI. PSD of these UFP corresponds to that of a Diesel engine. A
particular attention was dedicated to data acquisition and treatment
method. A first set of experimental data were acquired to characterize the
flow dynamics downstream of the three Ahmed bodies without the
exhaust system. Basic flow features were characterized (recirculation
length, vortex center positions, turbulent kinetic energy and Reynolds
shear stresses). The results indicated recirculation lengths of 1.39 h, 0.58
h and 1.06 h (h being the height of the car) for ϕ ¼ 0 , 25 and 35 ,
respectively. It was shown that the presence of the exhaust system as well
as the exhausted flow did not significantly affect the former results. Then,
UFP concentrations were assessed in the wake of the three car models.
The strong correlation between the flow topology and the UFP concen-
tration fields was demonstrated. The key role of the two vortices devel-
oping in the recirculation region was highlighted for all experimental
12
Journal of Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics 198 (2020) 104109
conditions. For ϕ ¼ 25 , the influence of the longitudinal vortices emitted
from the edges of the car was also underlined.
Overall, this paper brings new insights regarding the dispersion of
particles (UFP) in the wake of cars. To date, studies dealing with this
topic are quite limited. Most of them used passive tracers to address this
issue leading to mass concentration fields. For the first time, UFP having a
PSD similar to that of a Diesel engine were used. The present results can
be used to improve existing numerical models as well as to provide data
for real PNC exposure rates for UFP epidemiologic studies. Combined
with on board measurements, it is believed that they may contribute to
some recommendation in terms of ventilation settings, driving modes
and/or air intake and tailpipe positioning to limit pollutant infiltration in
the car cabin.
Nevertheless, further investigations are required to identify the role
of parameters such as the yaw angle and the incoming velocity on the
dynamics of particles in the wake of cars. Studying more realistic car
shapes, changing the tailpipe’s position, size and/or angle would be
interesting as well. Furthermore, working on the experimental setup
could be done to allow measurements closed to the bottom. Last but not
least, the improvement of analytical models (non Gaussian) would be
possible.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Romain Rodriguez: Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis,

de
Investigation, Data curation, Visualization. Fre
ric Murzyn: Concep-
tualization, Methodology, Validation, Investigation, Writing - original
draft, Writing - review & editing, Supervision. Amine Mehel: Supervi-
sion. Frederique Larrarte: Writing - review & editing, Supervision.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the financial support of ESTACA (Ecole
Sup
erieure des Techniques A
eronautiques et de Construction Automo-
bile) and Laval Agglom
eration. They both funded the PhD research
project of Romain Rodriguez.
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