Mass Transfer: Chemical Engineering

MASS TRANSFER
For
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
MASS TRANSFER
SYLLABUS
Fick’s laws, molecular diffusion in fluids, mass transfer coefficients, film, penetration
and surface renewal theories; momentum, heat and mass transfer analogies; stage-wise
and continuous contacting and stage efficiencies; HTU & NTU concepts; design and
operation of equipment for distillation, absorption, leaching, liquid-liquid extraction,
drying, humidification, dehumidification and adsorption.
ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS

Exam Year Total
2001 14
2002 11
2003 13
2004 15
2005 11
2006 9
2007 9
2008 11
2009 10
2010 9
2011 9
2012 10
2013 12
2014 10
2015 12
2016 9
2017 9
2018 12
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CONTENTS
Topics Page No
1. DIFFUSION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Fick’s First Law 1
1.3 Relation among Molar Fluxes 2
1.4 Diffusivity 2
1.5 Steady State Diffusion 3
1.6 Transient Diffusion 9
2. MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Significant Parameters in Convective Mass Transfer 11
2.3 Application of Dimensionless Analysis in Mass Transfer 11
2.4 Analysis among Mass, Heat and Momentum Transfer 13
2.5 Convective Mass Transfer Correlations 14
2.6 Mass Transfer between Phases 17
2.7 Theories of Mass Transfer 18
Gate Questions 20
3. DISTILLATION
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 T-XY Diagram 34
3.3 Relative Volatility 35
3.4 Raoult’s Law 35
3.5 Constant Boiling Mixtures 35
3.6 Differential Distillation 36
3.7 Flash Vaporization 37
3.8 Fractionation 37
3.9 Number of Plates Analysis 39
3.10 Types of Reboilers 43
3.11 Important Terms 43
3.12 Tray Efficiency 43
3.13 Effect of Pressure 44
Gate Questions 46
4. ABSORPTION
4.1 Introduction 62
4.2 Selection of Solvent 62
4.3 Counter Current Absorption 62
4.4 Rate of Absorption 63
4.5 Calculation of Tower Height 65
4.6 Calculation for Ideal Number of Plates by Absorption
Factor Method 66
4.7 HETP (Height Equivalent to Theoretical Plate) 67
Gate Questions 70
5. HUMIDIFICATION
5.1 Introduction 82
5.2 Vapor Pressure Curve 83
5.3 Dry Bulb Temperature 83
5.4 Wet Bulb Temperature 83
5.5 Dew Point Temperature 83
Gate Questions 84
6. Drying
6.1 Introduction 88
6.2 Mechanism of Moisture Content 88
6.3 Resistances in Drying 88
6.4 Important Terms 88
6.5 Rate of Drying 89
6.6 Effect of Variables on Drying 90
Gate Questions 92
7. EXTRACTION
7.1 Introduction 99
7.2 Equilibrium Relations in Extraction 99
7.3 Types of System in Extraction 99
7.4 Stages 100
Gate Questions 103
8. LEACHING
8.1 Introduction 111

8.2 Factors Affecting Rate of Leaching 111
8.3 Contacting Pattern 111
8.4 Super Critical Fluid Extraction 111
9. ADSORPTION
9.1 Introduction 113

9.2 Types of Adsorption 113
9.3 Adsorption Isotherms 113
Gate Questions 115
1 DIFFUSION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
NA = CA (VA-V) +XA (CAVA + CBVB)
Transfer of mass from one point to another in a = CA (VA-V) +XA (NA+NB)
single phase or from one phase to another phase NA = CA (VA-V) +XA N …………….. (1.3)
with the help of a driving force is known as mass The first term on the right hand side of this
transfer. The driving force is required for any equation is diffusional molar flux of A, and the
transfer; in mass transfer concentration second term is flux due to bulk motion.
difference
is driving force. Mass Flux: The mass flux of species defined with
reference to fixed spatial coordinates, nA is
Types of mass transfer: nA=ρA vA ……….. (1.4)
1. Molecular Diffusion: The transfer of mass This could be written in terms of diffusion
or diffusion of species takes place in a velocity of A, (i.e.vA-v) and mass average velocity
stagnant medium. of mixture, v as
2. Turbulent Diffusion: If the diffusion of nA = ρA (vA-v) + ρAv ……………… (1.5)
species takes place in a turbulent By definition,
medium, then the mechanism is known as Σ ρi vi
v=
turbulent or eddy diffusion. 𝜌𝜌
Therefore, equation (1.5) becomes
Flux: The net rate at which a species in solution
passes through unit area, which is normal to the nA = ρA (vA-v) + ρA
Σρi vi
direction of diffusion in unit time. 𝜌𝜌
Molar Flux: The molar flux of species defined =ρA (vA-v) + YAΣρi vi
with reference to fixed spatial coordinates, NA is
1.2 FICK’S FIRST LAW:
NA=CA VA ……….. (1.1)
This could be written in terms of diffusion The molar flux of a species with respect to
velocity of A, (i.e.VA-V) and molar average observer moving with molar average velocity
velocity of mixture, V as is directly proportional to the gradient of the
NA = CA (VA-V) + CAV ……………… (1.2) concentration of that species.
By definition, dC
JA α 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A
Σ Ci Vi
V= If we remove the proportionality, then the
𝐶𝐶
Therefore, equation (1.2) becomes constant of proportionality must be
introduced, which is known as diffusivity or
ΣC Vi diffusion coefficient; denoted by DAB for a
NA = CA (VA-V) + CA 𝐶𝐶i
binary mixture or Dij for a multicomponent
=CA (VA-V) + XAΣCi Vi mixture. This coefficient tells us how easily
For binary systems containing two components species I diffuse in the solution or for a binary
A and B, mixture how easily A diffuses into B. dCA/dZ
is the concentration gradient in the Z-
direction.
dC transport properties: Kinematic viscosity,
JA =-DAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A 𝜇𝜇
Where, minus sign represents the transfer of 𝛾𝛾 = in momentum transfer, and thermal
𝜌𝜌
𝐾𝐾
mass taking place from a region of higher diffusivity, 𝛼𝛼 = in heat transfer.
𝜌𝜌 𝐶𝐶
concentration to a region of lower 𝑝𝑝
concentration. Diffusivity is normally reported in cm2/sec;
the SI unit being m2/sec. Diffusivity depends
dX
JA = -CDAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A on pressure, temperature, and composition
of the system. Diffusivities of gases at low
Using this expression, Equation (1.3)
density are almost composition independent,
could be written as,
dX increase with the temperature and vary
NA = -CDAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A+XA N ………….. (1.6) inversely with pressure. Liquid and solid
diffusivities are strongly concentration
dependent and increase with temperature.
1.3 RELATION AMONG MOLAR FLUXES:
General range of values of diffusivity:
For a binary system containing A and B, from Gases: 5 x 10-6 - 1 x 10-5 m2/sec
Equation (1.6), Liquids: 10-6 - 10-9 m2/sec
NA = JA+XA N Solids: 5 x 10-14 - 1 x 10-10 m2/sec
Or, JA = NA-XA N ……. (1.7)
Similarly, JB = NB-XB N …….. (1.8) 1.4.1 DIFFUSIVITY IN GASES:
Addition of equation (1.7) & (1.8) gives,
Pressure dependence of diffusivity is given by
1
JA + JB = NA + NB– (XA +XB) N ….. (1.9) DAB∝
𝑃𝑃
By definition,
N= NA + NBand XA +XB =1 And temperature dependency is according to
DAB∝ 𝑇𝑇 3/2
Therefore equation (1.9)becomes,
JA + JB =0 Diffusivity of a component in a mixture of
JA =- JB components can be calculated using the
dX dX
CDAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A =-CDBA 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑B …… (1.10) diffusivities for the various binary pairs involved
in the mixture. The relation given by Wilke is
1
From XA +XB =1 𝐷𝐷1−𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛′
dXA = −dXB
2
+ 3
+ ⋯ … … … … +
𝐷𝐷
1−2 𝐷𝐷 1−3 𝐷𝐷 1−𝑛𝑛
Therefore equation (1.10) becomes,

DAB = - DBA …………. (1.11)
Where, D1-mixtureis the diffusivity for component
1.4 DIFFUSIVITY 1 in the gas mixture; D1-n is the diffusivity for the
Fick’s law proportionality, DAB, is known as binary pair, component 1 diffusing through
mass diffusivity (simply as diffusivity) or as component n; and y’nis the mole fraction of
the diffusion coefficient. DAB has the component n in the gas mixture evaluated on a
dimension of L2/t, identical to the
component –1 – free basis, that is
fundamental dimensions of the other
𝑦𝑦2 1−𝑋𝑋
𝑦𝑦2′ = NA Z =CDABln 1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦𝑦3 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝐴1
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 1−𝑋𝑋
1.4.2 DIFFUSIVITY IN LIQUIDS: NA = ln 1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
𝑍𝑍 𝐴𝐴1
Temperature dependency is according to 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋

NA = ln 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2
𝑍𝑍
DAB∝ 𝑇𝑇 𝐵𝐵1
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 −𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1

1.5 STEADY STATE DIFFUSION NA = 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 −𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1
𝑍𝑍
𝑋𝑋
ln� 𝐵𝐵2 �
𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1
In this section, steady-state molecular mass
𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 −𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1
transfer through simple systems in which the Where, 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑋𝑋 is called
ln� 𝐵𝐵2�
concentration and molar flux are functions of a 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1
single space coordinate will be considered.

In a binary system, containing A and B, this logarithmic mean of B.
molar flux in the direction of z, as given by
Eqn (1.6) is 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 = 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 − 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1
dX
NA = -CDAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A+ XA (NA + NB) …. (1.11) 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 −𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
NA = ……. (1.12)
𝑍𝑍 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
When the difference between Concentration

1.5.1 DIFFUSION OF A THROUGH NON-
DIFFUSING B: 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 &𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1 is very less then we take arithmetic
mean not logarithmic mean.
Liquid A is evaporating into gas B. Solubility of
gas B in liquid A is negligible or B is non- Equation (1.12) can be written as in the form of
diffusing. A stream of gaseous mixture A and B logarithmic average concentration of B,
having concentration xA2 flows slowly over the 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2
top of the tube to maintain the mole fraction of A NA = ……… (1.13)
𝑍𝑍 𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
at xA2. Entire system is kept at constant
temperature and pressure. Gases A and B are 𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵2 −𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵1
Where, 𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐶𝐶 is called
assumed to be ideal. ln� 𝐵𝐵2 �
𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵1
NA = JA+XA N logarithmic average concentration of B.
NA = JA+XA (NA + NB)
P
For an ideal gas, 𝐶𝐶 =
NB=0, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
dX Therefore, for an ideal gas mixture equation.

NA = XA NA - CDAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A
(1.13) becomes
dX 𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 −𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2
(1- XA )NA = - CDAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A NA = ………. (1.14)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍 𝑋𝑋 dX
NA ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑= - CDAB∫𝑋𝑋 𝐴𝐴2 (1− XA
A
𝐴𝐴1 )
Replacing concentration in terms of pressures
Example 1.1 Oxygen is diffusing in a mixture
of oxygen-nitrogen at 1 std-atm, 25ºC. using Ideal gas law, equation (3) becomes
Concentration of oxygen at planes 2 mm 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃 −𝑃𝑃
apart are 10 and 20 volume % respectively. 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = ln 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 −𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2 ………. (4)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴1
Nitrogen is non-diffusing.
(a) Derive the appropriate expression to Where,
calculate the flux of oxygen. Define units of 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = molecular diffusivity of A in B
each term clearly. 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 = total pressure of system
(b) Calculate the flux of oxygen. Diffusivity of R = universal gas constant
oxygen in nitrogen = 1.89 * 10-5 m / s. T = temperature of system in absolute scale
z = distance between two planes across the
Solution: Let us denote oxygen as A and nitrogen direction of diffusion
as B. Flux of A (i.e.) NA is made up of two 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 = partial pressure of A at plane 1, and
components, namely that resulting from the bulk 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2 = partial pressure of A at plane 2
motion of A (i.e.), NXA and that resulting from
Given:
molecular diffusion JA: 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1.89 * 10-5m2/sec
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 = 1 atm = 1.01325 * 105 N/m 2
NA = JA+XA N
T = 25ºC = 273 + 25 = 298 K
From Fick’s law of Diffusion, z = 2 mm = 0.002 m
𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 = 0.2 *1 = 0.2 atm = 20265 N/m2 (From Ideal
dC
JA =-DAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A gas law and additive pressure rule)
𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2 = 0.1 * 1 = 0.1 atm = 10132.5 N/m2
dC Substituting these in equation (4),
NA =XA N - DAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A ………… (1)
(1.89∗10−5) (1.01325∗105 ) (101325−10132.5)
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = ln
Since N =NA + NB and XA= CA/C equation (1) (8314∗298∗0.002) (101325−20265)
becomes
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = 4.55 ∗ 10−5 kmol/m2.s
CA dC
NA =(NA +NB ) - DAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A ……. (2) 1.5.2EQUIMOLAR COUNTER DIFFUSION:
𝐶𝐶
Since B is non-diffusing NB = 0. Also, the total A physical situation which is encountered in the
concentration C remains constant. Therefore, distillation of two constituents whose molar
equation (2) becomes, latent heats of vaporization are essentially equal,
stipulates that the flux of one gaseous
𝑍𝑍
∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶 dC component is equal to but acting in the opposite
= − ∫𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴2 direction from the other gaseous component;
𝐶𝐶 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴1 (NA C− NA CA )
that is, NA = -NB.
1 𝐶𝐶−𝐶𝐶
= ln 𝐶𝐶−𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 The molar flux NA, for a binary system at constant
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴1
temperature and pressure is described by,
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶−𝐶𝐶 C dC
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = ln 𝐶𝐶−𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 ………. (3) NA =(NA +NB ) 𝐶𝐶A - DAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A …… (1.15)
𝑧𝑧 𝐴𝐴1
With the substitution of NA = -NB, Equation (1.15) 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 𝑍𝑍−𝑍𝑍1
becomes, = 𝑍𝑍 ……… (1.19)
𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 1 −𝑍𝑍2
dC
NA =- DAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A …… (1.16)
Equation, (1.19) indicates a linear concentration
For steady state diffusion Equation (1.16) may
profile for equimolar counter diffusion.
be integrated, using the boundary conditions: at
z = z1 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1
Example 1.2 Methane diffuses at steady state
and z = z2𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2
through a tube containing helium. At point 1
Giving,
𝑍𝑍 𝐶𝐶 the partial pressure of methane is 𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 55
NA ∫𝑍𝑍 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑= - DAB∫𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴2 𝑑𝑑𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 kPa and at point 2, 0.03 m apart 𝑷𝑷𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = 15 KPa.
1 𝐴𝐴1
The total pressure is 101.32 kPa, and the
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 =(𝑍𝑍 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 ) ………. (1.17) temperature is 298 K. At this pressure and
2−𝑍𝑍1 )
temperature, the value of diffusivity is 6.75 *
P 10-5 m2/sec.
For an ideal gas, 𝐶𝐶 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (i). Calculate the flux of CH4at steady state for
equimolar counter diffusion.
Therefore, for an ideal gas mixture equation. (ii). Calculate the partial pressure at a point
(1.17) becomes 0.02 m apart from point 1.
𝐷𝐷
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 =𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑍𝑍 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2 −𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 ) ………. (1.17) Solution: For steady state equi-molar counter
2−𝑍𝑍 ) 1
diffusion, molar flux is given by,
This is the equation of molar flux for steady-state
𝐷𝐷
equimolar counter diffusion. 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 =𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑍𝑍 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2 −𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 )……… (1)
−𝑍𝑍 )
Concentration profile in this equimolar counter 2 1
diffusion may be obtained from, Therefore,

𝑑𝑑 (6.75∗10−5 )(55−15)
(𝑁𝑁 ) = 0 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴 (8314∗298∗0.003)
(Since𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 is constant over the diffusion path) 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = 3.633 ∗ 10−5
𝑚𝑚2 . 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
And from equation (1.16)
And from (1), partial pressure at 0.02 m from
dCA
NA =- DAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 point 1 is:
Therefore, (6.75∗10−5 )(55−𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 )
𝑑𝑑 dCA 3.633 ∗ 10−5 =
(8314∗298∗0.002)
�− DAB �=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 = 28.33 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
𝑑𝑑2 CA
Or, =0 ……. (1.18)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 Example 1.3 For Equimolar counter diffusion
This equation may be solved using the boundary from a sphere to a surrounding stationary
infinite medium, the mass flux 𝑵𝑵𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 of the
conditions to give,
diffusing component A at the interface is
𝑫𝑫𝑨𝑨
given by 𝑵𝑵𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 = (𝑪𝑪𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 −𝑪𝑪𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 ) where 𝑫𝑫𝑨𝑨 is the molecular motions into the large body of
𝑹𝑹
diffusivity, R the radius of sphere and stagnant gas that surrounds the droplet.
𝑪𝑪𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 and 𝑪𝑪𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 the molar concentrations of A at Consider a naphthalene ball, as shown in figure.
At any moment, when the radius of the ball is r1,
the interface and at a point far away from the
the flux of naphthalene ball at any distance r
sphere. Show that the Sherwood number, from the center is given by,
based on the diameter of the sphere is equal
to 2. NA = XA (NA +NB) - CDAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A
dX
Solution: The mass flux 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is given by

𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) ………………. (1)
𝑅𝑅
The mass flux 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 of the diffusing component A at

the interface is also given by,
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) ……… (2)
From the equations (1) and (2), we get
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 Here NB=0 (since air is assumed to be stagnant)

𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = Therefore,
𝑅𝑅 dX
NA = XA NA - CDAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A
Kc R
=1 Rearranging,
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 dX
NA = - CDAB(1−𝑋𝑋 A) …….. (1.20)
𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Kc D
=2
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 The flux N A is not constant, because of the
𝑑𝑑
spherical geometry; decreases as the distance
(Since, R= d=diameter of sphere) from the center of sphere increases. But the
2
molar flow rate at r and r + dr are the same.
Kc D
𝑁𝑁𝑆𝑆ℎ = =2
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 |r = 𝐴𝐴𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 |r+dr
Where, A= Surface area of sphere at r and r + dr

1.5.3 EVAPORATION OF SPHERICAL
DROPLETS: Substituting 𝐴𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
We shall consider the evaporation of spherical 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 |r - 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 |r+dr =0
droplet such as a raindrop or sublimation of
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 |r+dr−4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 |r
naphthalene ball. The vapor formed at the Or , lim =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑→0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
surface of the droplet is assumed to diffuse by
𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
As
𝑑𝑑
(4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋2 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 ) = 0 −𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Integrating, From Equation (1.21),
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = constant = W CDAB 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 |r= − =
𝑟𝑟 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑀𝑀 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑊𝑊
Or, 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 =
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
0
MCDAB 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 𝑡𝑡1
Put the value of NA in Equation (1.20) − � 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑟𝑟1 𝜌𝜌 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 0
𝑊𝑊 dX r21 ρ 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
= - CDAB(1−𝑋𝑋 A) 𝑡𝑡1 = ………… (1.22)
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑀𝑀 C DAB 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 −𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑋𝑋 dX
𝑊𝑊 ∫𝑟𝑟 2 = - CDAB∫𝑋𝑋 𝐴𝐴2 (1−𝑋𝑋A ) Example 1.4 A sphere of naphthalene having
1 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴
a radius of 2mm is suspended in a large
-
𝑊𝑊 1 1
� − �=CDAB ln 1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
1−𝑋𝑋 volume of shell air at 318 K and 1 atm. The
4𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟2 𝑟𝑟1 𝐴𝐴1
surface pressure of the naphthalene can be
1
≅0 (𝑟𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) assumed to be at 318 K is 0.555 mmHg. The
𝑟𝑟2
Diffusivity of naphthalene inair at 318 K is
𝑊𝑊 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 −𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 6.92 * 10-6 m2/sec. Calculate the rate of
= CDAB
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟1 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 evaporation of naphthalene from the surface.
𝑊𝑊 CDAB 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 −𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟12
= 𝑟𝑟1 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
Solution: Rate of evaporation of naphthalene is
given by:
CDAB 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 −𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 |r=𝑟𝑟1 = ……… (1.21) 𝑊𝑊 CDAB 1−𝑋𝑋
𝑟𝑟1 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
= ln 1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟12 𝑟𝑟1 𝐴𝐴1
The radius of naphthalene ball decreases with
time,but still we have taken it as steady sate For gases,
condition because it satisfy assumption of P 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 ⁄𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴
C= and 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴 = = =
pseudo steady state diffusion i.e. 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐶𝐶 𝑃𝑃 ⁄𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃
1) The diffusional rate should be very small.

Given: DAB =6.92 * 10-6
2) The species which is diffusing should be very
small in comparison to the species in which it is C=
P
=
101325
= 0.03832
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 8314∗318
diffusing.
Time taken for the complete evaporation of a 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 = 0 (Air is non-diffusing)
naphthalene ball:
𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2 0.555
Rate of Diffusion= Rate of evaporation 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 = = = 7.303 ∗ 10−4
𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌 4 𝑃𝑃 760
−4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = � 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 3 �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑀𝑀 3
𝑊𝑊 0.03832∗ 6.92 ∗10−6 1−0
= ln
4𝜋𝜋(0.002)2 0.002 1−(7.303 ∗ 10−4 ) 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
NA = 𝑍𝑍 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑾𝑾 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 ∗ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 kmol/sec
Conversion from weight fraction t0 Mole
1.5.4 DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS: fraction:
(0.1⁄74)
Case 1: For steady state diffusion of A through 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 = = 0.026
(0.1⁄74 + 0.9⁄18)
non diffusing B: (0.04⁄74)
NA= constant, NB = 0 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 = = 0.010
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝑋𝑋 −𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 (0.04⁄74 + 0.96⁄18)
NA = 𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴1
𝑋𝑋 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 Average molecular weight at 1 & 2:
1
𝑀𝑀1 = = 19.47 kg/kmol
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌
� � +� � (0.1⁄74 +0.9⁄18)
𝜌𝜌 𝑀𝑀 1 𝑀𝑀 2 1
Where, C=� � = 𝑀𝑀2 = (0.04⁄ = 18.56kg/kmol
𝑀𝑀 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2 74+0.96⁄18)
𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 −𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1
And 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑋𝑋
ln� 𝐵𝐵2 � 𝜌𝜌
� � +� �
𝜌𝜌
𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1 𝜌𝜌 𝑀𝑀 1 𝑀𝑀 2
Case 2: For steady state equimolar counter C=� � =
𝑀𝑀 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2
diffusion:
0.971 0.992
� � +� �
19.47 18.56
NA=-NB = 2
= 0.0517 gmol/ cc
𝐶𝐶 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = (𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 −𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 ) = 51.7 kmol/m3
𝑍𝑍
𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 −𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1 (1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 )−(1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 )

𝜌𝜌 � � +� �
𝑀𝑀 1 𝑀𝑀 2 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑋𝑋 = 1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
Where, C=� � = ln� 𝐵𝐵2 � ln� �
𝑀𝑀 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1 1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1
Example 1.5 Calculate the rate of diffusion of (1 − 0.01) − (1 − 0.026)

𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
butanol at 20ºC under unidirectional steady ln �
1−0.01
�
1−0.026
state conditions through a 0.1 cm thick film of 0.016
water when the concentrations of butanol at = = 0.982
0.0163
the opposite sides of the film are, respectively
10% and 4% butanol by weight. The Therefore,
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
diffusivity of butanol in water solution is 5.9 NA = 𝑍𝑍 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
*10-6 cm2/sec. The densities of 10% and 4%
butanol solutions at 20ºC may be taken as 𝜌𝜌 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 −𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2
0.971 and 0.992 g/cc respectively. Molecular NA = � �
𝑀𝑀 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑍 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
weight of butanol (C4 H9OH) is 74, and that of
water 18. 51.7∗5.9 ∗ 10−6∗10−4 (0.026−0.01)
NA = ∗
0.001 0.982
Solution: For steady state unidirectional =4.97*𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟕𝟕 kmol/m2 sec
diffusion,
1.5.5 DIFFUSION IN SOLIDS: 1.6 TRANSIENT DIFFUSION:
Rates are slow in comparison to liquids and Transient processes, in which the concentration
gases but it is important to us in many mass at a given point varies with time, are referred as
transfer operations. E.g. leaching of foods such as unsteady state processes or time – dependent
soya bean, crystallization, drying etc. Types of processes. This variation in concentration is
diffusion in solids: associated with a variation in the mass flux.
There are two types. In unsteady state processes there are three
variables: concentration, time, and position.
1) Diffusion that can be considered to follow One dimensional unsteady state mass transfer is
Fick’s law and does not depend on the defined by Fick’s second law:
actual structure of solid. E.g. in leaching,
the solid contains a large amount of water 𝛿𝛿 2 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 1 𝛿𝛿𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴
2
=
and solute is diffusing through this 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
solution.
2) Diffusion in porous solid where actual
structure and the voids are important.
𝜀𝜀 dC
NA = DAB 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A
𝜏𝜏
Where, 𝜀𝜀 =
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)
𝜏𝜏 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
KNUDSEN DIFFUSION:
When mean free path is greater than pore

diameter.
i.e. λ > d
It follows Knudsen law i.e.

dC
JA =-Dk 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑A
2
Where, Dk = Knudsen diffusivity = rpVT
3
rp = radius of passage
8RT 1/2
VT = velocity of particle =� �
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
2 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
2.1 INTRODUCTION 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Where,𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 =
𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
The rate of mass transfer is proportional to driving
force and area. 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 −𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2
𝑊𝑊 ∝ ∆𝐶𝐶 NA =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
If we remove the proportionality, then the constant NA = 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 (𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴2 )
of proportionality must be introduced, which is 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
known as mass transfer coefficient and is denoted Where,𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
by 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 . It’s unit is m/sec. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴1 −𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴2
NA =
𝑊𝑊 = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 ∆𝐶𝐶 𝑍𝑍 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑊𝑊 NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 (𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴2 )
NA= = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 ∆𝐶𝐶
𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Where, 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 =
Like heat transfer, it is an experimental quantity 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝐾
and it can be calculated with the help of 8𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 = = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
𝑃𝑃
dimensionless numbers. For Liquids:
Case 1: Diffusion of A through non-diffusing B 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴1 −𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴2
NA =
For Gases: 𝑍𝑍 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴2 )
NA =
𝑍𝑍 𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 ) 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 Where,𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 =
Where, 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴1 −𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴2 NA =
NA = 𝑍𝑍 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑍𝑍 𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 NA = 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 )
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 (𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴2 ) 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 Where,𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 =
Where,𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 =
𝑍𝑍𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿
𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 −𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 =
NA = 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 (𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2 ) Case 2: Equimolar counter diffusion:
𝑃𝑃 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 For Gases:
Where,𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Relationship between 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 , 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 : NA = (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴2 )
𝑍𝑍
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 NA = 𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦′ (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴2 )
NA =
𝑍𝑍 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ′ 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 ) Where,𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦 =
𝑍𝑍
NA = (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 ) Sherwood number: The ratio of convective mass
𝑍𝑍
flux to mass flux for diffusion through a stagnant
NA = 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐′ (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 ) medium of thickness L, under the driving force of
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 difference.
Where,𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐′ =
𝑍𝑍 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 (∆𝑃𝑃 )
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆ℎ = 𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴1 −𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴2
NA = (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴2 ) 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴1
NA = 𝑘𝑘𝐺𝐺′ (𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴2 )
For dilute concentrations,
′ 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Where,𝑘𝑘𝐺𝐺 =
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑃𝑃
′
𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦′ 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐′
𝑘𝑘𝐺𝐺 = = 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 (∆𝑃𝑃 )
𝑃𝑃 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆ℎ = 𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 (∆𝑃𝑃)
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
For Liquids: 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃
𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
NA = 𝐴𝐴1
(𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴2 − 𝑥𝑥 ) 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑍𝑍
𝑆𝑆ℎ =
NA = 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥′ (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴2 ) 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Where, 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥′ = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑍𝑍
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝑍𝑍
NA = (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 ) 𝑆𝑆ℎ =
𝑍𝑍 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵
′
NA = 𝑘𝑘𝑙𝑙 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴1 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴2 )
Prandlt Number: It is defined as the ratio of
Where,𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥′ = momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity.
𝑍𝑍
𝑘𝑘𝑙𝑙′ 𝛾𝛾 𝜇𝜇⁄𝜌𝜌 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑝𝑝
𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥′ = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = =
𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝛼𝛼 𝑘𝑘 ⁄𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘
Analogy of Prandlt number in mass transfer is

2.2 SIGNIFICANT PARAMETERS IN
Schmidt number.
CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER:
Schmidt Number: It is defined as the ratio of
momentum diffusivity to mass diffusivity.
Dimensionless parameters are often used to 𝛾𝛾
correlate convective transfer data. In momentum 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
transfer Reynolds number and friction factor play a
major role. In the correlation of convective heat
transfer data, Prandtl and Nusselt numbers are 2.3 APPLICATION OF DIMENSIONLESS
important. ANALYSIS IN MASS TRANSFER:
Nusselt Number: The ratio of convective heat flux
to heat flux for conduction through a stagnant One of the methods of obtaining equations for
medium of thickness L for the same temperature predicting mass-transfer coefficients is the use of
difference. dimensionless analysis. Dimensional analysis
ℎ (∆𝑇𝑇) ℎ𝐿𝐿 predicts the various dimensionless parameters
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑘𝑘 =
(∆𝑇𝑇) 𝑘𝑘 which are helpful in correlating experimental data.
𝐿𝐿
There are two important mass transfer processes,
Analogy of nusselt number in mass transfer is which we shall consider, the transfer of mass into a
Sherwood number. stream flowing under forced convection and the
transfer of mass into a phase which is moving as the
Dividing π2 by π3 , 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
result of natural convection associated with density
gradients. 𝜇𝜇 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
π2 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
= � ρ𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇
2.3.1 TRANSFER INTO A STREAM π3 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
FLOWING UNDER FORCED CONVECTION:
Which is the Reynolds number
Consider the transfer of mass from the walls of a The result of the dimensional analysis of mass
circular conduit to a fluid flowing through the transfer by forced convection:
conduit. The mass transfer is due to the 𝑆𝑆ℎ = 𝜑𝜑(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)
concentration driving force(𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 ). Which is analogous to the heat transfer correlation
By the Buckingham method of grouping the 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝜑𝜑(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)
variables, the number of dimensionless groups π is
equal to the number of variables minus the number
of fundamental dimensions. Hence the number of 2.3.2TRANSFER INTO A PHASE WHOSE
dimensionless group for this problem will be three. MOTION IS DUE TO NATURAL
CONVECTION:
Therefore 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ,ρ and D as the core variables, the
Natural convection currents develop if there exists
three π groups to be formed are
any variation in density within the fluid phase. The
density variation may be due to temperature
π1 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 …….. (2.1)
𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓
differences or to relatively large concentration
π2 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵 𝜌𝜌 𝐷𝐷 𝑔𝑔 …….. (2.2) differences.
π3 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌ℎ 𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 𝜇𝜇 …….. (2.3) According to Buckingham method of grouping the
Substituting the dimensions for π, variables, there will be three dimensionless groups.
π1 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 Therefore 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ,L and 𝜇𝜇 as the core variables, the
three π groups to be formed are
𝐿𝐿2 𝑎𝑎 𝑀𝑀 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿
1=� � � 3 � (𝐿𝐿)𝑐𝑐 ( )
𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡
π1 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿𝑏𝑏 𝜇𝜇𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 …….. (2.4)
𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓
Equating the exponents of fundamental dimensions π2 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐿𝐿 𝜇𝜇 𝜌𝜌 …….. (2.5)
on both sides of the equation, we have π3 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙 ℎ 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔 ∆𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴 …….. (2.6)
L: 0=2a-3b+c+1 Solving the dimensionless groups, we obtain,
t: 0=-a-1 π1 = 𝐷𝐷𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 which is termed as Nusselt
M: 0=b 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Solving these equations, number.

a=-1, b=0, c=1 π2 = 𝜌𝜌𝐷𝐷𝜇𝜇𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1
Sc
, the reciprocal of Shmidt number.
Thus 3
𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑔 ∆𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝐷𝐷 And π3 = 𝜇𝜇𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
π1 = = 𝑆𝑆ℎ
which is termed as Sherwood number. With the multiplication of π2 and π3 , 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝜌𝜌𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑙𝑙 3 𝑔𝑔 ∆𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴
π2 = π2 π3 =
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇 𝜇𝜇𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝜇𝜇
And π3 = = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
ρ𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑙𝑙 3 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ∆𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴
= = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
which is termed as Schmidt number. 𝜇𝜇2
Which is the Grashof number
The result of the dimensional analysis of mass 2.4.1 REYNOLDS ANALOGY:
transfer by natural convection:
𝑆𝑆ℎ = 𝜑𝜑(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺, 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) Reynolds postulated that the mechanisms for
Which is analogous to the heat transfer correlation transfer of momentum, energy and mass are
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝜑𝜑(𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) identical. Accordingly,
2.4 ANALYSIS AMONG MASS, HEAT 𝑓𝑓 ℎ 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐

= =
AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER: 2 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣
Diffusion in one dimension is described by the Here, h is heat transfer coefficient

Fick’s Law as
dCA f is friction factor
JA =-DAB …… (2.7)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 is free stream velocity
Similarly, Heat conduction is described by Fourier’s
law as Reynolds analogy is valid when prandtl number or
Schmidt number equals to 1.
dT It is not valid for viscous sublayer, where the
q=-K …….. (2.8)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 molecular diffusivities become important.
Where K is thermal conductivity
2.4.2 CHILTON COLBURN ANALOGY:
The similar equation describing momentum
This analogy is valid for gases and liquids within the
transfer as given by newton’s law
range of 0.6 < Sc < 2500 and 0.6 < Pr < 100.
dv It is valid for both turbulence and laminar.
τ=-µ 𝑓𝑓 ℎ 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 2/3 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 2/3
2 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑣𝑣
Where, τ is the momentum flux (or shear stress) and 𝑓𝑓
µ is the viscosity of fluid. = 𝐽𝐽𝐻𝐻 = 𝐽𝐽𝐷𝐷
2
The similarity among the transfer phenomena and Example 2.1 A stream of air at 100 kPa
accordingly the existence of the analogies require pressure and 300 K is flowing on the top
that the following five conditions exist within the surface of a thin flat sheet of solid
system naphthalene of length 0.2 m with a velocity
1. The physical properties are constant of 20 m/sec. The other data are:
2. There is no mass or energy produced within the Mass diffusivity of naphthalene vapor in air
system. This implies that there is no chemical = 6 x 10-6 m2/sec
reaction within the system Kinematic viscosity of air = 1.5 x 10-5 m2.sec
3. There is no emission or absorption of radiant Concentration of naphthalene at the air-
energy. solid naphthalene interface = 1x10-5 kmol /
4. There is no viscous dissipation of energy. m3
Calculate:
5. The velocity profile is not affected by the mass
(a) The overage mass transfer coefficient
transfer. This implies there should be a low rate of
over the flat plate
mass transfer.
(b) the rate of loss of naphthalene from the controlled air-stream, several correlations are
surface per unit width available. These correlation have been found to
Note: For heat transfer over a flat plate, satisfy the equations obtained by theoretical
convective heat transfer coefficient for analysis on boundary layers,
laminar flow can be calculated by the 1/2 1/3
Sh= 0.664𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 , for 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 < 3 ∗ 105
equation. 1/3
𝟏𝟏/𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏/𝟑𝟑 Sh= 0.036𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿0.8 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 , for 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙 > 3 ∗ 105
Nu = 0.664𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑳𝑳 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑳𝑳 These equations may be used if the Schmidt
you may use analogy between mass and heat number in the range 0.6 < Sc < 2500.
transfer.
Example 2.2 If the local Nusselt number for
Solution: Given: Correlation for heat transfer the laminar boundary layer that is formed
1/2 1/3 over a flat plate is
Nu = 0.664𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 𝟏𝟏/𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏/𝟑𝟑
Nux = 0.332𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝒙𝒙
The analogous relation for mass transfer is
1/2 1/3
Obtain an expression for the average film-
Sh= 0.664𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 ��𝒄𝒄 , when the Reynolds
transfer coefficient 𝒌𝒌
Where, number for the plate is
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 a) 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑳𝑳 = 100 000
𝑆𝑆ℎ =
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 b)𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑳𝑳 = 1500 000
𝛾𝛾
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 The transition from laminar to turbulent
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 flow occurs at 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 3 x 10-5.
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝜇𝜇
Solution: By definition:
𝐾𝐾(0.2) 1/2 1/3 𝐿𝐿
(0.2∗20) (1.5∗10−5 ) ∫0 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.664∗ � � � � ��
(6∗10−6 ) (1.5∗10−5 ) (6∗10−6 ) 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 𝐿𝐿
∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
K=0.014 m/sec and
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥
Rate of loss of naphthalene 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑥𝑥 =
=k (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) 𝛾𝛾
=0.014*(1.0 ∗ 10−5 − 0) 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 =
= 1.4024*10−7 kmol/m2 sec 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 =
Rate of loss per meter width 𝜇𝜇
= (1.4024*10−7 )*(0.2) For 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 = 100000; (which is less than the Reynolds
=2.80*10−8 kmol/m sec number corresponding to Transition value of 3
*105)
2.5 CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER
CORRELATIONS: 𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 1/2 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
∫0 0.332 � 𝜇𝜇
� 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 1/3 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
��
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 𝐿𝐿
Extensive data have been obtained for the transfer ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
of mass between a moving fluid and certain shapes,
such as flat plates, spheres and cylinders. 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 1/2
0.332 �
𝜇𝜇
� 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 1/3 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
��
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 �
2.5.1 FLAT PLATE: 𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥1/2
0
i.e.
From the experimental measurements of rate of ��
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿
evaporation from a liquid surface or from the 𝑆𝑆ℎ𝐿𝐿 = = 0.664 (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 )1/2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 1/3
sublimation rate of a volatile solid surface into a 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
For 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 1500000 (> 3 ∗ 105 ); Sh=2+0.59 (𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 )1/4
𝐿𝐿 1 1
It is useful over the range 2 x 108 < 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 < 1.5 x
∫0 𝑡𝑡 0.332(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 )2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 1010.
� 𝐿𝐿
�
4/5 1/3 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
∫𝐿𝐿 0.0292(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 ) 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
�� 𝑥𝑥
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 𝑡𝑡
𝐿𝐿 Example 2.3 The mass flux from a 5 cm
∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 diameter naphthalene ball placed in
stagnant air at 40º C and atmospheric
1
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 2 1 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 pressure, is 1.47 x 10 –3 mol/m2. sec.
0.332 � 𝜇𝜇 � 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 3 ∫0 𝑡𝑡 1 +
⎛ 𝑥𝑥 2 ⎞
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 4/5 𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Assume the vapor pressure of naphthalene
⎝0.0292 � 𝜇𝜇 � 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 1/3 ∫𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 1/5⎠ to be 0.15 atm at 40ºC and negligible bulk
��
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑡𝑡
𝐿𝐿 concentration of naphthalene in air. If air

starts blowing across the surface of
��𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆ℎ𝐿𝐿 =
𝑘𝑘
= 0.664(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 )1/2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 1/3 + 0.0365𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑥𝑥 1/3 ((𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 )4/5 − (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 )4/5) naphthalene ball at 3 m/s by what factor will
the mass transfer rate increase, all other
Where, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡 = 3 ∗ 105 conditions remaining the same? For
𝟏𝟏/𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏/𝟑𝟑
spheres : Sh= 2 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝑳𝑳 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑳𝑳
2.5.2 SINGLE SPHERE
Where Sh is the Sherwood number and Sc is
Correlations for mass transfer from single spheres the Schmidt number. The viscosity and
are represented as addition of terms representing density of air are 1.8 x 10-5 kg/m.s and 1.123
transfer by purely molecular diffusion and transfer kg/m3, respectively and the gas constant is
by forced convection, in the form 82.06 cm3.atm mol.K.
Sh= Sh0 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿𝑛𝑛
Where C, m and n are constants, the value of n is Solution: Given:
normally taken as 1/3 . Mass Flux, NA = 1.47 x 10-3 mol/m2. sec.
For very low Reynolds number, the Sherwood ��
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 (∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 )
number should approach a value of 2. Therefore the
generalized equation becomes Therefore, 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 =
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
1/3 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Sh= 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
For mass transfer into liquid streams, the equation NA = ��
(∆𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴 )
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
given by Brain and Hales
1/3 1/2
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 0.15
Sh= �4 + 1.21𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � � − 0� = 1.47 x 10-3 x 10-4
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 1
It is valid for when peclet number Pe is less than
1.47 x10−7
10,000. This peclet number is equal to the product 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 = ∗ 82.06 ∗ (273 + 40)
of Reynolds number and Schmidt number. 0.15
= 0.0252 cm/sec
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
For Peclet numbers greater than 10,000, the 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 = 2.517 x10−4 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ……. (1)
relation given by Levich,
1/3 Estimation of 𝑫𝑫𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨:
Sh= 1.01𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
This relation is given by Froessling,
1/2 1/3 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 𝐿𝐿
Sh= 2 + 0.552𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆ℎ𝐿𝐿 = = 2 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣 = 0)
It is valid for at Reynolds number ranging from 2 to
800 and Schmidt number ranging 0.6 to 2.7.
For natural convection mass transfer, the relation 2.517 x10−4 ∗ 5 x10−2
=2
given by Schutz 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
−6
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 6.2925 x10 m2 ⁄sec 𝑆𝑆ℎ
𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
= 0.023𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿0.83 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿0.44
𝑃𝑃
1/2 1/3
Sh= 2 + 0.6𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 Where, 𝑃𝑃𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 is log mean composition of Carrier
gas. This correlation is valid for over the range
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 0.5 𝛾𝛾 0.33
= 2 + 0.6 ∗ � � � � 2000<Re<35000 and 0.6<Sc<2.5.
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Linton and Sherwood modified the above relation,
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 0.5 𝛾𝛾 0.33
= 2 + 0.6 ∗ � � � �
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆ℎ = 0.023𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿0.83 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿0.33
−2
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 ∗5 x10 and found to be valid for 2000<Re<70000 and
−6= 1000<Sc<2260.
6.2925 x10
0.5 0.33
5 x10−2 ∗3∗1.123 1.8 x10−5 Example 2.4 A solid disc of benzoic acid 3 cm
2 +0.6 ∗ � � �1.123∗6.2925 x10−6 � in diameter is spinning at 20 rpm and 25º C.
1.8 x10−5
Calculate the rate of dissolution in a large
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 = 0.0102𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 …… (2) volume of water. Diffusivity of benzoic acid
in water is 1.0 x 10-5 cm2 /sec, and solubility
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we get is 0.003 g/cc. The following mass transfer
correlation is applicable:
NA2 0.0102
= =40.5
NA1 2.517 x10−4 Sh= 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝑳𝑳 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑳𝑳
𝟏𝟏/𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏/𝟑𝟑
2.5.3 SINGLE CYLINDER 𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐 𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎

Where, 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 =
𝝁𝝁
and 𝝎𝝎 is the angular speed
Several investigators have studied the rate of in radians/time.
sublimation from a solid cylinder into air flowing
Solution:
normal to its axis. Bedingfield and Drew correlated
the available data in the form Diffusion rate = NA S ….. (1)
Where, NA = mass flux, and
𝑘𝑘𝐺𝐺 𝑃𝑃 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 0.56 −0.4
= 0.281 ∗ �𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 / � S= surface area for mass transfer
𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴∞ ) …… (2)
Which is valid for 400 < Re < 25000 and 0.6 < Sc < Where, 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is the concentration of benzoic and at in
2.6 water at the surface of the dose.
Where 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 / the Reynolds number in terms of the 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴∞ is the concentration benzoic acid in wate for an
diameter of the cylinder is 𝐺𝐺𝑀𝑀 is the molar mass from the surface of the disc.
velocity of gas and P is the pressure. Given:
2.5.4 FLOW THROUGH PIPES 𝑆𝑆ℎ = 0.62𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿0.5 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿0.33

0.5 0.33
Mass transfer from the inner wall of a tube to a 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝛾𝛾
= 0.62 � � �𝐷𝐷 � ……. (3)
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜇𝜇 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
moving fluid has been studied extensively. Gilliland
1 rotation =2 π radian
and Sherwood, based on the study of rate of
vaporization of nine different liquids into air given
Therefore 20 rotation per minute= 20* 2 π
the correlation
radian/min
=20/60*2 π radian/sec
For water, ρ=1g/cc, µ =0.01 gm/cm.sec
From Equation (3),

4) because of the same driving force i.e. (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 −
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 0.5 𝛾𝛾
0.33 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ). Where, Where, 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = mole fraction of A
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 0.62 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 � � �
� in gas liquid interface on the liquid side and
𝜇𝜇
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = mole fraction of A in the liquid bulk
(40𝜋𝜋 ⁄60)∗1 0.5 0.01 0.33 phase.
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 0.62 ∗ 1 ∗ 10−5 ∗ � � �
1∗1∗10−5
�
0.01
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 8.973*10−4 cm/sec 2.6.1 DETERMINATION OF INTERFACIAL

CONCENTRATION:
From Equation (2),
NA = 8.973*10−4 ∗ (0.003 − 0)
= 2.692 ∗ 10−6 g/cm2.sec
From Equation (1),
NA S = NA *2πr2
= 2.692 ∗ 10−6 ∗ (2π ∗ 1.52 )
=3.805*10−5 gm/sec
2.6 MASS TRANSFER BETWEEN PHASES:
In mass transfer from one phase to another phase,

involved following sequential steps:
For steady state, no accumulation and no
1) Solute A is transported from bulk of the gas generation, the mass transfer from one phase to
phase to gas liquid interface because of another phase is given by,
driving force i.e. (𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) . Where, 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 (𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 )
mole fraction of A in gas bulk phase and
=𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ).
𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = mole fraction of A in gas liquid
interface on the gas side. From graph, the slope of driving force line is given
2) Solute A is absorbed by the liquid phase at by,
the gas liquid interface such that the two
concentrations are related by an (𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) −𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥
=
equilibrium relationship 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ∅(𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) or it (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦
is given by distribution coefficient K= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
Since the concept of interface is hypothetical.
Determination of interfacial concentrations
3) The absorbed solute is transported from the accurately is impossible to solve this problem; we
gas liquid interface to the bulk of liquid introduce the concept of overall mass transfer
coefficient.
Overall mass transfer coefficient is analogous to 2.6.2 DETERMINATION OF OVERALL
overall heat transfer coefficient and for that overall MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT:
driving force may be defined as based on the liquid
side or based on the gas side
∗
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌 (𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 )
∗
=𝐾𝐾𝑋𝑋 (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ).
For gases:
∗ ∗
(𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) = (𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) + (𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 )
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴

= + 𝑚𝑚
𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥
1 1 𝑚𝑚
= +
𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥
For liquids:
From graph, the slope of driving force line is given ∗
(𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ∗
− 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) = (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) + (𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 )
by,
𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
∗
(𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) −𝐾𝐾𝑋𝑋 = ′ +
∗ = 𝐾𝐾𝑋𝑋 𝑚𝑚 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥
(𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) 𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌
1 1 1
Where, 𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾𝑋𝑋 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Overall mass transfer = ′ +
𝐾𝐾𝑋𝑋 𝑚𝑚 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥
coefficient based on the gas side or based on the
liquid side.
∗
2.7 THEORIES OF MASS
𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = Overall concentration in gas phase, which can TRANSFER:
remain in equilibrium with bulk liquid phase
concentration 𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 . 2.7.1 FILM THEORY:
∗
𝑥𝑥𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = Overall concentration in liquid phase, which
can remain in equilibrium with bulk gas phase It is given by Whitman in 1923, and it considers
concentration 𝑦𝑦𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 . mass transfer from a solid to flowing liquid.
Assumptions:
1) Mass transfer occurs purely by molecular
diffusion at the phase boundary (wall).
2) The mass transfer through the film occurs at
steady state.
3) Bulk flow term will be negligible at the
phase boundary, hence it is neglected. 4𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 = �
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Beyond the film, the fluid is well mixed having
concentration which is same as that of the bulk 2.7.3 SURFACE RENEWAL
fluid concentration 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 . THEORY:
It is given by DANKWERT in 1951, the

drawback of penetration theory is the
assumption that the contact time is same for all
the liquid elements. In turbulent medium some
of the liquid elements are swept away and some
continue to be in contact for long time. These
will be a distribution of edge for the liquid
elements present at the interface at any
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 )
moment.
NA = (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) Assumptions:
δ
𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 1) Liquid elements at the interface are being
𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 =
δ randomly replaced by the fresh element
from the bulk.
2.7.2 PENETRATION THEORY:
2) At any moment, each of the liquid elements
It is given by HIGBIE, it tells us as the bubble at the surface has the same probability of
rises, liquid elements from the bulk reach the being replaced.
top of the bubble move along its periphery, 𝐾𝐾𝑚𝑚 = �𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 . 𝑆𝑆
reach its bottom, then get detached from it and Where, S= fraction of surface area
detached liquid elements eventually get mixed renewed in unit time
with the bulk of liquid.
Assumptions:
1) Unsteady state mass transfer occurs to
liquid elements as long as it is contact with
the bubble.
2) Equilibrium exists at the gas liquid
interface.
3) Each of the liquid element stay in contact
with the gas for same period of time.
4) The liquid element will be of infinite
thickness.
𝛿𝛿 2 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 1 𝛿𝛿𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴
=
𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 2 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
Boundary Conditions:
At t=0, z≥0, 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
At t≥0, z=0, 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
At t≥0, z>0, 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.5 Component A is diffusing in a medium B.
Q.1 The surface renewal frequency in The flux NA relative to a stationary points
Danckwert’s model of mass transfer is given equal to the flux due to molecular diffusion
by (kL ; mass transfer coefficient , m/s ) if [GATE –2003]
[GATE –2001] (a) Diffusion of A is in stagnant medium B
(A) k L2 DA (B) k L2 DA (b) Mass transfer is accompanied by
k L2 reaction
kL
2 (c) Molecular mean free path is high
(C) DA (D) DA
(d) There is equimolar counter-diffusion
Q.2The Reynolds analogy for momentum

heat and mass transfer is best applicable for Q.6 Experiments were conducted to
determine the flux of a species A in a
[GATE –2001] stagnant medium across a gas-liquid
(a) gases in turbulent flow interface. The overall mass transfer
(b) gases in laminar flow coefficient based on the liquid side for dilute
systems for the above was estimated to be
(c) liquids in turbulent flow 4x10-3 kg.mol/m2 s. The equilibrium data for
the system is given as y = 2x the flux across
(d) liquids and gases in laminar flow
the interface (in kg.mol/m2 s.) for bulk
Q.3. The dimensionless group in mass concentrations of A in gas phase and liquid
transfer that is equivalent to prandtl phase as y = 0.4 and x = 0.01, respectively is
number in heat transfer is [GATE –2003]
(A) 5.6 x 10-4 (B) 8.5 x 10-4
[GATE –2002]
(c) 5.6 x 10-3 (D) 8.5 x 10-3
(a) nusselt number
(b) Sherwood number

Q.7The Reynolds Number of the liquid was
(c) Schmidt number increased 100 fold for a laminar falling film
used for gas-liquid contacting. Assuming
(d) Stanton number penetration theory is applicable, the fold –
Q.4 The diffusion coefficient, in m 2 / s. of increase in the mass transfer coefficient (ke)
for the same system is
Acetic acid in Benzene (liquid in liquid) is
[GATE –2003]
[GATE –2003]
(A) 100 (B) 10
(A) 2.09x102 (B) 2.09x10-5 (C) 5 (D) 1
(C) 2.09x10-9 (D) 2.09x10-12
Q.8 A pure drug is administered as a sphere well-agitated equi-molar mixture of toluene
and as a cube. The amount of drug is the and water is prepared. [GATE –2004]
same in the two tablets. Assuming that the
shape and size do not influence the mass Q.11 The temperature at which the above
transfer, the ratio of rate of dissolution in mixture will exert a pressure of one
water at t =0 for the cubic to spherical tablet standard atm is
is
[GATE –2003] (A) Less than 100 0C
(A) 0.54 (B) 1.04
(B) 100 0C
(C) 1.24 (D) 1.9
(C) Between 100 and 1100C
(D) 110.6 0C
Common Data Question 9-10
Q.12 At a total pressure of one standard
Pure aniline is evaporating through a atm exerted by the vapors of water and
stagnant air film of 1 mm thickness at 300 K toluene, the mole fraction of water xw in the
and a total pressure of 100 kPa. The vapor vapor phase satisfies
pressure of aniline at 300 K is 0.1 kPa. The [GATE –2004]
total molar concentration under these (A) 0 < xw< 0.5 (B) xw = 0.5
conditions is 40.1 mol / m3. The diffusivity (C) 0.5 < xw< 1.0 (D) xw = 1.0
of aniline in air is 0.74 x 10-5 m2 / s.
[GATE –2004]
Q.13 A long cylinder and a sphere both of 5
Q.9 The numerical value of the mass cm diameter are made from the same porous
transfer coefficient is 7.4 x 10-3. Its units are material. The flat ends of cylinder are
(A) m / s sealed. Both the cylinder and sphere are
saturated with the same solution of sodium
(B) mol / (m2 s Pa)
chloride. Later, both the objects are
(C) cm / s immersed for a short and equal interval of
(D) kmol / (m2 s Pa) time in a large tank of water, which is well
agitated. The fractions of salt remaining in
the cylinder and the sphere are Xc and Xs,
Q.10 The rate of evaporation of aniline is respectively. Which of the following
2.97 x 10–4. Its units are statements is correct?
(A) mol / s (B) mol / (cm2 s) [GATE –2004]
(C) mol / (m2 s) (D) kmol /(m2 s)
(A) Xc > Xs (B) Xc = Xs
Common Data Question 11-12 (C) Xc < Xs (D) Xc is greater/less
The boiling points for pure water and pure than Xs depending on the length of the
toluene are 1000C and 110.60C, cylinder.
respectively. Toluene and water are
completely immiscible in each other. A
Q.14 The ratio of the diffusion coefficient in (A) P – 1, Q – 2, R – 3
a gas to that in a liquid is of the order of (B) P – 2, Q – 1, R –3
[GATE –2005]
(C) P – 1, Q – 3, R – 2
(A) 105 (B) 10-5 (D) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1
(C) 10-2 (D) 102
Q.17 The following figure depicts steady

Q.15 Two solid discs of benzoic acid one-dimensional diffusion of water vapor
(molecular weight = 122) of equal from the surface of water taken in a conical
dimensions are spinning separately in large flask at room temperature. Derive the
volumes of water and air at 300 K. The mass governing equation for determining the
transfer coefficients for benzoic acid in concentration profile of water vapor in the
water and air are 0.9 x 10-5 and 0.47 x 10-2 gas medium. Neglect change of level of
m/s respectively. The solubility of benzoic water due to condensation. The
acid in water is 3 kg/m3 and the equilibrium temperatures of the gas and the liquid
vapor pressure of benzoic acid in air is 0.04 media are identical and constant.
kPa. Then the disc [GATE –2007]
[GATE –2005]
(A) Dissolves faster in air than in water

(B) Dissolves faster in water than in air
(C) Dissolves at the same rate in both air
and water
(D) Does not dissolve either in water or d  2 CD wA dx w 
(A) r =0
d z  1 − x W d z 
in air.
d  CD wA dx w 
(B)  =0
dz  1 − x W dz 
Q.16 Match the variation of mass transfer
coefficient given by the theory in Group I d  CD wA dx w 
(C) r =0
dz  1 − x W dz 
with the appropriate variation in Group II
[GATE –2005] d  dx w 
(D) rCD wA =0
dz  dz 
Group I Group II Q.18 A rectangular slab of thickness 2b along

(P) Film Theory (1) ∝ D AB the x axis and extending to infinity along the
other direction is initially at concentration
(Q) Penetration theory (2) ∝ D AB2/3 CAO. At time t=0, both surfaces of the
(R) Boundary layer theory (3) ∝ D AB1/2 slab(x=+b) have their concentrations
increased to CAW and maintained at that
value. Solute A diffuses into the solid. The
dimensionless concentration C is defined as
cA − cA 0
C=
c AW − c A 0
The diffusivity of A inside the solid is assumed
constant. At a certain time instant, which ONE
of the following is the correct representation
of the concentration profile?  −k A 
[GATE –2008] (A) exp  e t  = 0.99
 V 
 −k A 
(B) exp  e t  = 0.01
 V 
(C) V exp ( −0.99 ) =

t
(A) ke A
(B)
(D) V exp ( 0.01) = t

ke A
Q.20 According to the penetration theory of

(C) mass transfer, the mass transfer coefficient
(D) (k) varies with diffusion coefficient (D) of
the diffusing species as
[GATE –2009]
(A) D (B) D-1/2
(C) D1/2 (D) D3/2

Q.19 A sparingly soluble solute in the form
of a circular disk is dissolved in an organic
solvent s shown in the figure. The area Q.21 Species A is diffusing at steady state
available for mass transfer from the disk is from the surface of a sphere (radius = 1 cm)
A and the volume of the initially pure into a stagnant fluid. If the diffusive flux at a
organic solvent is V. The disk is rotated distance r = 3 cm from the center of the
along the horizontal plane at a fixed rpm to sphere is 27 mol/cm2.s, the diffusive flux (in
produce a uniform concentration of the mol/cm2.s) at a distance r = 9 cm is
dissolving solute in the liquid. The [GATE –2009]
convective mass transfer coefficient under (A) 1 (B) 3
these conditions is kc. The equilibrium (C) 9 (D) 27
concentration of the solute in the solvent is
C*. The time required for the concentration
Q.22 A liquid flows over a flat naphthalene
to reach 1% of the saturation value is given
plate of length L, at a Reynolds number
by
[GATE –2008] ( Re L = Lρ u∞ / µ ) of 1500, as shown in
figure. The surface concentration of
naphthalene is C As > C A∞ , and the surface Q.24 An equi-molar mixture of A and B (A
= Sc
temperature is Ts > T∞ , Assume Pr = 1. being more volatile) is flash distilled
continuously at a feed rate of 100 kmol / h,
∂C A* such that the liquid product contains 40 mol
If at x = L, = 10 where
∂y* y* = 0 % of A if the relative volatility is 6 , then the
C A − C As y vapor product, in kmol / h, is
C *A = and y* = , then the Nusselt
C Ao − C As L [GATE –2012]
number and the friction coefficient at x = L,
(A) 10 (B) 20
are
(C) 25 (D) 45
[GATE –2010]
Q.25 A study was conducted in which water

was pumped through cylindrical pipes
made of a sparingly soluble solid. For a
given pipe and certain flow conditions, the
mass transfer coefficient kc has been
calculated as 1 mm/s using the correlation
Sh = 0.025 Re0.6 Sc0.33
1 If the velocity of the fluid and the diameter
(A) 10, (B) 10, 10
75 of the pipe are both doubled, what is the
new value of kc in mm/s, up to 2 digits after
1
(C) 20, 10 (D) the decimal point_____. The vapor liquid
75
equilibrium relation for an ideal binary
Q.23 Ammonia (component 1) is system is given by
evaporating from a partially filled bottle α AB x A
into surrounding air (component 2). The y *A =
(
1 + α AB − 1 x A )
liquid level in the bottle and the
concentration of ammonia at the top of the Here xA and y *A are the mole fractions of
bottle are maintained constant. N1 is the species A in the liquid and vapor,
molar flux relative to a fixed location in respectively. The relative volatility (αAB) is
space and J1, is the molar flux with respect greater than unity.
to the average molar velocity of the [GATE –2013]
constituent species in the gas phase.
Assume that air in the bottle is stagnant.
Q.26 A spherical storage vessel is quarter–
Which ONE of the following is CORRECT?
[GATE –2011] filled with toluene. The diameter of the vent
at the top of the vessel is 1/20th of the
(A) N1 = const, N2 = 0, J1 + J2 = 0
diameter of the vessel. Under the steady
(B) N1 + N2 = 0, J1 + J2 = 0
state condition, the diffusive flux of toluene
(C) N1 + N2 = 0, J1 = const, J2 = 0
is maximum at
(D) N1 = const, N2 = 0, J1 = const, J2 = 0
[GATE –2014]
(A) The surface of the liquid mass transfer coefficient is B × 10-3 m/s,
(B) The mid-plane of the vessel where B (up to one decimal place) is ____
(C) The vent [GATE –2015]
(D) A distance 20 times the diameter of the
vent away from the vent Q.30 For a binary mixture of components A
and B, NA and NB denote the total molar
fluxes of components A and B, respectively.
Q.27 Which ONE of the following
JA and JB are the corresponding molar
statements is CORRECT for the surface
diffusive fluxes. Which of the following is
renewal theory?
true for equi – molar counter-diffusion in
[GATE –2014]
(A) Mass transfer takes place at steady state the binary mixture?
[GATE –2015]
(B) Mass transfer takes place at unsteady (A) NA + NB = 0 and JA + JB ≠ 0
state (B) NA + NB ≠ 0 and JA + JB = 0
(C) Contact time is same for all the liquid (C) NA + NB ≠ 0 and JA + JB ≠ 0
elements (D) NA + NB = 0 and JA + JB = 0
(D) Mass transfer depends only on the film
resistance Q.31 Consider a steady state mass transfer
process between well-mixed liquid and
Q.28 A spherical ball of benzoic acid vapour phases of a binary mixture
(diameter = 1.5 cm) is submerged in a pool comprising of components A and B. The
of still water. The solubility and diffusivity mole fractions of component A in the bulk
of benzoic acid in water are 0.03 kmol/m3 liquid (xA) and bulk vapour (yA) phases are
and 1.25 x 10-9 m2/s respectively. Sherwood 0.36 and 0.16, respectively. The mass
number is given as Sh = 2.0 + 0.6 Re0.5 Sc0.33. transfer coefficients for component A in
The initial rate of dissolution (in kmol/s) of liquid and vapour phases are 0.1 mol/(m2.s)
benzoic acid approximately is and 0.05 mol/(m2.s), respectively. The
[GATE –2014] vapour-liquid equilibrium can be
(A) 3.54 × 10− 11 (B) 3.54 × 10− 12 approximated as y A = 2xA for xA less than
*
0.4. The mole fraction of A in the liquid at the

(C) 3.54 × 10− 13 (D) 3.54 × 10− 14
interface (up to two decimal places) is
[GATE –2015]
Q.29 A spherical naphthalene ball of 2mm
diameter is subliming very slowly in
Q.32 Consider the following two cases for a
stagnant air at 25 OC. The change in the size
binary mixture of ideal gases A and B under
of the ball during the sublimation can be
steady state conditions. In Case 1, the
neglected. The diffusivity of naphthalene in
diffusion of A occurs through non-diffusing
air at 25 oC is 1.1×10-6 m2/s. The value of B. In Case 2, equimolal counter diffusion of
A and B occurs. In both the cases, the total (A) jD = 0.664 (B) jD = 0.664 ReL−0.5
pressure is 100 kPa and the partial
2
pressures of A at two points separated by a (C) jD = 0.664 ReL D) jD = 0.664 ReL0.5 Sc 3
distance of 10 mm are 10 kPa and 5 kPa.

Q.35According to the surface renewal
Assume that the Fick’s first law of diffusion
theory, the unit of fractional rate of surface
is applicable. What is the ratio of molar flux
renewal is
of A in Case 1 to that in Case 2?
[GATE –2016] [GATE –2018]
(A) 0.58 (B) 1.08 (A) ms2 −2
(B) m 2 s −1
(C) 1.58 (D) 2.18 (B) (C) m s −1 (D) s −1
Q.33 Consider steady state mass transfer of

a solute A from a gas phase to a liquid phase.
The gas phase bulk and interface mole
fractions are y A.o and y A.i respectively. The
liquid phase bulk and interface mole
fraction are x A.L and x A.i ' respectively. The
ratio
(x A.i
− X A.L ) is very close to zero The
(y A.G
− y A.i )
implies that mass transfer resistance is
[GATE –2017]
(a) Negligible in the gas phase only

(b) Negligible in the liquid phase only
(c) Negligible in both the phase
(d) Considerable in both the phase
Q.34 The sherwood number (ShL)

correlation for laminar flow over a flat plate
of length L is given by
1
ShL = 0.664 ReL0.5 Sc 3
Where ReL and Sc represent Reynolds

number and Schmidt number, respectively
This correlation, expressed in the form of
Chilton – Colburn jD factor is
[GATE –2017]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(C) (A) (C) (C) (D) (B) (B) (C) (A) (D) (A) (C) (C) (A)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(B) (C) (A) (C) (A) (C) (B) (A) (A) (A) (D) (C) (B) (B)
29 30 31 32 33 34 35
(1.1) (D) (0.106) (B) (B) (B) (D)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1. (C) µ

ρ
µ
Danckwerts model =
Sc = =  Momentum diffusivity
ρD AB D AB mass diffusivity
K12 Q.4 (C)

S=
D AB
Liquid in liquid diffusion coefficient order
Where, D AB - Diffusivity m2
⇒ 10 −9
sec
KL – Mass transfer coefficient
(gas in gas) diffusion coefficient order
S – Surface renewal frequency
⇒ 10−5 m2/sec.
Diffusion coefficient is a physical constant

Q.2. (A) which depends on temperature, pressure,
molecular size and some other properties of
Reynolds analogy ⇒ to relate turbulent diffusing substance
momentum and heat transfer Q.5. (D)
f h K 'C
= = CA
2 Cp G Vaverage NA =
JA *+ (N A + N B )
C
For gas ⇒ if Schmidt and prandtl number Given flux N A = J*A
are near 1.0 and only skin friction is present
in flow past a flat plate or inside a pipe, ∴ From equation NA + BB = 0
experimental data are near to the above
equation for liquid or form drag analogy is NA = - NB
invalid
Therefore equimolar counter diffusion
Q.3. (C)
Q.6. (B)
CP µ µ momentum diffusivity
=
Pt = =k Flux across the interface (gas – liquid)
k ρ Thermal diffusivity
k
ρC P NA = k x
( X AG − X AL )
(1 − X A )LM
Given ; y = 2 x
∴ yAG = 0.4
Q.8 (C)
0.4
∴ X AG = =0.2 Rate of dissolution of cube
=
surface area of cube
2 Rate of dissolution of sphere surface area of sphere
and X AL = 0.01 (given)
(1- x AL ) - (1- x AG )
Now (1- x A ) LM =
1- X AL
In
1- X AG
(1- 0.01) - (1- 0.2)
= = 0.891
 1- 0.01 
In  
 1- 0.2 
k x = 4 × 10−3 kg mol / m 2 .s{given} Volume of cube = volume of sphere
NA =
kx ×
X AG − X AL
4 10−3 ×
=×
( 0.2 − 0.01) 4
(1 − X A ) LM 0.891 ∴ι 3 =π r 3
3
= 8.51× 10−4 kmol / m 2 .s
3
4 d
Q.7 (B) ι = π 
3
3 2
ι π 
1
3
From penetration theory = 
d 6
kc = 2
D AB ( rate of dissolution )cube
πt ( rate of dissolution )spere
6ι 2 6ι 2 6ι 
2
D AB × u L = = =
∴ kc 2= t
πL u 4π r 2 d
2
π  d 
4π  
2
kc α u
ρ u 2d µ 6 π 
2/3
kc u2 = = 1.24
∴ 2 = = ×
kc1 u1 µ ρ u1d π  6 
ρ ud kc Re 2 Q.9 (A)
= Re =∴ 2
µ kc1 Re1 Numerical value of mass transfer co-
Re 2 kc
=
 100 (given) =∴ 2 100 efficient.
Re1 k c1
According to film theory
k c2
= 10 DAB 00.74 × 10−5 m2 / sec
k c1 kc = = = 7.4 × 10−3 m / sec
δ 01 × 10 m
−3
Q.10 (D) i.e less fraction of salt would remain
Rate of evaporation of aniline is 2.97 × 10−4 in the cylinders compared to the sphere
Rate of evaporation = KC ( C A − o ) Hence (C) is the correct answer.
m  mol 
7.4 × 10−3
= ×  40.1 3 
sec  m 
Q.14 (A)
kmol
= 2.97 × 10−4
m2 .sec
Q.15 (B)
Its unit is kmol / m 2 sec.
We have
m  kg  kg
Q.11 (A) Nwater = 0.9 × 10 −5 ×  3.0 3 − 0  = 2.7 × 10 −5 2
s  m  m .s
The boiling point of a mixture of two
⇒ K c (CS − 0)
immiscible liquids is always less than the
boiling point of each individual component- Nair = 0.47 × 10 −2
m 1 k mol 1 
0.04 kpa × × − 0
i.e. the b.p of a mixture of water and toluene s  8.314 kPa.m3
300 k 
will be always less than 100 0C (See the
 Pm 
concept of steam distillation) ⇒ kp  − 0
 Rt 
k mol
Q.12 (C) = 7.537 × 10 −8
m3 s
As water has a lower bp than toluene at 1
kmol kg
std atm pressure (and for all temperatures) = 7.537 × 10 −8 × 122 9.19 × 10 −6
=
m 3
k mol
water has a higher vapor pressure than
toluene. So the vapor phase will always be Q.16 (C)
richer in water (but can never be equal to Film theory → K ∝ D AB
one if it is a mixture of toluene and water) Penetration Theory → K ∝ (D AB )
2/3
Xw> 0.5 but less than 1.0 0.5 < Xw<1.0

Hence (C) is the correct answer.
Q.13 (C) Q.17 (A)

Diffusion area of cylinder = πDL Q.18 (C)
πD 2 Q.19 (A)
Diffusion area of sphere =
4 × πD 2
=
4 Q.20 (C)
Since in question long cylinder is given i.e L According to penetration theory
>>D D AB
(N= ) A avg
2 (C Ai − C Ao )
πθ
πDL >> πD 2
(N )
= A avg
(kL )avg (C Ai − C A 0 )
Hence more NaCl will diffuse,
(k ) =L avg
D AB
Q.21 (B) or N1 = (J1 + J2 ) + N1 (X A + XB
x =1
) =1
1 =(J1 + J2 ) + N1
Jflux ∝
A
or J1 +=
J2 0 , =
N1 constant, N
=2
0
J1 A 2 r22 27 81
∴ = = or = Hence (A) is the correct answer
J2 A1 r22 J2 9
Q.24 (A)
or J2 = 3mol / cm2 .S
In flash distillation, vapor and liquid is in
Hence, (B) is the correct answer.
equilibrium
xF = 0.5 and xB = 0.4 α = 6
Q.22 (A) α xB
yD = = 0.8
1 + (α - 1)xB
Q.23 (A) take balance
We have Diffusion of component 1 D + B = 100.........................(1)
0.8D + 0.4B = 50................(2)
Non- diffusing component is 2
By solving equations, we get D = 25
Hence Answer is (C)
Q.25 (1.148)
D12P We know that
=N1 (p − p1,B ) Liq level Constant
RTz p2 ,m
1
µ
Schmidt No. ⇒ NSc =
ρD
k cL c
Sherwood No. ⇒ NSh =
Partial pressure of partial pressure D
ρvL c
Reynolds No. ⇒ NRe =
1 at surface 1 in bulk µ
N1 = constant Given that NSh = 0.025N0Re.6N0Sc.33

N2 = 0 0. 6 0.33
k cL c  ρvL c   µ 
Thus = 0.025 
 µ   
We know D    ρD 
( ) ∂c1 k c ∝ v 0.6D −0.4

0
N1 =
J1 + X A N1 + N2 J1 = D12 , ⇒
∂x
0.6 0. 4
Diffusive Flux k c1 v   D2 
= 1   
kc2 v
 2   D1 
∂c 2
Under flux due to J2 = −D 21
∂x Given:
= v2 v1 and D 2 2D1
2=
N= J2 + XBN1 0.6 0.4

2
k c1  v1   2D1 
0= J2 + XBN1 ⇒ =   
k c 2  2 v1   D1 
0.6
k c1  1   2 
0.4 When L = characteristic length = diameter
⇒ =   
kc2  2   1  of Spherical ball = d = 2 mm = 2 x10-3 m
2 ×D AB 2 × 1.1 × 10−3 m
k c1 =Kc =
⇒ = 0.87055 d 2 × 10−3
kc2
K=
c
1.1× 10−3 m / s
⇒ k c 2 = 1.1487k c1
So,B = 1.1
The range is between 1.14 – 1.16.
Q.30 (D)
Q.31 0.22
Q.26 (C)
We have
Q.27 (B) Given xA = 0.36
YA = 0.16
Q.28 (B)
Given that KL = 0.1 mol/m2 sec
Ks = 0.05 mol/m2 s
Sh= 2 + 0.6 R e0.5 Sc0.33 =y *A 2x A for x A < 0.4
Diameter = 1.5 cm
So y Ai = 2x A (i)
solubility = 0.03 kmol / m3
At steady state mass flux is constant
Diffusivity
= 1.25 ×10−9 m2 / s kL (x A − x Ai )= k s (y Ai − y A )
0.1 (0.36 − =
x Ai ) 0.05 ( 2x Ai − 0.16)
Given Sh= 2 + 0.6 (Re)0.5 (Sc)0.33
0. 1
0.05
( 0.36 − x Ai ) = 2x Ai − 0.16
Initially Sh: 2
0.72 − 2x Ai = 2x Ai − 0.16
Kcd x Ai = 0.22
= , K c Mass transfer coefficient (m / s)
2=
D AB
Q.32 (B)
2 ×1.25 ×10 −9
We know that
⇒ Kc
= = 1.67 ×10−7 m / sec
1.5 × 10−2
NA1 1 P
= = = 1.08
Initial rate of dissolution
= K c A(Cs −=
0) K c AC3 NA2 YBLM PBLM
= 1.67 ×10−7 × π× (1.5 ×10−2 ) 2 × 0.03
= 3.54 ×10−12 kmol / sec
Q.33 (B)
Q.29 1.1 Here

(x A.i
− x A.L )
=0
(y A.G − y A.i )
We know that
For spherical ball Dimensionless Sherwood Or x A.i − x A.L =
0
number = 2 x A.i = x A.L

k cL
=2
D AB
Mole fraction of liquid phase interface is
equal to mole fraction of liquid phase bulk it
means resistance in the liquid phase is
negligible
Q.34 (B)
1
=ShL 0.664 ReL0.5 Sc 3 →
ShL
Chilton-Coburn factor jD = 1
ReL Sc 3
1
ShL = jD . ReL Sc 3
From equation
1 1
jD ReL .Sc 3 = 0.664 ReL 0.5 Sc 3
jD = 0.664 ReL−0.5
Q.35 (D)
According to surface renewal theory the

unit of surface renewal frequency is s-1
3 DISTILLATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION temperature of mixture increases till B

(bubble point curve) without any change in
Distillation is a technique of separation of
the composition. At B, first vapor is formed
more volatile component from the lesser
with composition C and as the temperature
volatile ones in a feed solution. The
increases the liquid composition follows
separation is based on relative volatility of
bubble point curve and vapor composition
components. The mixer is always in Vapor-
follows dew point curve.
Liquid Equilibrium (VLE) in the distillation
column.
The line BC is known as Tie Line and

represents the plate of distillation column.
The top-most tie line is the last plate of
3.2 T-XY DIAGRAM column while the bottom-most tie line is the
first plate of distillation column.
The boiling point diagram is a plot of
temperature v/s compositions of liquid and Since the vapor is richer in the more
vapor phases. This diagram is used to show volatile substance, the curve lies above
how the equilibrium vapor and liquid phase the 45o diagonal line, which has been
compositions vary with temperature. drawn in for comparison.
In the given figure, A is sub-cooled liquid
mixture of two components. As the
temperature of the system is increased, the
Pt = PA* + PB* = PA x + PB (1-x)
3.5 CONSTANT BOILING MIXTURES
An azeotrope is a mixture in which

composition of the liquid does not change as it
is converted into vapor. The dew point and
the bubble point are identical at the
azeotropic composition and thus the
azeotropes are called constant boiling
mixtures.
An azeotrope exhibits a maximum or a
minimum boiling point relative to boiling
points of the pure liquids and thus is classified
as maximum boiling and minimum boiling
azeotropes.
3.3 RELATIVE VOLATILITY;
Relative volatility shows the ease of 3.5.1 MINIMUM BOILING MIXTURES
separation of more volatile component (A)
from the lesser one (B). It is the ratio of A to B Minimum boiling mixtures are also called
in the vapor phase to the same ratio in the positive azeotropes or pressure maximum
liquid phase. azeotropes.
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
�𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
∝=
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥�
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
NOTE: ∝ is a function of temperature.
3.4 RAOULT’S LAW
For an ideal solution, the equilibrium partial

pressure P* of a constituent at a fixed
temperature equals the product of its vapor
pressure P when pure at this temperature and
its mole fraction x in liquid, this is Raoult’s
Law. The intersecting point shows the composition
at which concentrations at liquid and vapor
PA* = PA x; PB* = PB (1-x) phases become same and the separation
cannot be done by using simple distillation
If the vapor phase is also ideal,
column.
A graph between vapor and liquid phase
compositions for more volatile component (A) 3.6 DIFFERENTIAL DISTILLATION
can be shown as:
In the case of a differential distillation, the
vapor at any time is in equilibrium with the
liquid from which it rises but changes
continuously in the composition.
Thus, the mathematical approach used must
be differential. Assume that L mol of liquid in
the still of composition x mol fraction A and
that an amount dD mol of distillate is
vaporized, of mol fraction y∗ in equilibrium
with the liquid.
3.5.2 MAXIMUM BOILING MIXTURES
Maximum boiling mixtures are also called

negative azeotropes or pressure minimum
azeotropes.
Rate of depletion of liquid is equal to the rate

of distillate output, so the instantaneous rate
of depletion of component in the liquid is
therefore;
In – Out = Accumulation
0 – dD = dL
More volatile component;
0 – y*dD = d(Lx)
-y*dD = xdL + Ldx
Y*dL = xdL + Ldx
𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� = �
𝑊𝑊 𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 ∗ −𝑥𝑥
𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
ln = ∫𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 Energy Balance
𝑊𝑊 𝑦𝑦∗ −𝑥𝑥
F HF + Q = D HD + W HW
where, F = moles of feed with composition of 3.8 FRACTIONATION

more volatile component (A) as xF, W = moles
of residual liquid with composition of A as xW.
The equation is called as Rayleigh’s
equation. In terms of relative volatility,
∝𝑥𝑥
y* =
1+(∝ −1) 𝑥𝑥
3.7 FLASH VAPORIZATION
Flash vaporization or also known as

equilibrium distillation, is a single stage
operation wherein a liquid mixture is partially
vaporized, the vapor allowed to come to
equilibrium with the residual liquid, and the
Overall balance;
resulting vapor and liquid phases are
separated and removed from the vessel. F=D+W
Component balance;
F xF = D xD + W xW
Rearrangement;
𝐷𝐷 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
=
𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑊𝑊 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
=
𝐹𝐹 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
Material and enthalpy balances; 3.8.1 RECTIFYING SECTION

F=D+W The above portion of the feed plate is called
Component Balance rectifying section and it is the vapor enriching
part of the column.
F zF = D yD + W xW
3.8.3 FEED PLATE
‘q’ is the fraction of liquid in the feed.
𝐿𝐿 V = V’ + (1- q) F
Reflux Ratio: R=
𝐷𝐷
L’ = L + q F
𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
yn+1 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + −𝑞𝑞 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑅𝑅+1 𝑅𝑅+1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 +
1 − 𝑞𝑞 1 − 𝑞𝑞
3.8.2 STRIPPING SECTION
The below portion of the feed plate is called

stripping section and it is the liquid enriching
part of the column.
Types of feed:
Saturated liquid - q=1
Partial liquid - 0<q<1
Saturated vapor - q=0
𝑉𝑉′
Boil-up Ratio: R’ = Cold liquid - q>1
𝑊𝑊
𝑅𝑅 ′ +1 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 Superheated vapor - q<0

ym+1 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 +
𝑅𝑅′ 𝑅𝑅′ Definition of ‘q’ :-
ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ii) Constant molar overflow
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
q= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (V1 = V2 = …….. = Vn-1 = Vn)
(L1 = L2 = ……… = Ln-1 = Ln)
iii) No heat loss or gain are there
3.9 NUMBER OF PLATES ANALYSIS (hence no energy balance required)
iv) Column is adiabatic, at steady state
There are various methods are available to
and the pressure is constant
predict the number of plates of the distillation
column, but the most suitable and appropriate throughout the column.
methods are as follows:
Partial reboiler/partial condesor acts as a

tray because the separation of A and B
takes place during heat up/cooling.
It also acts as a pressure filler as it coverts
liquid into vapor and increases the
pressure.
Mc-Cabe thiele diagram calculates all the
stages where separation takes place.
If N is the no. of stages,
CASE 1: Toatal Reboiler And Total
3.9.1 THE METHOD OF MCCABE AND
Condensor
THIELE
no. of trays = N
This method is used as a fundamental and CASE2:Partial Reboiler And Total
simple technique to calculate the number of Condensor
theoretical stages in a distillation column.
Assumptions :- no. of trays = N-1
i) Constant molar heat of CASE3:Total Reboiler And Partial

vaporisation (no. of moles of vapor Condensor
condensed is equal to no. of moles no. of trays = N-1
of liquid vaporised in the reboiler).
CASE 4 :Partial Reboiletr And Partial Ls = Ln – S = 27.1 – 8 = 19.10
Condensor
Bottom:
no. of trays = N-2
Lm = Ls + F = 19.1 + 100 = 119.1
Example 3.1 A mixture of water and ethyl
Vm = Lm – W = 119.1 – 78.45 = 40.65
alcohol containing 0.16 mole fraction
alcohol is continuously distilled in a plate
fractionating column to give a product
containing 0.77 mole fraction alcohol and
a waste of 0.02 mole fraction alcohol. It is
proposed to withdraw 25 per cent of the
alcohol in the entering stream as a side
stream containing 0.50 mole fraction of
alcohol. Determine the number of
theoretical plates required and the plate
from which the side stream should be
withdrawn if the feed is liquor at its
boiling point and a reflux ratio of 2 is used.
Solution: Taking 100 kmol of feed to the

column as a basis, 16 kmol of alcohol enter, The steps corresponding to the theoretical
and 25 percent, that is 4 kmol, are to be plates may be drawn in as shown and 8 plates
removed in the side stream. As the side- are required with the side stream being
stream composition is to be 0.5, that stream withdrawn from the fourth plate from the top.
contains 8 kmol.
Overall mass balance:
3.9.2 TOATL REFLUX RATIO (R∞)
F=D+W+S
This is the condition where there is no
100 = D + W + 8 or 92 = D + W incoming and no outgoing.
Alcohol balance: F=D=W=0
(100 × 0.16) = 0.77 D + 0.02 W + 4 Thus R and R’ tends to ∞.
12 = 0.77 D + 0.02 W
𝑅𝑅
Slope of enriching section, ≈1
D = 13.55 and W = 78.45 𝑅𝑅+1
𝑅𝑅′ +1
Top section : Slope of striping section, ≈1
𝑅𝑅′
R=2 so, Ln = 2 x 13.55 = 27.1 This means all the lines merges with the
Vn = Ln + D = 27.1 + 13.55 = 40.65 diagonal,
Between feed and side stream:

Vs = Vn = 40.65,
Total no. of trays required in this condition is
minimum and therefore, fixed cost decreases CALCULATION : Rmin =
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥−𝑦𝑦′
𝑦𝑦 ′ −𝑥𝑥′
but the duty of reboiler and condensor
increases and thus operating cost increases.
Total reflux condition is used at the start-up
of the plant to achieve the desired purity or to
achieve the equilibrium condition in the
coloumn.
FENSKE’S EQUATION
It is used to calculate the minimum no. of
ideal trays reqiured at total reflux condition.
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (1 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
ln(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (1 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
𝑁𝑁 =
ln ∝ A: q<0
Where α is the relative volatity. B: q = 0 ; y' = xF
3.9.3 MINIMUM RELUF RATIO (Rmin) C: 0 < q < 1 ; x' < xF
This is the condition where reflux ratio is D: q = 1 ; x’ = xF
minimum and the no of trays required is
maximum, thus, the fixed cost increases and E: q > 1 ; x’ < xD
the operating cost decreases. (Rmin)q>1< (Rmin)q=1< (Rmin)0<q<1< (Rmin)q=0<
Rmin is calculated to find the optimum reflux (Rmin)q<0
ratio Example 3.2 A continuous fractionating
Ropt = (1.1 to 1.4) Rmin column is required to separate a mixture
containing 0.695 mole fraction n-heptane
(C7H16) and 0.305 mole fraction n-octane
(C8H18) into products of 99 mole per cent
purity. The column is to operate This line when produced to the y-axis gives an
at 101.3kN/m2 with a vapor velocity of intercept of 0.475.
0.6 m/s. The feed is all liquid at its
XD/(Rmin + 1) = 0.475 ; Rmin = 1.08
boiling-point, and this is supplied to the
column at 1.25 kg/s. The boiling-point at Ropt = 2 x 1.08 = 2.16
the top of the column may be taken as
If F = 100 ; 100 = D + W
372 K, and the equilibrium data are:
100 x 0.695 = 0.99 D + 0.01 W
As 99% n- octane is required
D = 69.9 ; W = 30.1
Ln = 2.16 x D = 151 ; Vn = Ln + D = 221
Mean molecular mass feed
0.695 x 100 + 0.305 x 114 = 104.3 kg/kmol
a- Minimum reflux ratio? Feed rate = 1.25/104.3 = 0.012 kmol/s

b- Column diameter, if required reflux
Vapor flow at top of column
is twice the minimum reflux ratio?
221/100 x 0.012 = 0.0265 kmol/s
Solution:
Vapor density at the top
The equilibrium curve is plotted in Figure
given below. As the feed is at its boiling-point, 1/22.4 x 273/372 = 0.0328 kmol/m3
the q-line is vertical and the minimum reflux
Volumetric flowrate =
ratio may be found by joining the point (xD, xD)
with the intersection of the q-line and the 0.0265/0.0328 = 0.808 m3/s
equilibrium curve.
Vapor velocity = 0.6 m/s
Are required = 0.808/0.6 = 1.35 m2
Column diameter = [(4 x 1.35)/π]0.5 = 1.31 m
UNDERWOOD FENSKE’S EQUATION
These are used to calculate min reflux ratio
1 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (1−𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
q=0 Rmin = �∝ − (1−𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
�−1
∝−1 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
1 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 (1−𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
q=1 Rmin = � − ∝ (1−𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) �
∝−1 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
Example 3.3 A liquid containing four 3.11.2 FLOODING
components, A, B, C and D, with 0.3 mole In this condition, liquid is entrained in the
fraction each of A, B and C, is to be vapor up the column and is not allowed to
continuously fractionated to give a top
come down either from downcomer or holes.
product of 0.9 mole fraction A and 0.1
Ultimately, the distillation process stops. It is
mole fraction B. The bottoms are to
contain no more than 0.5 mole fractions A. indicated by a sharp increase in pressure drop.
Estimate the minimum reflux ratio CALCULATION OF COLUMN DIAMETER
required for this separation, if the relative
volatility of A to B is 2.0 Molar flow rate = (δ/M)*A*V
Where, δ is the mixture’s density, M is
Solution: The given data may be tabulated as
follows: molecular weight, A is the area of plate and V
The Underwood and Fenske’s equations: is operating flooding velocity
α = 2; xD = .9; xF = .3 A = (π/4)d2 – downcomer area

d is diameter of column
3.11.3 WEEPING
It is caused by low vapor flow rate. Pressure
exerted by vapor is insufficient to hold up the
liquid and thus liquid starts exiting from holes.
It is indicated by sharp decrease in pressure
Rmin = 2.71
drop.
3.12 TRAY EFFICIENCIENCY
3.10 TYPES OF REBOILERS
i. Overall efficiency =
i) Kettle Reboiler – total 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
ii) Thermosyphon Reboiler – partial
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
iii) Fired Reboiler – partial
iv) Forced Circulation Reboiler – total ii. Murphree plate efficiency =
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
3.11 IMPORTANT TERMS
May exceed 100% efficiency as actual mass
3.11.1 ENTRAINMENT
tranfer also includes the transfer in space
In this condition, liquid is carried by vapor between the two plates.
upto the tray above. It is caused by high
iii. Point efficiency =
vapour flow rate.
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
i) It will contaminate the high purity 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
product.
ii) Excessive entrainment leads to
flooding.
3.13 EFFECT OF PRESSURE Example 3.4 An Equimolar mixture of
benzene and toluene is contained in a
1. As pressue increases, the T-xy diagram piston / cylinder arrangement at a
shifts upwards and becomes narrower. temperature T. what is the maximum
pressure below which this mixture will
2. as pressure decreases, the equilibrium curve exist as a vapor phase alone?
shifts upwards. Therefore, required no. of At the given T, the vapor pressure of
trays decreases. benzene and toluene are 1530 and 640
mmHg, respectively. Assume that Raoult’s
law is valid.
Solution: Let the maximum pressure below

which the mixture will exist as a vapor phase
alone = P mmHg
At pressure P, the mole fraction of benzene in
the vapor phase = 0.50
Let the mole fraction of benzene in the liquid
phase at pressure P =x
P = 1530x + 640(1 – x)
P = 890x + 640
From Raoult’s law
0.5P = 1530x
From equation (a) and (b), we get
3. Azeotropes can be avoided by decreasing P = 902.5 mmHg
the pressuere.
Thus, distillation columns are always operated
at low pressure and high temperature. Example 3.5 A liquid mixture of benzene
and toluene is in equilibrium with its vapor
at 101 kPa 373 K. The vapor pressure of
benzene and toluene at 373 K respectively
are 156 and 63 kPa respectively. Assuming
that the system obeys Raoult’s law, the
mole fraction of benzene in the liquid
phase is
Solution: Let the mole fraction of benzene in
the liquid phase is x,
Since, the liquid and vapor phase are in
equilibrium
Hence the vapor pressure and partial pressure
of benzene will be same
P = PVBENZENE + PVTOLUENE
101 = 156x + 63 (1 – x)
x = 0.41
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 According to the Fenske equation, what

will be the minimum number of plates P. Underwood’s 1. Number of
required in a distillation column to
Equation real trays
separate an equimolar binary of
components A and B into an overhead Q. Fenske’s 2. Column
fraction containing 99 mole % A a bottoms Equation diameter
fractions containing 98 mole % B ?[assume
R. Gilliland’s 3. Minimum
that the relative volatility (α AB = 2 ) does
Equation number of ideal
not change appreciably in the column
trays
[GATE-2002] S. Vapour velocity 4. Actual
(a) 5 (b) 9 at flooding number of ideal
trays
(c) 12 (d) 28
5. Minimum
reflux ratio
Q.2 Minimum reflux ratio in a distillation 6. Tray
column results in efficiency
[GATE-2003]
(a) Optimum number of trays
(A) P-1, Q-3, R-4, S-6
(b) Minimum reboiler size
(B) P-2, Q-5, R-1, S-3
(c) Maximum condenser size
(C) P-5, Q-3, R-6, S-2
(d) Minimum number of trays
(D) P-5, Q-3, R-4, S-2
Q.3 In distillation column sizing Q.4 In a distillation operation, what is the

calculations by short cut methods, match effect of the temperature of the reflux
the following stream (given below) on the condenser and
[GATE-2003] reboiler loads?
Reflux conditions:
(ii) Reflux stream is completely liquid and
is at its bubble point
(i) Reflux stream is below its bubble point.
condenser and reboiler loads are the same
in both the cases,
[GATE-2004]
is used, and (ii) no reboiler is used but steam
(A) reboiler load is the same in both the is fed directly to the bottom of the
cases but condenser load is higher in case column. As compared to option (i), in option
(ii) (ii).
[GATE-2004]
(B) condenser load is the same in both the
(A) Less number of trays are required,
cases but reboiler load is higher in case (ii)
(B) Composition of the residue remains
both
unchanged
(C) condenser and reboiler loads are
(C) More number of trays are required but
higher in case (ii) as compared to case (i)
the residue composition remains
(D) both condenser and reboiler loads are
higher in case (ii) as compared to case (i) unchanged
(D) More number of trays are required and
Q.5 A distillation column with N plates is the residue composition is more dilute in
being operated under normal methanol
conditions. At some point in time, the
Q.7 A distillation column at a pilot plant is
operation is shifted to total reflux condition
scaled up by 3 times for industrial use at
(i.e., no product and residue are being
steady state. After scaling up
withdrawn and feed to the column is
[GATE-2005]
stopped). At the new steady state,
[GATE-2004] (A) The number of theoretical trays
(A) Composition of vapors and that of increases by 3 times
liquid do not vary throughout the column (B) The minimum reflux ratio is increased
(B) Reboiler load and condenser load are by three times
minimum (C) The feed flow rate and product flow
(C) The top and bottom compositions are rates are increased by three times
unchanged with and without total reflux (D) The feed composition and product
(D) The top and bottom compositions compositions are increased by three
correspond to the maximum enrichment times
achievable.
Q.8 In a tray column, separating a
Q.6 An aqueous solution of methanol is to binary mixture, with non-ideal stages, ONE
be distilled in a tray column. High-pressure of the following statements in TRUE,
steam is available as a source of heat. For a [GATE-2005]
given reflux ratio and overhead composition,
two options are being explored: (i) a reboiler
(A) Point efficiency can exceed 100%
(B) Murphree efficiency cannot exceed (A) 0.82 m (B) 0.72 m
100% (C) 0.78 m (D) 1 m
(C) Murphree efficiency can exceed 100%

Q.12 100 moles of a binary mixture F
(D) Both Murphree and point efficiencies containing 60 mol% A (more volatile) and
can exceed 100% 40 mol% B is treated in a batch distillation
still. After 1 hour, 70 moles of the distillate
Q.9 For a two-phase feed, where 80% of D is collected leaving behind the residue
the feed is vaporized under column W. Relative volatility α is 2. The governing
conditions, the feed line slope in the equation is
McCabe-Thiele method for distillation
log
F xF
= α log
( ) .
F 1 − xF
column design, is W xW W (1 − x )
W
[GATE-2005]
The average mole fraction of A in the
(A) – 1/4 (B) + ¼
distillate is
(C) + 4 (D) – 4
[GATE-2006]
(A) 0.43 (B) 0.61
Q.10 A liquid mixture of benzene and
toluene is in equilibrium with its vapor at (C) 0.69 (D) 0.73
101 kPa and 373 K. The vapor pressures of
benzene and toluene at 373 K respectively Q.13 A saturated vapor is fed to a
are 156 and 63 kPa respectively. Assuming distillation column at 180 kmol/hr. Both
that the system obeys Raoult’s law, the the rectifying and stripping sections of the
mole fraction of benzene in the liquid phase column operate at 60% of their respective
is flooding velocities. The flooding velocity of
[GATE-2005] the rectifying section is twice that of the
(A) 0.65 (B) 0.41 stripping section. The assumptions of
(C) 0.065 (D) 0.04 constant molar overflow and constant
molar vapor density throughout the
column are valid. If the boil-up rate is 60
Q.11 separation column for vapor-liquid kmol/hr, then the relationship between the
contact processes 200 kmol/hr of diameters of the rectifying section (dr) and
vapor. The flooding velocity is 3 m/s. If the the stripping section (ds) is
column operates at 85% of flooding [GATE-2006]
velocity and the down comer area is 10% of
(A) dr = √2 ds (B) dr = √3 ds
the total cross sectional area, what is the
diameter of the column? Average density of (C) dr = 2 ds (D) dr = 3 ds
vapor = 2 kg/m3 and its molecular weight
= 44.
[GATE-2005]
Common Data Questions 14,15 & 16
Q.16 The minimum number of theoretical
A binary distillation column separates 100
stages (inclusive of reboiler) for this process is
mol/hr of a feed mixture into distillate D
[GATE-2006]
and residue W. The McCabe-Thiele
diagram for this process is given (A) 5.2 (B) 6.1
below. The relative volatility for the binary (C) 7.8 (D) Infinite
system is constant at 2.4.
[GATE-2006]
Q.17. In a distillation operation, it is
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
desired to have a very high purity bottom
.................................
.................................
1 .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
product. Initially, a kettle-type reboiler is
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
0 .9
................................. .................................
................................. .................................
................................. .................................
................................. .................................
used at the bottom of the column and the
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
0 .8
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
following analytical equation is used to
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
0 .7
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
obtain the equilibrium trays in the
.................................
.................................
0 .6 .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
y 0 .5 .................................
................................. .................................
exhausting section of the column
.................................
................................. .................................
................................. q lin e
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
0 .4
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
 x − xw 
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
0 .3 .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
α (1 − A ) + A 
................................. .................................

................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
................................. m
................................. .................................
................................. .................................
log

.................................
0 .2
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
(0 .9 8 .0 )
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
xw
 xw − α
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................

................................. .................................
................................. .................................
N p − m +1 = 
.................................
0 .1
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
( )
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
0
................................. .................................
................................. .................................
.................................
0
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
0 .1 0.................................
.2 0 .3 0 .4.................................
0 .5 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
0 .9 1
.................................
.................................
.................................
................................. log 1
.................................
.................................
.................................
(0 .0 5 ,0 .0 5 ).................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
A
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
.................................
................................. .................................
.................................
................................. .................................
................................. .................................
where xm is the composition of the liquid

leaving tray m. Tray m is the last
Q.14 The distillate and residue flow rates (in
equilibrium tray obtained by a McCabe
mol/hr) are Thiele graph of the exhausting section. If
[GATE-2006] the kettle-type reboiler is replaced by a
(A) D = 48.4, W = 51.6 thermo-syphon reboiler, the analytical
equation, for the exhausting section will be
(B) D = 51.6, W = 48.4
[GATE-2007]
(C) D = 54.7, W = 45.3  x  xm − w
log  α (1 − A ) + A 
(D) D = 45.3, W = 54.7  xw 
(A)  xw − α
 
N p − m +1 =
log 1 ( )
A
Q.15 The ratio of liquid to vapor molar flow
 x − xw 
rates in the rectifying section is log 
m α (1 − A ) + A 
 
[GATE-2006] (B)
xw
 xw − α 
N p +1 =
(A) 0.64 (B) 1.00 log 1( )
A
 x − xw 
log 
m α (1 − A ) + A 
(C) 1.55 (D) 1.80 (C)
 xw
 xw − α

Np − m =  
log 1( )
A
 x − xw 
log 
m α (1 − A ) + A 
 xw 
(D)  xw − α 
Np − m + 2 = (A) 1.18 (B) 2.12
log ( )
1
A
(C) 2.5 (D) 2.95
Q.18 Benzene in an air-benzene mixture is Q.20 An ideal flash vaporization is carried

to be reduced from 5.2 mol% in the feed to out with a binary mixture at constant
0.5 mol% by contacting with wash oil in a temperature and pressure. A process upset
multistage countercurrent gas leads to an increase in the mole fraction of
absorber. The inlet flow-rate of air the heavy component in the feed. The flash
benzene mixture is 10 mol/s while benzene vessel continuous to operate at the previous
free wash oil comes in at 9.5 mol/s. If the temperature and pressure and still produces
equilibrium curve is given as Y* = X, where liquid and vapor. After steady state is re-
Y* and X are equilibrium mole ratios of established,
benzene in air and benzene in oil, the [GATE-2008]
number of equilibrium stages required to
(A) The amount of vapor produced will
achieve the above separation is
[GATE-2007] increase
(B) The amount of liquid produced will
decrease
(C) The new equilibrium compositions of the
vapor and liquid products will be
different,
(D) The new equilibrium compositions of the
vapor and liquid products will remain as
they were before the upset occurred.
(A) 12 (B) 10 Q.21 A batch distillation operation is

(C) 8 (D) 6 carried out to separate a feed containing
100 moles of a binary mixture of A and
B. The mole fraction of A in the feed is
Q.19 In a binary mixture containing 0.7. The distillation progresses until the
components A and B, the relative volatility of mole fraction of A in the residue decreases
A with respect to B is 2.5 when mole to 0.6. The equilibrium cure in this
fractions are used. The molecular weights of composition range may be linearized to y*
A and B are 78 and 92 respectively. If the = 0.7353 x + 0.3088. Here x and y are the
compositions are however expressed in mass mole fractions of the more volatile
fractions the relative volatility will then be component A in the liquid and vapor
[GATE-2008] phases respectively. The number of moles
of residue is [GATE-2008]
(A) 73.53 (B) 48.02 Using the Ki (= yi*/xi) values given above,
(C) 40 (D) 30.24 the optimal scheme is
(A) P (B) Q
Q.22 The feed to a binary distillation (C) R (D) S
column has 40 mol % vapor and 60 mol %
liquid. Then, the slope of the q-line in the Q.24 The flooding velocity in a plate
McCabe-Thiele plot is column, operating at 1 atm pressure, is 3
m/s. If the column is operated at 2 atm
[GATE-2009] pressure, under otherwise identical
(A) –1.5 (B) –0.6 conditions, the flooding velocity will be
(C) 0.6 (D) 1.5 [GATE-2010]
(A) 3/√2 (B) 3/2
Q.23 An equi-molar mixture of four (C) 1 (D) ¾

hydrocarbons (1, 2, 3, 4) is to be separated
into high purity individual components Common Data Questions 25 and 26
using a sequence of simple distillation A binary feed mixture containing
columns (one overhead and one bottom equimolar quantities of components S and
stream). Four possible schemes are shown T is to be distilled in a fractionating tower
below. at atmospheric pressure. The distillate
[GATE-2009] contains 96 mol % S. The q–line (feed line)
intersects the equilibrium line at x = 0.46
and y = 0.66, where x and y are mole
fractions. Assume that the McCabe – Thiele
method is applicable and the relative
volatility is constant.
[GATE-2011]
Q.25 The MINIMUM reflux ratio is

(A) 1.6 (B) 1.5
(C) 0.66 (D) 0.6
Component Ki Q.26 The feed is

1 6 (A) At dew point
2 3 (B) At bubble point
3 2.5 (C) Superheated vapor
4 1.1 (D) Partially vapor
Q.27 In the McCabe Thiele diagram, if the x Q.30 A liquid having the composition found
coordinate of the point of intersection of in the first part of the linked answer
the q –line and the vapor – liquid question is flash distilled at a steady state
equilibrium curve is greater than the x – to a final liquid mole fraction of 0.25. If
coordinate of the feed point then the αAB is 2.5, the fraction of the feed vaporized
quality of the feed is is
[GATE-2012] [GATE-2013]
(A) Super heated vapor (A) 0.08 (B) 0.20
(B) Liquid below bubble point (C) 0.67 (D) 0.74
(C) Saturated vapor
(D) Saturated liquid Q.31 A binary distillation column is
operating with a mixed feed containing 20
mol% vapour. If the feed quality is changed
Q.28 The vapor-liquid equilibrium curve of
to 80 mol% vapour, the change in the slope
a binary mixture A-B, may be approximated
of the q-line is ______
by a linear equation over a narrow range of
[GATE-2014]
liquid mole fractions (0.2 < xA < 0.3) as
follows
y *A = 1.325 xA + 0.121 Q.32 Identify the WRONG statement
Here y is the mole fraction of A in the
*
A
amongst the following:
vapor. 100 moles of a feed (xA,F = 0.28) is [GATE-2015]
batch distilled to a final residue (xA,W = (A) Steam distillation is used for mixtures
0.2). Using the Rayleigh equation, the that re immiscible with water.
number of moles of the residue left behind
in the distillation unit, up to 2 digits after (B) Vacuum distillation is used for
the decimal point, is _______ mixtures that are miscible with water.
[GATE-2013] (C) Steam distillation is used for mixtures
that are miscible with water.
Q.29 The liquid mole fraction xA at which
(D) Vacuum distillation columns have
the maximum difference between the
equilibrium vapor mole fraction and liquid larger diameters as compared to
mole fraction occurs is atmospheric columns for the same
(A) 1 (B) 0.75
throughout.
(1 + α AB ) (1 + α AB )
(C) 0. 5 (D) 0.75 Q.33 A binary feed consisting of 25 mol%
( α AB + 1 ) ( α AB + 1 ) liquid and 75 mol% vapour is separated in
a staged distillation column. The mole
fraction of the more volatile component in
the distillate product is 0.95. The molar
flow rate of distillate is 50% of the feed
flow rate and McCabe-Thiele method can
be used to analyze the column. The q-line
intersects the operating line of the Component Methane Ethane n-
enriching section at (0.35, 0.5) on the x-y Propane
diagram. The slope of the stripping section Mole 0.12 0.28 0.60
operating line (up to one decimal place) is
fraction in
____.
[GATE-2015] vapour
Relative 10 4 1
volatility
Q.34 A binary distillation column is to be
designed using McCabe Thiele method. The
The mole fraction of n-Propane in the
distillate contains 90 mol% of the more
liquid phase, rounded to 2 decimal places,
volatile component. The point of is.
intersection of the q-line with the
[GATE-2017]
equilibrium curve is (0.5, 0.7). The
minimum reflux ratio (rounded off to the
Q.37 An azeotropic mixture of ethanol and
first decimal place) for this operation is water is to be separated in a distillation
_______ column using benzene as an entrainer . At
[GATE-2016] the column operating conditions, two liquid
phases are formed on a tray. The degree(s)
of freedom of the system of the system for
Q.35 The composition of vapour entering a
the choice of intensive properties at
tray in a distillation column is 0.47. The
equilibrium is (are) ____
average composition of the vapour
leaving the tray is 0.53. The equilibrium [GATE-2018]
composition of the vapour corresponding Q.38 A binary distillation column is
to the liquid leaving this tray is 0.52. All the designed by McCabe- Thiele method to get
composition are expressed in mole fraction a distillate mole fraction of 0.9. The
of the more volatile component enriching section operating line has an
The murphre efficiency based on the intercept with y-axis at 0.3 mole fraction.
vapour phase, rounded o the nearest The ratio of liquid to vapour molar flow
integer, is ____% rate in the enriching section is __(rounded
[GATE-2017] off to third decimal place)
Q.36 The vapor phase composition and [GATE-2018]

relative volatilities (with respect to n-
propane) on an ideal tray of a distillation
column are
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(C) (B) (D) (C) (D) (D) (C) (C) (A) (B) (A) (C) (A) (A)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
(66-
(A) (C) (B) (A) (C) (B) (B) (A) (C) (A) (B) (D) (B) 67)
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
(A) (A) (3.75) (C) (1.4) (1) (120) (0.88) (2) (0.667)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (C)
N = min no. of theoretical plate required
Given α = 2 gilliland’s equation : actual number of ideal
trays
Fenske equation
N − N min  R − R Dm 
=f  D 
N +1  RD +1 
RDM is calculated by Underwood equation
Nmin is calculated by forsake equation
Vapour velocity at flooding: column

 x (1 − x w   0.99 −0.02  diameter
log  D .  log  × 
 1 − x x   1 − 0.99 0.02  12.24
Nm = D w
=
log α average log 2
Q.4 (C)
Since in condition (i) the reflux is liquid at
Required plate = 13 = 13 – 1 (due to total
its bubble point and in condition (ii) the
condenser) reflux is liquid below its bubble point hence
the more condenser load is required in
Q.2 (B) condition II. Now, when reflux is liquid
Minimum reflux ration in distillation below its bubble point, hence temperature
column results in minimum reboiler size of the tower reduces causing more reboiler
load. Both condenser and reboiler loads
Q.3 (D) are more in condition (ii) compared to
condition (i)
Underwood’s equation – minimum reflux
ratio fenske’s equation Q.5 (D)
xd 1− xb
log Q.6 (D)
xd xb
N= When reboiler is not used then one extra
log α avg
tray is required to compensate for that,
therefore more number of trains are used
Secondly steam is injected indirectly which
increase the rate of heat transfer which in
turn changes increases mass transfer.
Therefore residue will be much dilute in Down comer area = 10 % of total area of
methanol the plat
Hence (D) is the correct answer. ∴ Area Available for vapor flow = 90
% plate area
1
Q.7 (C) ∴ Plate C.S area = 0.479 m × 0.532 m2
=
2
0.9
Q. 8 (C)
D2
=
π 0.532 m2 ⇒ D = 0.823 m
4
Q.9 (A)
Hence, (A) is the Correct answer.
Equation of feed line Q.12 (C)
q xf By using the formula given in
Y= x−
( q − 1) ( q − 1) question
Where q is fraction of feed that is in liquid 100× .6  100 (1 − .6 ) 
Ln   = 2 Ln  
 30 × x w   30 (1 − x w ) 
q 0. 2 0. 2 1
Slope = = = = x w = 2.48, 0.402
q − 1 (1 − 0.2) 0.8 4 Not possible
Hence (A) is the correct answer. F XF − WX w

Now XD
= = 0.6848 ; 0.64
D
Q.10 (B)
Q.13 (A)
Given: p = 101 kPa, Pb = 156k Pa,
From graph,
Pt = 63 kPa For nonvolatile
=xD 0.98
= x f 0=
.5 x w 0.05
solution, x is the mole fraction of benzene
P= Pb .x + Pt(1 − x)
Given, F = 100 mol/ hr α = 2.4
∴ We know, overall material balance,

101 = 156x + 63 (1-x)
F = D +W
Now Solving for x, we get x = 0.41
∴ 100 = D + W (I)
And xf FxF = DxD +wx w

Q.11 (A)
∴ 100 × 0=
.5 D (0.98) + W (0.05)
We have
kg 1m 1h ⇒ = 0.98D + 0.05W
3
k mol 50
200 × 44 × × = 1.222 m3 /s
h k mol 2kg 3600s from (i),
= 50 0.98D + 0.05(100 - D)
Vapor velocity = 85% of flooding velocity ⇒ 45 = 0.93 D
= 0.85 × 3 m/s = 2.55m/s
⇒ D = 48.4
Cross sectional area of the plate available
∴ W = 51.6
m3 1 s
for vapor flow = 1.222 × 0.479 m2
=
s 2.55 m Hence (A) is the correct answer.
Q.14 (A)  (1 − x w )  xD  
  
From graph,  x w  1 − xD  
Number of plates = ln
=xD 0.98
= x f 0=
.5 x w 0.05 ln αavg
Given, F = 100 mol/ hr α = 2.4  (1 − 0.05)  0.98  

ln   
We know, overall material balance,  0.05  1 − 0.98  
ln( 2.4)
F = D +W
 a11 K a1n 
∴ 100 = D + W (I)  
[ Q x w 0=
= .05,xD 0.98]  M O M 
And xf FxF = DxD +wx w a L a 
 m1 mn 
∴ 100 × 0=
.5 D (0.98) + W (0.05)
 0.95 0.98 
⇒ = 0.98D + 0.05W ln  ×
0.05 0.02 
50
from (i),
= 50 0.98D + 0.05(100 -=
D)

= 7.8
ln( 2.4)
⇒ 45 = 0.93 D
⇒ D = 48.4
∴ W = 51.6
Q.17 (B)
Hence (A) is the correct answer. A1F12 = A 2 F21
A1 F12
Q.15 (A) F21 =
A2
Slope of operating line can be calculate πr 2 × 1
=
2πr 2
0.98 − 0.68
form graph F4 =
1
0.98 − 0.5 2
Ratio of liquid to vapor flow rate = 0.625
Flow rate
Q.18 (A)
Eqm data y* = X (for y* mx, m =1
Q.16 (C)
Kremser – Brown squders eqm for
We know that
L 9.5
=
mv 1 × 9.48
v = 10 × (1 − .052) = 9.48
YN+1 − Y1 0.052 − 0.005
=N = = 9.4
Y1 − mX 0 0.005 − 1 × 0
∴ No. of stages = 10
Q.19 (C)
vapor and residual liquid are in equilibrium
YA / X A with each other
(relative volatility) =
YB / XB (1 − F F
YA = - X A + XF
F F
(1 − f)
YA XB YA (1 − X A ) Slope =-
= = . f
X A YB X A (1 − YA )
Where, f = molar fraction of feed vaporized
If we express by α 1
(1 − 0.4)
∴ Slope = - = −1.5
YN  XBmB  0.4
α1 =  A A 
 Y m  =α
 X AmA  B B  Hence, (A) is the correct answer.
∴ α will relatively same whatever, we
express Q.23 (C)
In terms of mol fraction or mean fraction = Direct sequence distillation sequencing
2.5 Hence, (C) is the correct answer.

Q.24 (A)
Flooding velocity
Q.20 (C)
ρL −ρV
Because relative volatility will constant, so µ f =k c
ρv
y and x relation will be same
Hence (D) is the correct answer. Assuming ρL >>ρv
ρL
µf α
ρV
Q.21 (B)
P
According to Rayleigh equation Now, ρV =
RT
F xf dx
Ln
W
= ∫
xw y * −x ∴ µF =KL
ρL
P / RT
Where y* = 0.7353 x + 0.3088
1
⇒ µF α
Xf = 0.7, xw = 0.6, f = 100 P
W = 48.02 kg µf 1atm
=
Hence, (B) µ f1 2 atm
is the correct answer. 3

⇒ µ f2 = m / s
2
Q.22 (A) Hence, (A) is the correct answer.
In this case, a definite fraction of liquid is

vaporized in such a way that the evolved
Q.25 (B)
At minimum reflux, the point of contact of On solving we get,
the operating and equilibrium line is at the W = 66.85 moles
intersection of feed line with equilibrium
⇒ The correct range is between 66 –
curve.
0.96 − 0.66 67 moles
slope
= = 0.6
0.96 − 0.46
Rmin
∴ 0.6
= ⇒ Rmin =
1.5
Rmin + 1 Q.29 (A)
(B) is the correct answer.
The liquid mole fraction xA at which the
maximum difference between the
Q.26 (D) equilibrium vapor mole fraction and liquid
we have mole fraction occurs is
α AB x A
0.66 − 0.5 Difference (D=
) = y*A − x A −x A
slope of q line = = −4 1 + (α AB − 1) x A
0.46 − 0.5
dD
q =0
∴ =
−4 ⇒ q =
0.8 dx A
q −1
Q 0 < q < 1 thus , feed is partially vapor. Hence Correct answer is (A)
(D) is the correct answer.
Q.30(A)
Q.27 17.14 We have
The x co-ordinate of intersection of q line
and equilibrium curve x’ > xF
This indicate slope of q line is positive for q
>1
The feed is cold liquid.
Hence, Answer is (B)
V
=?
Q.28 3.9 F
*
We know the Rayleigh Equation is V * L V F−V 
Fx f = Vy * + L x ⇒ x f = y + x ⇒ xf = + x
F F f  F 
 F  xF dx
given as ln   =
W
∫
xW *
y −x
⇒
V
f
0.67
=
=F 100 moles,
= xF 0=
.28, x W 0.20 The fraction of the feed vaporized is 0.67
Where, *
and
= y 1.325x + 0.121 Hence Correct answer is (C)
 100  0.28 dx
Thus, ln 
 W 
= ∫ (1.325x + 0.121) − x
0.20
Q.31 3.75 = Lm 3. 5
= = 1. 4
Vm+1 2. 5
Given that
Feed contains 20 % vapour, so q = 0.8 Slope
q 0.8 Q.34 1
of q line = = = −4 Now feed
q − 1 −0.2 Minimum reflux ratio is given by
contains 80% vapour, q = 0.2 X DY 1 .9 − 7
R min = =
1 1
= 1
q 0.2 −1 Y −x .7 − .5
Slope = = =
q − 1 −0.8 4
Change in slope = − + 4 =
3.75
1 Q.35 120
4
Murphree efficiency is defined as the actual

change in average composition
Q.32 (C)
accomplished by a given tray divided by the
Q.33 1.4 y1 − y
change in average composition ηm =
We have ye − y
Given q = 0.5
0.53 − 0.47
=ηm = × 100 120%
XD = 0.95 0.52 − 0.47
Equation of operating line for rectifying Where

section
Y1 = A average composition of vapour
R x
y n+1 − xn + D leaving the tray
R +1 R +1
Since this passes through (0.35, 0.5). Ye = Equilibrium composition of vapour

R 0.95 0.35R + 0.95 corresponding to the liquid leaving the
0.5 = × 0.35 + =
R +1 R +1 R +1 tray.
⇒ 0.5 R + 0.5
= 0.35 R + 0.95
Y = composition of vapour entering the tray
⇒ 0.15 R = 0.45
⇒ R =3
Q.36 0.88
Lm Wx w
For stripping section,
= y m+1 xm −
Vm+1 Vm+1
=y A 0= .12, yB 0= .28, y c 0.60
In stripping section Lm = Ln + qF y x 0.12 x C
α AC = 10 = A C = = 10
yC xA 0.60
= 3D + 0.25 * 2D x A + xB + x C =1
Lm = 3.5D
And Vm+1 = Lm – W = 3D – 0.5D = 2.5D
Slope of operating line in stripping Section
x A =−
1 xB − x C
0.12x C
We get, = 10
0.60(1 − xB − x C )
xB = 1 − 1.02 x C → (1)
y xC 0.2 x C
α
= BC
4 B= = 4
y C xB 0.60(1 − 0.02x C )
We get x C = 0.88
Q.37 2
For azeotropic mixtures the relation for

degree of freedom becomes
F=C–P+1
Here number of components is 3 and phase

is 2 therefore degree of freedom is 2.
Q.38 0.667
4 ABSORPTION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
• MISCELLANEOUS
Absorption involves no change in the chemical The solvent if possible should be nontoxic,
species present in the system. Absorption is used nonflammable, and chemically stable.
to separate gas mixtures, remove impurities, or
recover valuable chemicals. The operation of
removing the absorbed solute from the solvent is 4.3 COUNTER CURRENT ABSORPTION
called stripping. When water is used as the
absorbent, it is normally separated from the solute
by distillation rather than stripping.
The desired removal of solute from gas phase is
achieved by adjusting the following parameters.
• Solvent (liquid) flow rate

• Height of column
• Gas flow rate
• Diameter of column
4.2 SELECTION OF SOLVENT
• GAS SOLUBILITY
The gas solubility should be high, thus increasing Overall material balance,
the rate of absorption and decreasing the quality of Lb + V t = L t + V b
solvent required. Component balance,
Lbxb + Vtyt = Ltxt + Vbxb
• VOLATILITY (mole fractions are always for solute)
V = vapor flow rate
The solvent should have a low vapor pressure since
L = liquid flow rate
the gas leaving an absorption operation is ordinary
t, b = top and bottom of column
saturated with the solvent and much may thereby
be lost.
SOLUTE FREE BASIS
• CORROSIVENESS
This basis is used to simplify the calculations.
The materials of construction required for the
Ls = Lb – solute in bottom liq= Lt – solute in top liq
equipment should not be unusual or inexpensive.
Vs = Vb – solute in bottom vap = Vt – solute in top v
X = x / (1-x)
• COST = mole frac of A in liq/mole frac of non-A in liq
The solvent should be inexpensive, so that losses Y = y/ (1-y)
are not costly, and should be readily available. = mole frac of A in vap/mole frac of non-A in vap
Equation:
• VISCOSITY
Low viscosity is preferred for reasons of rapid
absorption rates.
© Copyright Reserved by Inspiring Creativity & Enedavour Gate Institute No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission
LsXb + VsYt= LsXt + VsYb iv. y = Y/(1 + Y)
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋) 4.4 RATE OF ABSORPTION

Yt = 𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 +
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
The concentration gradient will exist between the
Above equation is called as Operating Line solute and absorbent as long as equilibrium is not
reached. Ideally, equilibrium is reached at the top
Example 4.1A solute A is to be recovered of the column, and at the interface of gas – liquid
from an inert carrier gas B by absorption phases.
into a solvent. The gas entering into the
absorber flows at a rate of 500 kmol / h
with yA= 0.3 and leaving the absorber with
yA = 0.01. Solvent enters the absorber at the
rate of 1500 kmol / h with xA = 0.001. The
equilibrium relationship is yA = 2.8xA. The
carrier gas may be considered insoluble in
the solvent and the solvent may be
considered nonvolatile. Construct the x-y
plots for the equilibrium and operating
lines using both mole fraction and solute-
free coordinates.
Solution: xt = .001, yb = .3, yt = .01, Lt = 1500, Vb

= 500
Vs = 500 (1 - .3) = 350
Ls = 1500 (1 - .001) = 1498.5
Moles of A in Vb = 500 x .3 = 150
Moles of A in Vt = 350 (.01 / (1 - .01) ) = 3.5354
Moles of A in Lt = 1500 x .001 = 1.5
Moles of A in Lb = 150 + 1.5 – 3.5354 = 147.965
xb = 147.965/(Ls + 147.965) = 0.0898
SOLUTE FREE BASIS
Xt = 0.001
Xb = 0.0987
Yt = 0.0101
Yb = 0.4286
The equilibrium curve using both mole fraction
and solute-free coordinates
i. Choose a value of x between 0.001 and
0.10
ii. Evaluate X = x/(1 –x)
iii. y = 2.8 x
iv. Y = y/(1 – y)
The operating curve using both mole fraction and
solute-free coordinates
i. Choose a value of x between 0.001 and
0.0898
ii. Evaluate X = x/(1 – x)
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋)
iii. Y= 𝑋𝑋𝑡𝑡 +
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅0 = 𝐾𝐾 ∗ (𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶0 ) ……… (3)
Where, 𝐾𝐾= proportionality factor (length/time)
The proportionality factor k is dependent upon the

diffusivity of the gas in the liquid and the situation
of the absorption, i.e. the surface area available for
absorption and the flow rates of the gas and
absorbent. The surface area available for
absorption, the diffusivity, and the gas flow rate
will remain constant, so k depends primarily on
the flow rate of the absorbent.
The rate of absorption can be defined by: Once equilibrium is reached between the gas and
absorbent, the driving force for absorption
𝐷𝐷 becomes zero since the difference in concentration
𝑅𝑅0 = 𝛿𝛿 ∗ (𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶0 ) ………..(1) between the bulk gas and liquid no longer exists.
Where, 𝑅𝑅0 = Rate of absorption (moles/length2 The concentration gradient decreases as the gas
*time) rises in the column, constantly decreasing the
D= Diffusivity of gas in solution (length2 /time) driving force. This being the case, equation (3) can
𝛿𝛿 = Thickness of the stagnant film (length) be differentiated with respect to height, z, and then
C= Concentration of gas at the liquid surface integrated to determine the overall absorption
(moles/volume) within the column.
𝐶𝐶0 = Concentration of gas in the bulk phase From equation (3),
(moles/volume)
The units of the rate of absorption (𝑅𝑅0 ) are the 𝑅𝑅0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐾𝐾 ∗ (𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶0 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 …….(4)
same as that of molar flux. However, it is
impractical to attempt to determine the stagnant 𝐹𝐹𝐺𝐺 𝐶𝐶 1
𝑧𝑧 = ∗ ∫𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ………..(5)
film thickness since the absorption is occurring 𝑘𝑘 𝐴𝐴0 (𝐶𝐶−𝐶𝐶0 )
inside the packed column. This being the case, an 𝑅𝑅0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹𝐺𝐺 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
alternate equation exists which considers the Where,
average time of exposure between the gas and the 𝐹𝐹𝐺𝐺 = Flow rate of gas (volume/time)
absorbent. Equation that represents this 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴 = Concentration of carbon dioxide at the top of
relationship can be given as: the column (moles/volume)
𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = Concentration of carbon dioxide at the
𝐷𝐷
bottom of the column (moles/volume)
𝑅𝑅0 = 𝐾𝐾 ∗ � 𝜏𝜏 ∗ (𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶𝐶0 ) ……(2) 𝐾𝐾= Proportionality Constant (area/time)
Where, 𝑅𝑅0 = Rate of absorption (moles/length2
*time) Equations (4) and (5) represent the differentiation
D= Diffusivity of gas in solution (length2 /time) and integration.
𝜏𝜏 = Average time of exposure (time) Equation (5) assumes a constant volumetric flow
C= Concentration of gas at the liquid surface rate of gas. In order for this assumption to be
(moles/volume) valid, the liquid flow must have a constant density
𝐶𝐶0 = Concentration of gas in the bulk gas phase or negligible change in density. It will be assumed
(moles/volume) that the absorption of the solute will have a
negligible effect on the liquid density, so
𝐾𝐾= Constant based on model (unitless)
𝐹𝐹𝐺𝐺,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝐺𝐺,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
With the help of both equations (1) and (2) the rate
𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
of absorption is proportional to the concentration
gradient and both equations can be simplified to
Where, 𝐹𝐹𝐺𝐺 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿 represents the volumetric flow
equation
rates of the gas at steady state
4.5 CALCULATION OF TOWER HEIGHT
4.5.1 WHEN EQUILIBRIUM CURVE AND
Let a small differential element of volume dV, OPERATING LINE ARE STRAIGHT AND
height dZ and cross sectional area S and the PARALLEL:
volume is given by,
dV= S.dZ This is the case where equilibrium curve and
operating line are straight and parallel to each
other, and hence the average driving force (i.e., the
vertical and horizontal line are same and constant
throughout the curve).
The amount of solute absorbed in dZ height

packing is given by,
=-V.dy
We know that mass flux is given by
NA = 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 ∗ )𝑆𝑆. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Which, is equal to the mass absorbed in small

packing of dZ height,
The NTU and HTU are given by,
∗)
-V.dy=𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎(𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎 𝑍𝑍 𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = � = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 ∗ ) (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 ∗ ) 𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎
𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 )
𝑉𝑉 0 ∗
On integration, we get (𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 − 𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 )

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
𝑉𝑉 ⁄𝑆𝑆 𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 ∗ )
𝑍𝑍 = �
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 ∗ ) Similarly,
𝑍𝑍 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 (𝑥𝑥𝑏𝑏 − 𝑥𝑥𝑎𝑎 )

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
We have (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 ∗ )
𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = �
𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 ∗ )
𝑉𝑉⁄𝑆𝑆
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 =
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎
4.5.2 WHEN EQUILIBRIUM CURVE AND
OPERATING LINE ARE STRAIGHT AND
NON PARALLEL:
This is the case where equilibrium curve and

operating line are straight and parallel to each
other, and hence the average driving force (i.e., the
vertical and horizontal line are same and constant
throughout the curve).
And N is given by,

𝑦𝑦 −𝑦𝑦 ∗
ln �𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 −𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏∗ �
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑁𝑁 =
ln(𝐴𝐴)
This is equation cannot be used when A = 1.
ABSORPTION FACTOR:
The NTU and HTU are given by, It can be defined as the ratio of slope of operating
𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏
line to the slope of equilibrium curve.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = �
𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦 ∗ ) A=
slope of operating line
slope of equilibrium curve
(𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 − 𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 )
𝐿𝐿⁄𝑉𝑉
𝐴𝐴 =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑚𝑚
(∆𝑦𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 )
𝐿𝐿
Where, ∆𝑦𝑦𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =
∆𝑦𝑦1 −∆𝑦𝑦2 𝐴𝐴 =
∆𝑦𝑦
ln 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
∆𝑦𝑦2
For the given figure
and ∆𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 − 𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 ∗
𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 −𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎
Slope of operating line =
∆𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 − 𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑥𝑥𝑏𝑏 −𝑥𝑥𝑎𝑎
𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 ∗ −𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎 ∗
Here, 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 > 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 Slope of equilibrium curve =
𝑥𝑥𝑏𝑏 −𝑥𝑥𝑎𝑎
and 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 > 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
When A<1, i.e. Operating line and equilibrium
𝑍𝑍 = 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐻𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥𝑁𝑁𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 curve are parallel, then
𝑦𝑦 −𝑦𝑦 ∗
ln �𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏 −𝑦𝑦𝑏𝑏∗ �
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
4.6 CALCULATION FOR IDEAL NUMBER 𝑁𝑁 =
OF PLATES BY ABSORPTION FACTOR
ln(𝑆𝑆)
METHOD: Where, S=1/A= Stripping factor
In the case of Lmin (Minimum Solvent
requirement) yb will be in equilibrium with xb and
yb can be calculated by equilibrium relation (y* =
m xb) with the help of xb.
4.7 HETP (HEIGHT EQUIVALENT TO (b) Gas phase transfer units:
THEORETICAL PLATE):
𝑉𝑉 −3
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 = 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 𝑎𝑎 = 1.2 ∗ 10 ∗ 37.5 ∗ 8 = 0.36
𝐺𝐺�
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇
HETP can be defined as the Height of packing (c) Stripping factor:
required equivalent to that of theoretical plate, for 𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺 5 ∗ 0.16
the same job as done by the equilibrium plate. 𝑆𝑆 = = =2
𝐿𝐿 0.4
(d) Overall Transfer units:
It is an experimental quantity, and is the function 1 1 𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺 1
of = +
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐺𝐺 𝐿𝐿 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿
HETP = f (Size of packing, Nature of packing)
The HETP varies, not only with the type and size of
1 1 1
the packing but also very strongly with the flow = +2∗
rates of each fluid and for every system with 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 0.36 2.7
concentration as well.
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 0.486
Example 4.2 The gas and liquid flow rates
are 0.16 and 0.40 kmol/s, respectively. The (e) Murphree point efficiency:
interfacial area of mass transfer is 37.5 𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
m2/m3 froth on the plate. The residence 𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −0.486
time of both the liquid and gas in the froth 𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 0.385
zone is 8 seconds. The liquid phase and gas
phase mass transfer coefficients are 0.9 x Example 4.3 If mass transfer resistance is
10–2 m/s and 1.2 x 10–3 m/s, respectively. essentially all in the gas phase, derive the
Calculate:
following equation:
(a) Liquid phase transfer units
(b) Gas phase transfer units 𝒎𝒎 𝑮𝑮 (𝟏𝟏 − 𝒙𝒙)𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊
𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 = 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑮𝑮 + � � 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑳𝑳
(c) Stripping factor, given that slope of 𝑳𝑳 (𝟏𝟏 − 𝒚𝒚)∗𝑴𝑴
equilibrium curve is 5
And for dilute solutions,
(d) Overall transfer units 𝒎𝒎 𝑮𝑮
(e) Murphree point efficiency 𝑯𝑯𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 = 𝑯𝑯𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑮𝑮 + � � 𝑯𝑯𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑳𝑳
𝑳𝑳
Solution: 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 , 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐺𝐺 , and 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 are defined
Solution: G = 0.16 kmol /s, L = 0.40 kmol /s, a by
10−3 𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺
= 37.5 m2/m3, 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 1.2 ∗ , 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 = 0.9 ∗ 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = ……(1)
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎(1−𝑦𝑦)∗𝑀𝑀
𝑠𝑠
10−2 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺
𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐺𝐺 = 𝐾𝐾 𝑎𝑎(1−𝑦𝑦)
………(2)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓ℎ 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 8 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦
𝐿𝐿
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓ℎ 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑉𝑉 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 = 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎(1−𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
…….......(3)
= =
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐺𝐺� The overall and individual mass transfer
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓ℎ 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 = 8 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 coefficients are related by,
1 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓ℎ 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑉𝑉 = + ……(4)
= = 𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝐿�
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇
(a) Liquid phase transfer units: Where , m=slope of equilibrium curve
Equation (4) can be written as
𝑉𝑉 −2 1 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝐿𝐿 = 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝑎𝑎 = 0.9 ∗ 10 ∗ 37.5 ∗ 8 = 2.70 = +
𝐿𝐿� 𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌 𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇
From equation (1),
1 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)∗𝑀𝑀 Solution:
=
𝐾𝐾𝑌𝑌 𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺
From equation (2),

1 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐺𝐺 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
=
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺
From equation (3),
1 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
=
𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿
Hence,
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)∗𝑀𝑀 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐺𝐺 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚 ∗ 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 Y1=0.05 (in fig)

= +
𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺 𝐿𝐿
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐺𝐺 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺 Mol ratio will be calculated as
𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = + � � 𝑦𝑦1 0.05
(1 − 𝑦𝑦)∗𝑀𝑀 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)∗𝑀𝑀 𝐿𝐿
𝑌𝑌1 = = = 0.0526
If the mass transfer resistance is essentially all in 1 − 𝑦𝑦1 1 − 0.05
the gas phase, then 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖 = 𝑦𝑦∗𝑖𝑖 or 𝑦𝑦2 0.15 ∗ 0.0526𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌2 = = = 0.0079
(1 − 𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = (1 − 𝑦𝑦)∗𝑀𝑀 1 − 𝑦𝑦2 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (1 − 𝑥𝑥)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐺𝐺 + � � 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠
𝐿𝐿 (1 − 𝑦𝑦)∗𝑀𝑀 =1
𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠
And for dilute solutions, Ammonia balance:
(1 − 𝑥𝑥)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ≈ 1, (1 − 𝑦𝑦)∗𝑀𝑀 = 1 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠 (𝑌𝑌1 − 𝑌𝑌2 ) = 𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 (𝑋𝑋1 − 𝑋𝑋2 )
𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺 𝐿𝐿
𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐺𝐺 + � � 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝑌𝑌1 − 𝑌𝑌2 ) = 𝑠𝑠 (𝑋𝑋1 − 𝑋𝑋2 )
𝐿𝐿 𝐺𝐺𝑠𝑠
(0.0526 − 0.0079) = 1 ∗ (𝑋𝑋1 − 0.002)
Example 4.4 A counter current plate
absorber is to be installed for scrubbing of (𝑋𝑋1 = 0.0467)
an air mixture containing 5% v/v ammonia. 𝑥𝑥
The scrubber is fed with water containing Since 𝑋𝑋1 = 1−𝑥𝑥1
1
0.002 mole NH3 per mole of water. The 𝑋𝑋1
scrubbing water flows at a rate of 1 mol 𝑥𝑥1 =
1 + 𝑋𝑋1
water per 1 mole of air. It is necessary to
0.0467
absorb 85% of ammonia present in the gas 𝑥𝑥1 =
by operating the absorber at 293K. 1 + 0.0467
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟑𝟑⁄𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
𝑲𝑲 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑥𝑥1 = 0.0466
𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟑𝟑⁄𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝑶
Calculate the concentration of NH3 in the So, the number of ideal stages is given by
outgoing liquid and estimate no. of stages Kremser’s equation:
𝑌𝑌 −𝑚𝑚𝑋𝑋 1 1
necessary for this operation. ln ��𝑌𝑌1−𝑚𝑚𝑋𝑋2 � �1 − � + �
2 2 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 =
ln 𝐴𝐴
Equilibrium relationship is given by,
Y=0.8X
m=0.8
𝐿𝐿𝑠𝑠 1
𝐴𝐴 = = 0.8 = 1.25
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠
0.0526−0.8∗0.002 1 1
ln ��0.0079−0.8∗0.002 � �1 − �+ �
1.25 1.25
𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 =
ln(1.25)
𝑁𝑁𝑃𝑃 = 3.96
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 For gas absorption, the height of a Q.4 Acetone is to be removed from air in an
transfer unit, based on the gas phase, is isothermal dilute absorber using pure
given by (G: superficial molar gas velocity ; water as solvent. The incoming air
L : superficial molar liquid velocity ; FG : contains 5 mol% of acetone (ym =
mass transfer coefficient, mol/m2s ; a : 0.05). The design equation to be used for
interfacial area per unit volume of tower) obtaining the number of trays (N) of the
[GATE-2001] absorber is
G FG  y 
(A) (B) N+ 2 =6 log  in
y  .
FG a Ga  out 
Ga L For 98% recovery of acetone, the number

(C) (D)
FG FG G of trays required is/are
[GATE-2004]
Q.2 The interfacial area per unit volume of (A) 1 (B) 8
dispersion in a gas – liquid contractor, for (C) 9 (D) 10
fractional hold up of gas =0.1 and gas
bubble diameter = 0.5 mm is given by (in Q.5 At equilibrium, the concentration of
water is vapor phase (C*) in kg/m3 of air
m 2 / m3 )
space and the amount of water (m)
[GATE-2001] adsorbed per kg of dry silica gel are related
(A) 500 (B)1200 by C* = 0.0667 m. To maintain dry
conditions in a room of air space 100 m3
(C) 900 (D)800
containing 2.2 kg of water vapor initially,
10 kg of dry silica gel is kept in the
Q.3 H2 S is being absorbed in a gas room, The fraction of initial water
absorber unit. The height of the transfer remaining in the air space after a long time
unit based on the overall mass transfer (during which the temperature is
coefficient on the gas side is 0.4m. The maintained constant) is
equilibrium data given by y = 1.5 x. The [GATE-2004]
bulk concentration of H2S has to be reduced
(A) 0.0 (B) 0.2
form 0.05 to 0.001 mole fraction in the gas
side. The height of the tower (in meters) (C) 0.4 (D) 1.0
corresponding to an operating line given by
y = 5x +0.001 is
Linked Answer Questions 6 – 7
[GATE-2003]
A binary gas mixture of a solute and a
(A) 2.0 (B) 1.56
carrier gas is treated in a countercurrent
(C) 1.0 (D) 0.56 gas absorption column, containing ideal
trays, using a solvent. The compositions y Q.7 Under the correct condition
and x (see figure below) are the mole corresponding to part (a), the number of
fractions of the solute in the gas and liquid ideal trays in the volume is given by
respectively. Also, V and L are the molar x 0 − xN
(A) N =
flow rates of the gas and liquid x 0 − ( yN+1 / m)
respectively. Assume that the carrier gas is
insoluble in the solvent and that the vapor (B) N =
(
x 0 − yN+1 / m )
pressure of the solvent is very low at the x 0 − xN
given conditions of the column. Further, xN − x 0

the gas and liquid streams are sufficiently (C) N =
(y N+1 )
/ m − xN
dilute that L and V may be assumed to be
constant throughout the column. The
(D) N =
(y N+1 )
/ m − xN
equilibrium relation is given by y*mx, where xN − x 0
m is a positive constant.
[GATE-2005]
Q.8 In a multistage countercurrent
isothermal stripping column, feed
containing 0.05 mol of solute/mol of solute
free oil is treated with steam. The
absorption factor A = 0.65. The equilibrium
relation is given by Y* = 2X, where Y* and X
refer to the equilibrium mole ratio in the
steam and oil phases respectively. The
Kremser equation is given as follows (‘0’
refers to liquid inlet at the top, ‘Np’ refers
to the last stage at the bottom).
 y  
  X 0 − NP +1  
 m  
log  

(
 1 − A + A
yN +1  
)
Q.6 For any value of m, the change in   XNP − P  
liquid composition across a tray is   m 
 
NP =
independent of the tray location if 1
log  
A
(A) L / V = 1 If the steam is initially free of solute and its
(B) m L/V = 1 exit mole ratio (mol solute/mol steam) is
(C) m /(LV) = 1 0.0624, then the number of equilibrium
stages required is
(D) L /(m V) = 1
[GATE-2006]
(A) 4.2 (B) 5.2
(C) 7.2 (D) 8.2
Q.9 Given the following statements listed
(C) The slope of the equilibrium line should
from P to T, select the correct combination
of TRUE statements from the choices that increase
follow this list. (D) The slope of the equilibrium line should
[GATE-2007]
decrease
P) Plate columns are preferred when the
operation involves liquids containing
Q.11 A packed tower containing Berl
suspended solids saddles is operated with a gas-liquid
Q) Packed towers are preferred if the system in the countercurrent
mode. Keeping the gas flow rate constant,
liquids have a large foaming tendency.
if the liquid flow rate is continuously
R) The pressure drop through packed increased,
towers is more than the pressure drop [GATE-2008]
through plate columns designed for the (A) the void fraction available for the gas to
same duty. flow will decrease beyond the loading
S) Packed columns are preferred when point
large temperature changes are involved in (B) the gas pressure drop will decrease,
distillation operations. (C) liquid will continue to flow freely down
T) Packed towers are cheaper than plate the tower beyond the loading point,
towers if highly corrosive fluids must be (D) the entrainment of liquid in the gas will
handled. considerably decrease near the flooding
point.
(A) T, S, P (B) P. Q. T
(C) S, R, T (D) R, Q, S Q.12 Air concentrated with solute P is
brought in contact with water. At steady
state, the bulk concentrations of P in air and
Q.10In a countercurrent gas absorber, both water are 0.3 and 0.02 respectively. The
the operating and equilibrium relations are equilibrium equation relating the interface
linear. The inlet liquid composition and the compositions is yP,i = 0.25 xP,I Assume that
exit gas composition are maintained the mass transfer coefficients FG and FL are
constant. In order to increase the identical. The gas phase mole fraction of P at
absorption factor the interface (yP,i ) is
[GATE-2008] [GATE-2008]
(A) 0.0663 (B) 0.075
(A) The liquid flow rate should decrease
(C) 0.16 (D) 0.3
(B) The gas flow rate should increase
Q.13 The ratio of the liquid to gas flow rate (A) 1/15 (B) 1/10
in a counter-current gas absorption column (C) 2/15 (D) 1/6
is increased at otherwise identical
conditions. Which ONE of the following
statements is TRUE? Q.15 If the stage efficiency is 50%, then the
[GATE-2009] value of y is
(A) The operating line shifts towards the
(A) 1/12 (B) 1/6
equilibrium curve
(C) 1/4 (D) 1/3
(B) The operating line shifts away from
Q.16 A gas mixture is in contact with a
the equilibrium curve
liquid. Component P in the gas mixture is
(C) The concentration of the absorbed highly soluble in the liquid. Possible
species increases in the exit concentration profiles during absorption of
P are shown in the choices, where x : mole
liquid stream
fraction of P in bulk liquid, y : mole
(D) The operating line does not shift. fraction of P in bulk gas,
xi : mole fraction of P at the interface in
liquid,
Linked Answer Questions 14 and 15
yi : mole fraction of P at the interface in gas,
Water is used to absorb ammonia from a y*: equilibrium gas phase mole fraction
gas mixture in a single separation stage corresponding to xi The CORRECT profile is
contactor. The process is schematically [GATE-2011]
represented in the figure below, The molar
gas and liquid flow rates, and the inlet mole
fractions are given in the figure. Both the
liquid and the gas phases are well mixed,
and the equilibrium relation between y and
x is given by y* = x.
[GATE-2010]
(a)
Q.14 If the stage is ideal, then the value of y

is
(b)
Q.19 For which of the following
combinations, does the absorption
operation become gas film controlled?
[GATE-2012]
(c) P. The solubility of gas in the liquid is very

high
Q. The solubility of gas in the liquid is very
low
R. The liquid – side mass transfer
coefficient is much higher than the gas-side
mass Transfer Coefficient
S. The liquid –side mass transfer coefficient
(d) is much lower than the gas-side mass
[GATE-2011] Transfer coefficient
Common Data Questions 17 and 18: (A) P & Q (B) P & R

A counter extraction column is designed to
(C) P & S (D) Q & R
remove 99% of solute C from a solution of
solvent A and solute C using pure solvent B
The initial concentration of solute in the Q.20 The packing of an existing absorption
solution of A + C is wt % and the total flow tower is replaced with a new type of
of solution is 1000 kg/h if the equilibrium packing. The height of the packing and the
relationship is Y = 2 X, where Y = MASS OF inlet conditions are maintained the same as
C/mass of A and X = mass of/ mass of B before. Tests reveal that the number of
[GATE-2012] transfer units is lower than before. This
indicates that the tower with the new
Q.17 The minimum flow rate of solvent B packing when compared to that with the
required (in kg/h) is old packing will
[GATE-2013]
(A) 1454 (B) 1584
(A) Have a higher rate of absorption of the
(C) 1676 (D) 1874
solute from the gas stream
(B) Have a lower rate of absorption of the
Q.18 If the flow rate of B is 2400 kg/h,
solute from the gas stream
then the theoretical number of stages in the
column using Kremser’s equation (adjusted (C) Have the same rate of absorption of the
to the next integer) is solute from the gas stream
(D) Have a lower height rate of transfer
(A) 5 (B) 9
unit
(C) 11 (D) 13
Q.21 Packed towers are preferred for gas- For this process, the value of the
liquid mass transfer operations with absorption factor (upto two decimal
foaming liquids because places) is ____.
[GATE-2014] [GATE-2015]
(A) in packed towers, high liquid to gas
ratios are best handled Q.24 The concentration of vapour is
reduced from 0.25 to 0.05. The liquid feed
(B) in packed towers, continuous contact
flowrate, on a solute free basis, is 3 mole/s.
of gas and liquid takes place The equilibrium line for the system is given
(C) Packed towers are packed with random in the figure below
[GATE-2017]
packing
(D) in packed towers, the gas is not
bubbled through the liquid pool
Q.22 Assuming the mass transfer

coefficients in the gas and the liquid phases
are comparable, the absorption of CO2
from reformer gas (CO2+H2) into an
The minimum flowrate of pure steam for
aqueous solution of diethanolamine is
this process, rounded o 1 decimal place, is
controlled by
____mol/s.
[GATE-2014]
(A) gas phase resistance
Q.25 Two packed towers are designed for
(B) liquid phase resistance the same mass velocity of the gas. The first
(C) both gas and liquid phase resistances has liquid and gas flow rates of 30 kg/s
(D) composition of the reformer gas and 1.2 kg/s, respectively, while the
corresponding flow rates in the second
tower are 67.5 kg/s and 1.8 kg/s. The ratio
Q.23 Benzene is removed from air by of design diameter of the wider tower to
absorbing it in a non-volatile wash-oil at that of the narrower tower is
100kPa in a countercurrent gas absorber.
[GATE-2018]
Gas flow rate is 100 mol/min, which
(A) 2 (B) 1.8
includes 2 mol/min of benzene. The flow
rate of wash-oil is 50 mol/min.Vapour (C) 1.5 (D) 1.225
pressure of benzene at the column
conditions is 50 kPa. Benzene forms an Q.26 For absorption of H2S from a mixture
ideal solution with the wash-oil and the with hydrocarbon vapour into an aqueous
column is operating at steady state. Gas alkalonamine solution, the liquid phase
phase can be assumed to follow ideal gas mass transfer resistance is
law. Neglect the change in molar flow rates
[GATE-2018]
of liquid and gas phases inside the column.’
(A) Significantly higher than that of the
gas phase
(B) Negligible compared to that of the gas
phase
(C) Equal to that of the gas phase
(D) Dependent on the gas phase mass
transfer resistance
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(A) (B) (A) (B) (C) (D) (A) (B) (B) (D) (A) (A) (B) (A)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
(A) (D) (C) (A) (B) (C) (D) (A) (1.02) (4) (1.225) (B)
EXPLANATIONS
y1 − y 2
Q.1 (A) NTU =
(y − y1 ) M
For packed bed absorption tower
Y2 = 0.001 { Given}
HTU =
G' Operating line y = 5 x + 0.001
MBK G P a
at y1 = 0.05
G' 0.001
=
Where G = and K G P FG =xi = 0.0098
MB 5
Equilibrium line y = 1.5x
G
∴ HTU = at x i =
0.0098 yi =×
1.5 0.0098 =
0.0147
FG a
( yi − yi ) − ( y2 − y12 )
( y − yi )LM =
Q.2 (B)  y −y 
ln  1 i1 
 y 2 − yi2 
Fractional hold up (0.05 − 0.0147) (0.001 − 0)
=
Total volume of bubbles  0.05 − 0.0147 
(ε ) = ln 
 0.001 − 0 

Total volume of gas − liquid cntactor
= 0.00964
Basis = 1 m3 of g – l contactor
Height of tower = HTU × NTU
4
n × π r3
3 3ε yi − y 2
=∴ε = n = 0.4 ×
1 4π r 3 (y − yi ) LM
Interfacial area of n bubbles 0.4 × (0.05 − 0.001)
=
=a 4π r 2 × n 0.00964
= 2m
3ε 6ε 6 × 0.1
a =4π r 2 × = = ×1000
4π r 3
dP 0.5 Q.4 (B)
= 1200m 2 / m3
Basis: 100 mol incoming gas
Hence, Acetone = 5 mol
Q.3 (A) and Air = 95 mol
Since, 98 % recovery of acetone required
Height of tower h = HTU × NTU Thus, Acetone in vent gas = 5 × (1 – 0.98)
= 0.1 mol
Therefore,
Mole fraction of Acetone in vent gas (yout) =
0.1
= 1.0516 × 10−3
95 + 0.1
And
i.e. slope of operating line (L / V) = slope
 y in   0.05 
N + 2 6 log
= =   6 log  = −3 
10.062 of eqm line (m)
 y out   1.0516 × 10 
⇒N= 9 trays required. L L
= m or = 1= A
V mV
Hence (D) is correct answer
Q.5 (C)
Here C* = 0.0667 m
Q.7 (A)
LS = 100 m3
SS = 10 kg the correct condition corresponding to part
1 .6 (a) the number of ideal trays in the volume
Cb
= = 0.022 kg / m2
AR c is given by
*
C1 = 0.0667 m, xN − x 0
= N and for absorption, xN > X0
m0 = 0 (y )−x N+1/m N
we have L s (C0 − C1 )= ss (m1 − m0 )
100(0.022 - 0.0667m1 ) = 10 (m1 )

⇒
2.2 - 6.67m1 = 10 m1 Q.8 (B)
kg water x 0 = 0.05
m1 = 0.132
kg adsorbent yNP +1 = 0
kg of water adsorbed= 0.132 × 10

= 1.31 kg y1 = 0.0624
kg of water remaining
= 2.2 - 1.31 0.89 kg
=
L
A= = 0.65
0.89 mv
Fraction of water remaining. = 0 .4
2 .2
y = 2x
⇒ m=2
Solute balance:
Q. 6 (D) v ( Y1 - YNP +1 )
L (x 0 − xp) =
Change in liquid composition across a tray
v
is independent of tray location i. e ∴ xp =x0 − (Y − Y )
L 1 NP +1
deference I liquid composition across a tray
is same for each tray in the absorber) the 0.05 −
=
1
1.30
( 0.0624 − 0 )
eqm line and operating lines are parallel = 0.002
⇒ 0.3 - x=
pi
xpi − 0.02
⇒ 0.3 - 0.25x=
p
: xp : −0.02
∴ y pi = 0.25 xp
i
and y pi = 0.256 × 0.25 = 0.063
Q.13 (B)
Counter-current gas absorption equation is
given by
 X − YNP +1
 G ( Y1 − Y2 ) = L ( X1 − X 2 )
log  0 m
  (1 − A ) + ( A )
 X1 −
( Y1 − Y2 )= GL ( X1 − X 2 )
yNP +1 
m  
NP =
log (1 / A )
If liquid to gas ratio increases, then
 0.05 − 02  
  (1 − 6.65 ) + 0.65 
0 
concentration of gas in liquid decreases
 0.002 − 2  
= log  and operating line shift away from the
log (1 / 0.65 )
equilibrium
log(9.4
= = 5.205 Hence, (B) is the correct answer.
log(1.538)
Hence (B) is the correct answer

Q.14 (A)
Ammonia balance in solution

Q.9 (B)
( 2 × 0.1) + (1× 0 ) = 2y + (1× x )
Packed columns are more suitable for
Now y * = x
handling foaming liquids. Pressure drop in
the case of packed tower is minimum. y* =
1
15
Packed towers are cheaper than plate
towers if highly corrosive fluids must be Hence, (A) is the correct answer.
handled,
Hence (B) is the correct answer.
Q.15 (A)
Q.10 (D)
Q.16 (D)
Q.11 (A) Component p is highly soluble in
liquid
Q.12 (A)
Component p diffuses from gas to
At equilibrium, yB - y pi = xpi - xB
liquid phase
⇒ 0.3 - y= xpi − 0.02
pi
[∴ y must be > y and xi must be > x ]
1
−0
 Rs  8
∴ B and C are not possible Slope of line
= AB = 
 Es min 1
−
1
∴ A and D are two possible diagrams 40 400
∴ yi = H xi (Henry’ law) Es = 1584 kg / hr
For highly soluble system y i > xi

Q.18 (A)
System for xi =0.297 I y I = 0.945
Use Kremser’s equation
Hence (D) is correct diagram
Kremser Equation is given by
 x − yN+1 / m  
Q.17 (C) = N Log  0  (1 − A ) + A 
X
 N − y / m  
N= N+1
We know that Log (1 / A )
The amount of solvent A = 0.8 x 1000 = 800 = 8.7  9
and C = 200
Q.19 (B)
In absorption, there are two step mass
transfer and slowest step is rate controlling
Then statement P and R tell us that gas film
is controlling
Hence Answer is (B)
Q. 20 (C)
The ratio of the solute mole fraction in the
original feed to that in the exit raffinate
At equilibrium, both inlet streams are in stream i.e. (xO/xN) is given by
N
  mS  
equilibrium 1 +  
  NE  
Take balance on component C:
Hence Correct answer is (A)
A ( Y1 – Y2) = B (X1 – X2)
Q.21 (D)
Q.22 (A)
Because Gas is not bubbled through liquid

and thus less agitation of liquid is done by
gas.
Q.23 (1.02) Q.25 (1.225)
We know that
Q.26 (B)
Absorption factor
H2S is highly soluble in alkalonamine
Ls
A= solution due to a chemical reaction. Since it
mGs
is highly soluble total resistance offered is
Given Raoult’s law is applicable for gas almost equal to the gas phase resistance
phase and hence liquid phase resistance should
be negligible.
yP = xpsat
⇒ y ×100 =×
x 50
⇒ y = 0. 5 x
So, m = 0.5
50
=A = 1.02
0.5 × 98
Q.24 (4)
Equation of equilibrium line =
0.15
= 0= .6 y 0.6x
0.25
Material balance of solute gives L (0.25-

0.05) = Gmin 0.6(0.25)  here, L = 3 mol / sec, G
= minimum flow rate of pure steam
3(0.25 − 0.05)
=Gmin = 4 mol / sec
0.6(0.25)
5 HUMIDIFICATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Pv mv
Humidity is used to indicate the concentration of H = .
Pt – Pv mA
vapors in gas-vapor mixture. It can be defined on
mass basis or molar basis.
Molar basis (Molar Humidity):
mv
H = H’ . . = 0.622 H’
nv (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) mA
H’ =
nA (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
Where, mv and mA are molar masses of vapor and
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 Pv
air, and Pt is total pressure
= =
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 Pt – Pv
If gas is saturated with vapors (water),
Mass basis (Absolute Humidity):
Partial pressure of vapors = vapor pressure of vapors
mv (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) (at same temperature )
H= Molar humidity at saturation,
mA (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
Pvs
H’s =
Pts – Pvs
For ideal case,
Pvs is vapor pressure of vapors (water)
Pv Vv = mv Rv Tv (moisture)
Mass humidity at saturation,
PA VA = mA RA TA (air)
Hs = H’s
As vapor and air are in thermal equilibrium,
DEGREE OF SATURATION/ % HUMIDITY
TA = Tv
It is defined as the ratio of mass of vapors per kg of air
Volume occupied by vapor and air is same, to the same ratio at saturation for a particular
temperature.
VA = Vv
mv 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻′ Pv (Pt −Pvs )

Pv RA µ= = =
= × 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻′𝑠𝑠 Pvs (Pt −Pv)
mA PA Rv
RA = R/mA RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH)

It is given by the ratio of partial pressure to the vapor
Rv = R/mv
pressure of vapors. At saturation RH = 1
PA = Pt – Pv
When, the vapor pressures of a liquid are plotted
Pv 𝜇𝜇 against the corresponding temperatures, a curve like
RH = = Pvs
Pvs 1−(1− 𝜇𝜇) Pt TBDC results.
5.3 DRY BULB TEMPERATURE

Example 5.1 A vapor – air mixture at 302 K
and 100 kPa having saturation temperature The dry bulb temperature can be defined as the
291 K. Find out the Molar humidity, temperature measure by the thermometer while
Relative humidity, Absolute humidity and keeping is bulb completely dry, i.e. its bulb should not
percentage humidity. be affected by the atmospheric moisture.
Given Data: Vapor pressure of air – vapor
mixture at 291 K = 2.0624 kPa 5.4 WET BULB TEMPERATURE
Vapor pressure of air – vapor mixture at 302 K
= 4.004 kPa Here, bulb of thermometer is covered with a w etted
muslin wick and a stream of unsaturated gas mixture
Solution : is passed with a velocity of 2 – 5 m/s. The moisture of
wick tends to evaporate by picking up the heat from the
Molar humidity, H’ = 2.0624/(100 – 2.0624) =
surroundings and thus the temperature of air around
0.02106
the wick lowers down. This decrease in temperature is
Absolute humidity, H = 0.02106 (18/29) = 0.01307 known as wet bulb temperature.
Saturation humidity, H’s = 4.004/(100 – 4.004) = DBT > WBT
0.04171
5.5 DEW POINT TEPERATURE
Relative humidity, RH = 2.0624/4.004 = 0.5151
Dew point is the lowest temperature at which a gas-
% humidity, %H = 0.02106/0.04171 x 100% = 50.5% vapor mixture can be cooled without condensation at
constant pressure.
It is the temperature at which the vapor the vapor just
5.2 VAPOR PRESSURE CURVE begins to condense when cooled at constant pressure.
It is the temperature at which the exiting vapor content
is sufficient to saturate the gas.
It is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of
water is equal to the partial pressure of vapor in gas-
vapor mixture.
At dew point, H = Hs and H’ = Hs
The vapor pressure of a liquid may be defined as

“the equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its
liquid (or solid); that is, the pressure of the vapor
resulting from evaporation of a liquid (or solid)
above a sample of the liquid (or solid) in a closed
container.”
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 The lewis relation for air-water Q.3 The humidity of air sample
humidification is given by (ky : Mass expressed as kg of water vapor / kg of dry
transfer coefficient of moisture in air; hG : air is
heat transfer coefficient ; Cs : heat capacity (A) 0.048 (B) 0.079
of vapor gas mixture ) (C) 0.122 (D) 0.152
[GATE-2001]
2
hG 2 K y Cs
(A) =1 (B) =1 Q.4 The wet bulb temperature Tw for the
kyc s hG
above mixture would be
h K y 2 hG
(C) G = 1 (D) =1 (A) Less than 400C (B) 40 0C
k y Cs Cs
(C) 400C < Tw < 600C (D) 60 0C
Q.2 The following plot gives the saturated
humidity (He) versus Temperature (T)
Line joining (HI, TI) and (H2, T2) is the Q.5 If the percent humidity of air (30 °C,
constant enthalpy line, Choose the correct total pressure 100 kPa) is 24 % and the
one from among the altematives A, B, C and saturation pressure of water vapor at that
D temperature is 4 kPa, the percent relative
[GATE-2003] humidity and the absolute humidity of air
(A) T1 – Dew point Temp; T2 –Dry bulb are
[GATE-2007]
Temp; T3 – Wet Bulb Temp;
(A) 25.2, 0.0062 (B) 25, 0.0035
(B) T1 – Dew point Temp; T2 – Wet Bulb
(C) 20.7, 0.0055 (D) 18.2, 0.00
Temp; T3 – Wet Bulb temp;
(C) T1 – Wet Bulb Temp; T2 – Dry Bulb
Q.6 At 25°C and 90% relative humidity,
Temp; T3- Dew point temp;
water evaporates from the surface of a lake
(D) T1 – Dry Bulb Temp; T2 – Wet Bulb at the rate of 1.0 kg/m2/h. The relative
Temp; T3 – Dew point temp; humidity that will lead to an evaporation
rate of 3.0 kg/m2/h, with other conditions
Common Data Question 3 –4
remaining the same, is
An air-water vapor mixture has a dry bulb [GATE-2010]
temperature of 600C and a dew point (A) 30% (B) 50%
temperature of 400C. The total pressure is
(C) 60% (D) 70%
101.3 kPa and the vapor pressures
of water at 400C and 600C are 7.30 kPa and
19.91 kPa, respectively. Q.7 The humidity of air at a dry-bulb
[GATE-2004] temperature of 65oC is 0.025 kg water / kg
dry air. The latent heat of vaporization of
water at 0oC is 2500 kJ/kG. The
psychrometric ratio of air is 0.95 kJ (kg dry
air)-1K-1 . Considering 0oC as the reference
temperature , the enthalpy of air ( in
kJ/kG) at its adiabatic saturation
temperature of 35oC is __________(rounded
off to two decimal places ).
[GATE-2018]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(C) (D) (A) (C) (B) (D) (124)
EXPLANATIONS
 
 
7.30
Q.1 (C) =Hw =  ( 0.622 ) 0.048
 101.3 − 7.30 
 
 
hG
For air water vapour mixture =1 Hence (A) is the correct answer.
K y Cs
Where, hG – heat transfer coefficient
Ky – mass transfer coefficient Q.4 (C)
Wet bulb temperature always lies between the
CS – molar specific heat dry bulb temperature and the dew point
temperature therefore TW is between 400C
and 600C
Hence (C) is the correct answer
Q.2 (D)
T1 = dry bulb temperature Q.5 (B)

H
T2 = Wet bulb temperature Percent humidity = = .24
HS
T3 = Dew point temperature Saturation pressure = 4 kPa

 Ps 
=Hs 0=
.622   0.259
 P − Ps 
Q.3 (A) H = .24 x 0.259 = 6.22 x 10-3
Pw → partial pressure of water vapor in air
Pr → total pressure
Mw → molecular weight of the water vapor Q.6 (D)
MA → Molecular weight of air We know
Vapor pressure at the dew point is same as
NV Kg (PVV − PV )
=
the partial pressure of given system.
Therefore vapor pressure at 400 C = partial  pv 
pressure at 600C Or NV α 1 − v  α (1 − RH)
 pv 
PW = 7.30 kPa
PT = 101.3 kPa RH
=1 90% ⇒ NV1 1.0kg / m2hr
Mw RH2 =? ⇐NV2 =
3.0KG / m2hr
= 0.622
MA RH2 = 70 %
 p  M 
Humidity, Hw =  w
 
w

p − P
 T W  A M
Q.7 (124)
λ
(T - TS) = (Y’ – Y’s)
h
ky
And enthalpy of stream = ’ λ T0 + CH(Ts – T0)
Hence enthalpy is 124 kJ/Kg
6 DRYING
6.1 INTRODUCTION • Resistance of convective MT of vapors from

surface to the bulk of air.
The removal of moisture (complete removal is not a • Resistance to convective HT from bulk
compulsion) from a wet solid is called Drying. drying air to the solid surface.
MECHANISM: • Resistance to conductive HT from outer
surface to the inside of body.
Generally a wet solid is heated to vaporize the
moisture to the surface and then heat required for 6.4 IMPORATNT TERMS
drying is supplied by hot air. BONE DRYING:
A solid totally free from moisture.
CASE HARDENING:
Sometimes drying action is so rapid that the outer
layer becomes dry, stiff and hard and stops drying
while there is enough amount of moisture inside.
6.2 MECHANISM OF MOISTURE CONTENT
UNBOUND MOISTURE:
• BY LIQUID DIFFUSION
The moisture content present over the surface of
The concentration of the moisture inside the bulk solid such that no resistance is offered by the solid in
solid is generally more than that at the surfaces, and the movement of this moisture or the moisture
the concentration difference causes flow of moisture content whose relative humidity is 1.
from inside to the outside.
The rate of drying is constant during the removal of
• BY CAPILLARY FORCES unbound moisture.
In porous solids, moisture transport occurs due to BOUND MOISTURE:

the capillary force.
The moisture content present inside the solid such
• PRESSURE INDUCED TRANSPORT that the relative humidity is less than 1.
For solids, which shrinks while drying, pressure is Here, the solid offers resistance in the movement of
induced in the inside of solid and the moisture travels the moisture.
from inside to outside.
FREE MOISTURE:
• VAPOR DIFFUSION The moisture content which can be removed from the
Sometimes liquid vaporizes inside the surface of solid solid. (bound + unbound moisture)
and these vapors come to the surface known as vapor EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT:
diffusion.
The moisture content after which drying is
6.3 RESISTANCES IN DRYING impossible. Rate of drying becomes zero.
• Resistance to liquid and vapor diffusion from
inside to the surface.
6.5 RATE OF DRYING
The rate of drying is directly proportional to the rate
of moisture removed from the solid.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Nα
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
N=
𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
N: rate of drying, A: Area of drying, Ws: Wt. of bone
The vapor pressure of moisture inside the solid is dry, X: moisture content, t: time
equal to the partial pressure of water vapor in air.
(X is always taken on dry basis till it is not
mentioned)
TIME OF DRYING
−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �
𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑁𝑁
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 = �� + � �
𝑁𝑁 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑁𝑁
Assumption,
N = pX + q
Moisture content (X) is on dry basis.
Nc = pXc + q
X = kg moisture / kg wet solid
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋) 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 = + �
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋) 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞

𝑡𝑡 = + ln
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋) 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∗
𝑡𝑡 = + ln
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ∗
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 ) 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗
𝑡𝑡 = + ln
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 ) 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗
𝑡𝑡 = + (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗) ln
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗
t = tc + tv
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗ Assumption,
𝑡𝑡 = �(𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 ) + (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗) ln �
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗ HT by radiation and conduction to the solid surface
are neglected.
X = kg of moisture/kg of dry solid

6.6 EFFECT OF VARIABLES ON DRYING
x = kg of moisture/ kg of wet solid
1. When air flows parallel to the surface
X = x/(1-x)
h = 0.0204 G0.8
2. When air flows perpendicular to surface
h = 0.0204 G0.37
3. As air velocity increases, rate of drying
increases.
4. As gas humidity increases, N decreases.
5. As temperature increases, N increases.
6. As thickness of solid increases, Nc remains
Q = h A (T – TW) same but N decreases. Therefore, Tc remains
constant but Tv increases.
[ T: dry bulb temp; TW: wet bulb]
NA = Ky (yw – y)
Example 6.1 A wet solid is to be dried from
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
H= . 35% to 10% moisture under constant drying
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃−𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 conditions in 5 hours. If the equilibrium
Pt >> Pv moisture content is 4% and the critical
moisture content is 14%, how long it will take
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 to dry the solids to 6% moisture under the
H= . =y same conditions?
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 Solution:
Similarly, HW = yw
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 Initial content = 35% = 0.5385 (dry basis)
Final content (part 1) = 10% = 0.111 (dry basis)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
NA = Ky (Hw – H) Critical content = 14% = 0.1628 (dry basis)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
Equilibrium content = 4% = 0.0417 (dry basis)
Q = Mv NA * λ A
Time required (t) = 5 hrs
λ is the latent heat of vaporization.
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗
𝑡𝑡 = �(𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 ) + (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗) ln �
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑋𝑋 ∗
h (T – Tw)
= Ky Ma (Hw – H)
λ
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
5= �(0.5385 − 0.1628)
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴
+ (0.1628
0.1628 − 0.0417
− 0.0417) ln �
0.111 − 0.0417
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
= 11.28
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝐴𝐴
Final content (part 2) = 6% = 0.0638 (dry basis)
𝑡𝑡 = 11.28 �(0.5385 − 0.1628)

+ (0.1628
0.1628 − 0.0417
− 0.0417) ln �
0.0638 − 0.0417
t = 6.56 hr
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 200 kg of solid (on dry basis) is Where Ls : total mass of dry solids, A : total
subjected to a drying process for a period surface area for drying, Rc : constant
of 5000 s. The drying occurs in the constant maximum drying rate per unit area, and X :
rate period with the drying rate as moisture content (in mass of water/mass
N=c 0.5 ×10−3 kg / m 2 s. The initial moisture of dry solids)
content of the solid is 0.2 kg moisture kg
dry solid. The interfacial area available for Q.4 A 25 cm x 25 cm x 1 cm flat sheet
drying is 4m /100kg of dry solid. The
2
weighing 1.2 kg initially was dried from
moisture content at the end of the drying both sides under constant drying rate
period is (in kg moisture kg dry solid). conditions. It took 1500 seconds for the
weight of the sheet to reduce to 1.05
(A) 0.5 (B) 0.05 kg. Another 1 m x 1 m x 1 cm flat sheet of
the same materials is to be dried from one
(C) 0.1 (D) 0.15
side only. Under the same constant drying
[GATE-2001] rate conditions, the time required for
drying (in seconds) from its initial weight
Q.2It takes 6 hours to dry a wet solid from
of 19.2 kg to 17.6 kg is
50% moisture content to the critical
moisture content of 15%. How much longer
(A) 1000 (B) 1500
will it take to dry the solid to 10 %
moisture content, under the same drying (C) 2000 (D) 2500
conditions (the equilibrium moisture [GATE-2004]
content of the solid is 5% )
(a) 15 min (b) 51 min Q.5 A 50 cm X 50 cm X 1 cm flat wet sheet

weighing 2 kg initially was dried from both
(c) 71 min (d) 94 min the sides under constant drying rate
period. It took 1000 sec for the weight of
[GATE-2002]
the sheet to reduce to 1.75 kg. Another 1m
Q.3 A solid is being dried in the linear X 1m X 1cm flat sheet is to be dried from
drying rate regime from moisture content one side only. Under the same drying rate
X0 to XF . The drying rate is zero at X = 0 and other conditions, time required for
and the critical moisture content is the drying (in sec) from initial weight of 4 kg to
same as the initial moisture, X0 The drying 3 kg is
time for M =(LS/LC) is
(A) M (X0 –XF) (B) M (X0 / XF) (A) 1000 (B) 1500
(C) M In (X0 /XF) (D) MX0 In (X0 /XF) (C) 2000 (D) 2500
[GATE-2003] [GATE-2007]
Q.6 The equilibrium moisture curve for a
solid is shown below:
The total moisture content of the solid is X (A) 0.033 (B) 0.43
and it is exposed to air of relative humidity (C) 0.6 (D) 2.31
H. In the table below, Group I lists the
types of moisture, and Group II represents Q.8 Consider the drying operation shown
the region in the graph above in the figure below for a solid loading (dry
Group I Group II
basis) of 50 kg/ m 2 with a constant drying
P. Equilibrium moisture 1 rate of 5 kg / m 2 .h The falling rate of drying
Q. Bound moisture 2 is linear with moisture content.
R. Unbound moisture 3
S. Free moisture 4
Which ONE of the following is the correct
match?
(A) P-1, Q-2, R-3, S-4

(B) P-1, Q-3, R-4, S-2
(C) P-1, Q-4, R-2, S-3 The drying time (in hrs) required to reduce
(D) P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3 an initial moisture content of 25 % to final
moisture content of 2% is
[GATE-2012]
Q.7 A batch of 120 kg wet solid has initial
moisture content of 0.2 kg water / kg dry (A) 1.55 (B) 1.75
solid. The exposed area for drying is 0.05 (C) 3.25 (D) 4.55
m2/kg dry solid. The rate of drying follows
the curve given below. The time required
(in hours) for drying this batch to a Q.9 A wet solid is dried over a long period
moisture content of 0.1 kg water/kg dry of time by unsaturated air of nonzero
solid is constant relative humidity. The moisture
content eventually attained by the solid is
[GATE-2011]
termed as the
(A) Unbound moisture content
(B) Bound moisture content
(C) Free moisture content
(D)Equilibrium moisture content
[GATE-2013]
Q.10 A wet solid of 100 kg is dried from a
moisture content of 40 wt% to 10 wt%. The
critical moisture content is 15wt% and the
equilibrium moisture content is negligible.
All moisture contents are on dry basis. The
falling rate is considered to be linear. It
takes 5 hours to dry the material in the
constant rate period. The duration (in
hours) of the falling rate period is _
[GATE-2014]
Q.11 A fiberboard sheet (1.5m x 2.0 m x 15
mm) is being dried by suspending it
horizontally in a current of hot, dry air. The
edges are insulated so that drying takes
place only from the top and bottom
surfaces. The wet sheet weighing 16kg with
initial moisture content of 60% loses
moisture at a constant rate of 1.25 x 10-5 kg
m-2 s-1 until the moisture content falls to
30%. All moisture contents are on dry
basis. The time required for drying during
constant rate period (in hour) is ______
(rounded off to third decimal place).
[GATE-2018]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
(C) (C) (D) (C) (C) (B) (D) (C) (D) (1.216) (7.111)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (C)
=t2
Ls ( x − xe )
(x c − x e ) In c
AR c ( xf − xe )
L s (x1 − x 2 )
NC = (0.15 − 0.05)
A r = 17.14 × (0.15 − 0.05) In
= drying rate at constant rate period (0.10 − 0.5)
200 (0.2 − x 2 ) 0.10
0.5 ×10−3 = × x 2 = 0.1 =
17.14 × 0.10 In ==
1.18 h 70.80 min
8 5000 0.05
Q.2 (C)
Q.3 (D)
=
x1 0.5 (50%) x c 0.15 (15%)
=
x e 0.05 (5%) x f 0.10 (10%)
At x = 0
∴R = mx
at x = x 0
Rc Rc
=
m = =c X c
QX
For constant rate period Xc Xc
∴R= mx
Ls R
=t [x1 − x e ) − (x c − x e )] R= c X
AR c X0
Ls
=t [0.5 − 0.05) − (0.15 − 0.05)]
AR c −Ls dx
Drying rate R =
A dt
Ls
=t × 0.35 t xf Ls dx
AR c ∫=
dt ∫
0 xo
−
A R
=
Ls 6
= 17.14
kg H 2O − Ls xf X0
AR c 0.35 kg solid
h t=
A ∫x0 RCx
dx
Now for, falling rate period
− Ls X 0  X F  0.25
t= In  
∴ (X 1
− X2 ) =
Ls
A R c  X0 
X  Ls 0.25 1
− Ls X 0 ∴ t= × =
t= In  0  1
0.50Rc Ls 2 Re
A Rc  Xf 
Case (II)
 X0  Ls
=
t MX 0 In   where M 4 − LS 3 − Ls
 Xf  AR c =x1 = , x2
Ls Ls
Q.4 (C) ∴ (x − x2 ) =
1
1
Ls
Equation for constant drying rate condition
A = 1 m ×1 m = 1 m2 ( one side only )
is
ws Ls 1 1
∴=t2 =
θc = (x1 -x c ) 1 × Rc Ls Rc
AR c
t2
Ws (2 − 1.05)  2 is dere as drying  ∴ =2 ∴ T2 =2 × 1000 =2000 sec
1500 =  is from both sides  t1
2 A, Rc Ws  
Hence (C) is the Correct answer.
Ws (19.2 − 17.6)
t=
A 2 Rc Ws
Q.6 (B)
By solving above two equations we get t =
The total moisture content of the solid is x
1000 sec and it is exposed to air of relative humidity
Hence (A) is the correct answer. H . In the table below, Group I lists the
types of moisture, and Group II represents
the region in the graph above
Q.5 (C)
(B) P – 1, Q – 3, R – 4, S – 2
We know that, time required for constant
rate period of drying,
Q.7 (D)
LS
t=
AR C
( X1 − X 2 ) . Falling rate Region
t = time of drying L ( 1 2) R X −X
t= s ln 1
a (R1 − R 2 ) R 2
LS = kg dry solid
RC = constant Rate of drying = t Time
= (h) LS kg dry solid
x1, x 2 ⇒ Initial and final moisture content in
kg water A = Exposed content area ( m 2 )

kg dry solid
X = Moisture content (kg water /kg dry
Case (I)
solid)
Ls = unknown A = 0.50 m2 both side
Wet solid = 120 kg
=X1
(=
L −L )
2
, X
1 (1.75 − Ls
Ls 2
Ls
Moisture content = 0.2 kg water / kg dry NC (X − X*)
Falling rate period, N = m (X − X * ) =
solid (X c − X*)
Dry solid = 120 kg wet solid

LS = 100 kg dry solid S dX
x2 A  Nc 
  (X − X * 0
m2 t f = − ∫  X c − X * 
=A 0.05 × 100kg
= dry 5m2
kg dry solid xc
s(X c − X*) X −X*
= In c
Kg water ANc X2 − X *
X1 .2 kg water / kg dry solid / R1 10.2
0=
m2h
X 2 = 0.1 R 2 = 0.6 0.15
tf =
20 × 0.15 In 1.216 hr
=
100 ( 0.2 − 0.1) 1.2 0.10
t0 = × ln 2.31 h
=
5 (1.2 − 06 ) 0.6
Hence (D) is the correct answer.
Q.11 (7.11)
Q.8 (C)
Initial moisture content is in constant
period region and final moisture content is
in falling rate region, use combined
equation for calculation of time required
for drying
Constant draying time = 1.5
Variable draying time = 1.753
Total draying time = 3.253
Q.9 (D)
Q.10 (1.216)
We have
Given X1 = 0.4
X 2 = 0.10
X c = 0.15
X *=0
Cons tant rate period
S s 5
5= (X1 − X C ) ⇒ = = 20
ANc ANC 0.25
7 EXTRACTION
7.2.2 TRIANGULAR COORDINATES AND

7.1 INTRODUCTION EQUILIBRIUM DATA
It is a process of transferring a solute from one Since we have three components, the equilibrium
liquid phase to another immiscible or partially data are often expressed in equilateral triangular
miscible liquid in contact with the first. The two coordinates. This is shown in the following figure.
phases are chemically quite different, which leads
to a separation of the components according to
their distribution or partition between the two
phases, normally one organic and one water.
The three corners represent three pure

components, A, B and C. The point M is a mixture.
7.2 EQUILIBRIUM RELATIONS IN The perpendicular distance from the point M to any
EXTRACTION base line is the mass fraction of the component at
the corner opposite to that base line. For example,
7.2.1 PHASE RULE the distance from M to base AB is the mass fraction
In a liquid-liquid system, the minimum number of of C (xC = 0.40).
components is three and we have two phases in
equilibrium. For a ternary system, the number of 7.3 TYPES OF SYSTEM IN EXTRACTION
degrees of freedom is three, as calculated by the 7.3.1 TYPE 1 (one pair is partially miscible)
phase rule (F = C – P + 2 = 3 – 2 + 2 = 3). We have
six variables: temperature, pressure, and four A common phase diagram is Type I system (80%
concentrations. If the pressure and temperature are mixture lie in this type) and shown in figure given
specified, then setting one concentration will fix the below, where a pair of components A and B are
system. The other three concentrations must be partially miscible, and liquid C dissolves completely
calculated from the phase equilibrium. in A or B. The two phase region is include inside
below the curved envelope. An original mixture of
composition M will separate into two conjugate
phases a and b which are on equilibrium tie line
through point M. other tie lines are also plotted.
The two phases are identical at point P, which is So, extraction is done at room temperature for type
called the Plait Point. Outside the envelope is one 1 system.
phase region.
TYPE 2:
Here, extraction is done at high temperature for

type 2 systems.
7.3.2 TYPE 2 (two pairs are partially

7.4 STAGES
miscible)
Two streams are brought in contact for sufficiently
long time for equilibrium mass transfer. And thus
the stage is known as ideal stage.
System of A + B + C has two pairs that are partially

miscible. A & C completely soluble, A &B partially
soluble, B & C partially soluble. Material balance’
7.3.3 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE F+B=M=E+R
As the temperature increases, solubility increases, F xF + B xB = M xM = E xE + R xR
one phase region increases and the equilibrium
region shrinks. Example 7.1 The compositions of the two
equilibrium layers are:
TYPE 1: for the extract layer (V), yA = 0.04, yB = 0.02,
yC = 0.94
for the raffinate layer (L), xA = 0.12, xB =
0.86, xC = 0.02
The original mixture contained 100 kg and
xAM = 0.10. Determine the amounts of V and
L.
Solution: overall material balance, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑚𝑚 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
V + L = M = 100 kg =
Component balance for A, 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 1) − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
0.04V + 0.12L = 0.1 x 100 (𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 1) − 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
V = 75 kg, L = 25 kg +1= 𝑚𝑚 + 1
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
(𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 1) 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
7.4.1 CROSS CURRENT STAGES = 𝑚𝑚 + 1
During the mathematical interpretation we assume For 1st stage,
that A and B are completely immiscible such that R
contains only A & C and E contains only B & C.
During separation, at each and every point the flow
rates of R and E changes, therefore the slope
changes. So, for the ease of understanding and
calculation, we work on solute free basis.
R Rs, E Es, x X, y Y
Material balance,
Rs Xo + Es Yo = Rs Xn + Es Yn (𝑋𝑋0) 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
= 𝑚𝑚 + 1
−𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋+𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Yn = 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 + � �
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 For 2nd stage,
n is the no. stages. (𝑋𝑋1) 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
= 𝑚𝑚 + 1
(𝑋𝑋0) 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
= [ 𝑚𝑚 + 1]𝑛𝑛
n is the no. of stages.

(𝑋𝑋0)
= 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
7.4.2 COUNTER-CURRENT FLOW
If composition of solvent changes at every stage,

then the lines will not start from Yo.
MULTISTAGE CROSS CURRENT FLOW:
Assumption,
Yo = 0, Y = m X, Es is constant
For nth stage,
Rs Xn-1 + Es Yo = Rs Xn + Es Yn
i) When single stage is used
ii) When 3 stages are used
Y = 3.75 X (solute free basis)
Solution:
i) C in feed = 1000 x .15 = 150 kg
C should be removed = C in Extract =
150 x .95 = 142.5 kg
C in Refinate = 150 – 142.5 = 7.5 kg
Xo = 150/850 = 3/17
Overall material balance,
Yo = 0
Rs (Xo – X3) = Es (Y1 – Yo) X1 = 7.5/850 = 1.5/170
Y1 = 142.5/Es
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑌𝑌1+𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
Y= 𝑋𝑋 +
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 Y1 = 3.75 X1
Xo, Y1 ; X1, Y2 ; X2, Y3 are the points for operating 142.5/Es = 3.75 x 1.5/170
line. Es = (142.5 x 170) / (3.75/1.5)
X1, Y1 ; X2, Y2 ; X3, Y3 are points for equilibrium Es = 4306.667 kg/hr

line.
(𝑋𝑋0) 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
KREMSER EQUATION: ii) =[ 𝑚𝑚 + 1]𝑛𝑛
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑚𝑚 3/17 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 × 3.75 3
ln � � ( )
𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 � 1 − 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴� = � + 1�
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 − 𝑚𝑚 1.5/170 850
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 =
1 Es = 388.6 kg/hr
ln �𝐴𝐴�
Np is the no. of stages,

A = Extraction Factor
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅/𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
= =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑚𝑚
Example 7.2 an extraction process is going

on to separate a feed mix (A+C) in which C
= 15% wt/wt and total feed flow rate is 1000
kg/hr. For extraction we are using solvent
B (no C). Find the flow rate of solvent
required for the process such that C is
removed by 95%.
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 .In a single stage extraction process,
10kg of pure solvent S (containing no solvents. The extraction process attains
solute A) is mixed with 30kg of feed F equilibrium. The equilibrium relationship
containing A at a mass fraction X F = 0.2 . between the two phases is Y * = 0.9 X
where Y* is kg of C / kg of B and X is kg of C
The mixture splits into an extract phase E
/ kg of A. Choose the correct answer
and raffinate phase R, containing A at XF
=0.05 and XR = 0.05 respectively. The total [GATE –2004]
mass of the extract phase is (in kg). (A) The entire amount of C is transferred
[GATE –2001]
to solvent
(A) 6.89 (B) 8.89
(B) Less than 2 kg but more than 1 kg of C
(C) 10 (D) 8.25
is transferred to solvent B
(C) Less than 1 kg of C is transferred to
Q.2 Compound A is extracted from a solvent B
solution of A + B into a pure solvent S. A
(D) No amount of C is transferred to B.
co-current unit is used for the liquid-liquid
extraction. The inlet rate of the solution
containing A is 200 moles of B/hr m2 and
Q.4 An ideal single stage extraction process
the solvent flow rate is 400 moles of S/hr
is used to treat 100 mol/s of an organic
m2 . The equilibrium data is represented
feed solution. The solute concentration in
by Y = 3x2 where Y is in moles of A/moles
this solution is to be reduced from 0.5
if B and X is in moles of A/moles of S. The
mol% to 0.1 mol%. A pure solvent S is
maximum percentage extraction achieved
used. To reduce the solvent requirement
in the unit is
by half for the same separation,
[GATE –2003]
[GATE –2006]
(A) 25% (B) 50%
(A) Add one more ideal co-current stage
(C) 70% (D) 90%
(B) Use another pure solvent S* whose
partition coefficient is twice that of S
Q.3 In liquid-liquid extraction 10 kg of a (C) Use solvent S containing 0.02 mole

solution containing 2 kg of solute C and 8 fraction of the solute,
kg of solvent A is brought into contact with
(D) Double the residence time of the
10 kg of solvent B. Solvents A and B are
completely immiscible in each other solvent S in the contactor
whereas solute C is soluble in both the
Q.5 It is desired to reduce the expressed on a mole ratio basis. The extract
concentration of pyridine in 500 kg of leaving the contactor is divided into two
aqueous solution from 20 weight percent equal parts, one part collected as the product
to 5 wt percent in a single batch extraction (P) and the other stream is recycled to join
using chloro- benzene as solvent.
Equilibrium compositions (end points of the solvent. The equilibrium relationship is
the tie line) in terms of weight percent of Y* = 2X. The product flow rate (Ps) and
pyridine-water-chloro-benzene are (5, 95, composition (Yout) are
0) and (11, 0, 89). The amount of pure [GATE –2008]
solvent required in kg for the operation is
[GATE –2007]
(A) 607 (B) 639
(C) 931 (D) 1501
Q.6 For a system containing species P, Q

and R, composition at point k on the
ternary plot is
(A) PS = 50 mol/s, Yout = 0.3
[GATE –2008] (B) PS = 100 mol/s, Yout = 0.2
P
0 100 (C) PS = 200 mol/s, Yout = 0.1
k
(D) PS = 100 mol/s, Yout = 0.4
50 50
Q.8 A crosscurrent cascade of N ideal

100 0 stages is used to treat a feed stream of
Q 0 50 100 R
molar flow rate E. The feed stream
(A) 62.5% P, 12.5% Q, 25% R
contains a solute which is to be recovered
(B) 25% P, 62.5% Q, 12.5% R
by a pure solvent having a molar flow rate
(C) 12.5% P, 62.5% Q, 25% R
S. The solvent is divided equally between
(D) 12.5% P, 25% Q, 62.5% R
these N stages. The linear equilibrium
curve relating the mole fractions x and y* of
Q.7 A feed (F) containing a solute is
contacted with a solvent (S) in an ideal stage the solute in the raffinate and the extract
as shown in the diagram below. Only the respectively, is given by y* = mx. Assume
solute transfers into the solvent. The flow dilute conditions. The ratio of the solute
rates of all the streams are shown on a solute
free basis and indicated by the subscript mole fraction in the original feed to that in
S. The compositions of the streams are
the exit raffinate stream i.e. (xO/xN) is given (A) T (B) U
by (C) V (D) W
[GATE –2013]
N N
  mS     NS   Q.10 Solute C is extracted in a batch
(A) 1 +   (B) 1 +  
  NE     mE   process from its homogenous solution of A
N N
and C, using solvent B. The combined
  NE     mE  
(C) 1 +   (D) 1 +  
composition of the feed and the extracting
  mS     NS   solvent is shown in the figure below as
point M, along with the tie line passing
through it. The ends of the tie line are on
Q.9 A multi-stage, counter-current liquid- the equilibrium curve.
liquid extractor is used to separate solute C [GATE –2016]
from a binary mixture (F) of A and C using
solvent B. Pure Solvent B is recovered from
the raffinate R by distillation, as shown in
the schematic diagram below:
What is the selectivity for C?

Locations of different mixtures for this
process are indicated on the triangular
diagram below. P is the solvent-free (A) 3.5 (B) 7
raffinate, E is the extract, F is the feed and ∆ (C) 10.5 (D) 21
is the difference point from which the mass
balance lines originate. The line PB
interects the binodal curve at U and T. The Q.11 Which of the following condition are
lines P∆ and FB intersect the bimodal at V valid at the plait point?
and W respectively.
[GATE –2015] (P) Density difference between the extract
and raffinate phases is zero
(Q) Interfacial tension between the extract

and raffinate phases is zero
(R) Composition difference between the

extract and raffinate phase is zero
[GATE –2017]
The raffinate coming out of extractor is

represented in the diagram by the point:
(a) P and Q only
(b) Q and R only
(c) P and R only
(d) P, Q and R
Q.12 It is decided to extract A from a feed

containing 20 mol % A and 80 mol% B in
two ideal cross current stages as shown
below using equal amount of pure solvent C
in each stage.
[GATE –2018]
Components B and C are immiscible. 60%

of A in the feed is extracted in Stage 1 . The
equilibrium relation is given by Y* = 1.5 X
where. X = moles of A per mole of B in
raffinate
Y* = moles of A per mole of C in extract in
equilibrium with raffinate. The mol % of A
in raffinate from Stage 2 is ______ ( rounded
off to second decimal place ).
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(B) (B) (B) (B) (B) (A) (B) (C) (A) (C) (B) (C)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (B) For maximum extraction =

y−y y0 − y0 / 2
×=
100 ×=
100 50%
y0 y0
Q.3 (B)
Overall balance ; We have
F+S=E+R
E + R = 40 + 30 = 40 KG
Balance for A;
FXF + S Xs = EXE + RXR
30 × 0.2 + S × 0 (E × +R × 0.05
6 = E × 0.5 + (40 – E) × 0.05 MsolventB = 10 kg
E = 8.89 kg Msolute = 2 kg
Msovent A = 8 kg
Q.2 (B) 2 kg of C
∴ x solute i= = 0.25
8 kg of A
∴ Msolvent A(X solute i=

− X solute 0 ) Msolvent B ( γ solute1 − γ solute0 )
putting values, we get
8(0.25-X solute ) = 10(0.9xsolute0 )
X0 = 0 (pure solvent) material balance kg of C

x solute0 = 0.118
kg of A
SX 0 + By 0 = X S + y B Q X0 = 0 Solute remaining = X solute0 × Msolvent A

=
200 y 0 400x + 200 y
= 0.118×=0.941 kg
y0 − y = 2 - 0.941= 1.05 kg
x=
2
For maximum extraction y = 2x Q.4 (B)
(y 0 − y) y
y 2= y 0
2 2
Q.5 (B) Q.8 (C)
Water in feed = 500 x (1 – 0.2) = 400 kg. The ratio of the solute mole fraction in the
Water present in raffinate is 90 % original feed to that in the exit raffinate
stream i.e. (xO/xN) is given by
400
Amount of Raffinate
= kg.
= 412   mS  
N
0.95 1 +  
  NE  
Applying mass balance
Hence Correct answer is (A)
F+ x = E+ R
Also FXF + Xδ=
f
ExE + R X
R
Q.9 (B)
∴ 500 × .2 + 0 = E × 0.11 + 421 × 05
Mixing rule says if A + B = C then
∴ E = 718
In the given diagram R = P + B therefore R
∴ 500 + X = 718 + 421
is represented by the point
=
⇒ X 0.1139 - 500
= 639 kg
Hence, amount of pure solvent is 639 kg

Q.10 (C)
Hence (B) is the Correct answer.
Selectivity is given by
Yc/Ya 0.3/0.1
βC/A = = = 10.5
Q.6 (A) Xc/Xa 0.2/0.7
Q.7 (B)
F = 100 Q.11 (D)
X in = 0.3 RS X OUT
Plait point signifies the condition at which
SS = 100 the composition of two liquid phases in
P Y
Yin = 0.0 S; out equilibrium become identical and indeed
transforms to a single phase. At this point
interfacial tension and density difference
between extract and raffinate phase is zero
as both phase united to form one phase.
Y = 2X
∴ F+SS = RS + PS = 200
Q.12 (3.846)
⇒ R=
S
P=
S
100
Also, 03 × 100+0 = x100+y100
⇒ 30 = 300x
⇒ X = .1
∴ Y = 0.2
8 LEACHING
8.1 INTRODUCTION
It is a process of separation of soluble constituent of
a solid material using suitable solvent.
Material balance,
F+S=M A proper mixing is done in the whole process using
M=O+U different contacting pattern.
FxF + SxS = MxM

MxM = OxO + UxU 8.4 SUPER CRITICAL FLUID EXTRACTION
8.2 FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF

LEACHING
1. Type of solvent.
2. For the porous or powdered form, the rate is
generally high.
3. Rate of leaching increases with the increase
in agitation.
4. As the temperature increases, solubility
increases, viscosity decreases and thus the
rate of leaching increases.
8.3 CONTACTING PATTERN
There the stream is recirculated again and again till
the required exit stream is achieved. The solvent
The fluid is called super critical if both temperature
amount required is very high.
and pressure are above critical values. At
supercritical state a fluid remains as a highly
condensed phase and may have a density more than
its density in the liquid state.
Critical point is a point of a material above which
distinction between liquid and gas becomes
impossible.
Super critical fluid shares the properties of both gas
and liquid. Its viscosity is a little smaller than the
normal liquid viscosity and the diffusivity of solute
in the super critical fluid becomes than the normal
solvent.
9 ADSORPTION
9.1 INTRODUCTION Physical Chemical

Adsorption Adsoprtion
Adsorption is a process that occurs when a gas or Adsorbate is held by Adsorbate is held on
liquid solute accumulates on the surface of a solid the surface by weak the surface by chemical
or a liquid (adsorbent), forming a molecular or van-der-waal forces. bondind.
atomic film (the adsorbate). It is different from
absorption, in which a substance diffuses into a It is a physical process. It features a chemical
liquid or solid to form a solution. The term sorption process.
encompasses both processes, while desorption is
the reverse process. The enthalpy of The enthalpy of
adsorption is of the adsorption is of the
Adsorption is operative in most natural physical, order 20kJ/mol. order 200kJ/mol.
biological, and chemical systems, and is widely used
in industrial applications such as activated Usually takes place at Usually takes place at
charcoal, synthetic resins and water purification. low temperature. relatively high
temperature.
Similar to surface tension, adsorption is a
consequence of surface energy. In a bulk material, It is not specific, all the Highly specific in
all the bonding requirements (be they ionic, gases are adsorbed to nature.
covalent or metallic) of the constituent atoms of the the same extent on all
material are filled. But atoms on the (clean) surface the solid.
experience a bond deficiency, because they are not
wholly surrounded by other atoms. Thus it is Multi-molecular layer Single layer is formed
energetically favorable for them to bond with may form
whatever happens to be available. The exact nature
of the bonding depends on the details of the species
involved, but the adsorbed material is generally
classified as exhibiting physic-sorption or 9.3 ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS
chemisorption.
9.3.1 LANGMUIR ISOTHERM
9.2 TYPES OF ADSORPTION
It is an empirical isotherm derived from a proposed
kinetic mechanism. It is based on four hypotheses:
1. The surface of the adsorbent is uniform, that is,
all the adsorption sites are equal.
2. Adsorbed molecules do not interact.
3. All adsorption occurs through the same
mechanism.
4. At the maximum adsorption, only a monolayer is
formed: molecules of adsorbate do not deposit on
other, already adsorbed, molecules of adsorbate,
only on the free surface of the adsorbent.
For liquids (adsorbate) adsorbed on solids
(adsorbent), the Langmu
ir isotherm can be expressed by
Where, m is the substance amount of adsorbate

adsorbed per gram (or kg) of the adsorbent, the unit
of m is mol.g-1, resp. mol.kg-1. Amax is the maximal
substance amount of adsorbate per gram (or kg) of
the adsorbent. The unit of Amax is mol.g-1,
respectively. k is the adsorption constant (mol-
1.dm3); c (mol.dm-3) is the concentration of
adsorbate in liquid. In practice, activated carbon is
used as an adsorbent for the adsorption of mainly
organic compounds along with some larger
molecular weight inorganic compounds such as
iodine and mercury.
9.3.2 FREUNDLICH ISOTHERM
The data for physical adsorption can be expressed

by an empirical equation. The Freundlich equation
is an empirical relation that fits equilibrium
adsorption data in many cases.
The Freundlich adsorption isotherm is represented

by the equation:
c* = k (x/m)n
For liquids c* is the equilibrium concentration of

the adsorbate in the fluid phase and x/m is the mass
of the substance adsorbed per unit mass of the
adsorbent. For gases c* can be replaced by the p*
which is the equilibrium partial pressure of the
adsorbed gas in the fluid phase.
GATE QUESTIONS
Q.1 Adsorption on activated carbon is to be

used for reducing phenol concentration in Q.4 In a batch adsorption process, 5 g of fresh
wastewater from 0.04 mol / l to 0.008 mol / adsorbent is used to treat I litre of an aqueous
l. The adsorption isotherm at the operating phenol solution. The intial phenol
temperature can be expressed as q = 0.025 concentration is 100 mg/litre. The
C1/3; where q is the phenol concentration in equilibrium relation is given by q* = 1.3C
solid (mol / g solid) and C is the phenol Where, q* is the amount of phenol adsorbed
concentration in water (mol / l). The in mg of phenol per gram of adsorbent: and C
minimum amount of solid (in grams) the concentration of phenol in mg/litre in the
required per liter of wastewater (up to one aqueous solution. When equilibrium is
decimal place) is _____ attained between the adsorbent and the
[GATE-2015] solution, the concentration of phenol in the
solution, rounded to 1 decimal place is
______mg/litre
Q.2 At 30oC, the amounts of acetone adsorbed
at partial pressures of 10 and 100 mmHg are [GATE-2017]
0.1 and 0.4 kg acetone/kg activated carbon,
respectively. Assume Langmuir isotherm
describes the adsorption of acetone on
activated carbon. What is the amount of
acetone adsorbed (in kg per kg of activated
carbon) at a partial pressure of 50 mmHg and
30oC?
[GATE-2016]
(A) 0.23 (B) 0.25
(C) 0.30 (D) 0.35
Q.3 For a solid catalyzed gas phase reversible

reaction, which of the following statements is
always true?
(a) Adsorption is rate limiting
(b) Desorption is rate limiting
(c) Solid catalyst does not affect equilibrium
conversion
(d) Temperature does not affect equilibrium
conversion
[GATE-2017]
ANSWER KEY:
1 2 3 4
(6.4) (c) (c) (13.34)
EXPLANATIONS
Q.1 (6.4) Q.3 (C)

By using the curve q = 0.025 C1/3
Solid catalyst does not affect the
Minimum amount of solid (10 gm) required
equilibrium conversion
per litre of waste water water can be
calculated. Q.4 (13.34)
Suppose y mg of phenol is adsorbed

Q.2 (C)
Amount of phenol adsorbed in mg y
According to =
Langmuir adsorption q* =
wt. fresh adsorbent 5
isotherm, q * = 1.3C
K A PA C 100 − y
=
θA = y
1 + K A PA = 1.3 (100 − y)
5
q 0.15384=
y 100 − y
where, θA =
qm y = 86.66 mg
Amount of 'A' adsorbed
kg of Adsorbent
θA =
max imum amount of 'A ' that can beadsorbed Concentration of phenol in solution = 100-
kg of Adsorbent 86.66=13.34 mg/it
q K APA
⇒ =
qm 1 + K A
for case I at PA = 10 mm Hg and q = 0.1

0.1 K A ×10
= (1)
qm 1 + K A × 10
For case II PA 100 mm Hg ⇒ Q = 0.4
O.4 K A × 100
= (2)
qm 1 + K A × 100
On solving we get K A & qm
So for PA = 50 mn Hg
0.3 kg Adsorbed
therefore, q=
kg of Adsorbed

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MASS TRANSFER

ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS

8.1 Introduction 111

9.1 Introduction 113

direction of diffusion in unit time. 𝜌𝜌

Therefore equation (1.10) becomes,

Temperature dependency is according to 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋

𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 −𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1

single space coordinate will be considered.

When the difference between Concentration

dX Therefore, for an ideal gas mixture equation.

diffusion may be obtained from, Therefore,

(Since𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 is constant over the diffusion path) 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Solution: The mass flux 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is given by

The mass flux 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 of the diffusing component A at

𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 =𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 −𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ) ……… (2)

From the equations (1) and (2), we get

𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴 Here NB=0 (since air is assumed to be stagnant)

Where, A= Surface area of sphere at r and r + dr

Integrating, From Equation (1.21),

4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 = constant = W CDAB 𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1) The diffusional rate should be very small.

𝜌𝜌 𝜌𝜌 𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵2 −𝑋𝑋𝐵𝐵1 (1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴2 )−(1−𝑋𝑋𝐴𝐴1 )

Example 1.5 Calculate the rate of diffusion of (1 − 0.01) − (1 − 0.026)

When mean free path is greater than pore

It follows Knudsen law i.e.

2.1 INTRODUCTION 𝐷𝐷𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

Analogy of Prandlt number in mass transfer is

Solving these equations, number.

2.4 ANALYSIS AMONG MASS, HEAT 𝑓𝑓 ℎ 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐

Diffusion in one dimension is described by the Here, h is heat transfer coefficient

𝐿𝐿 concentration of naphthalene in air. If air

2.5.3 SINGLE CYLINDER 𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐 𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎

2.5.4 FLOW THROUGH PIPES 𝑆𝑆ℎ = 0.62𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿0.5 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿0.33

For water, ρ=1g/cc, µ =0.01 gm/cm.sec

From Equation (3),

𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 8.973*10−4 cm/sec 2.6.1 DETERMINATION OF INTERFACIAL

= 2.692 ∗ 10−6 g/cm2.sec

From Equation (1),

= 2.692 ∗ 10−6 ∗ (2π ∗ 1.52 )

2.6 MASS TRANSFER BETWEEN PHASES:

In mass transfer from one phase to another phase,

𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴

It is given by DANKWERT in 1951, the

Q.2The Reynolds analogy for momentum

(b) Sherwood number

Common Data Question 11-12 (C) Xc < Xs (D) Xc is greater/less

Q.17 The following figure depicts steady

(A) Dissolves faster in air than in water

Group I Group II Q.18 A rectangular slab of thickness 2b along

(C) V exp ( −0.99 ) =

(D) V exp ( 0.01) = t

Q.20 According to the penetration theory of

(C) D1/2 (D) D3/2

Q.25 A study was conducted in which water

0.4. The mole fraction of A in the liquid at the

distance of 10 mm are 10 kPa and 5 kPa.

Q.33 Consider steady state mass transfer of

implies that mass transfer resistance is

(a) Negligible in the gas phase only

Q.34 The sherwood number (ShL)

Where ReL and Sc represent Reynolds

Q.1. (C) µ