CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Children arrive at birth as packaged gifts with great but latent potentials. Training
(especially formal education) nurtures, prepares and matures them to unleash these
to humanity in service and live a fulfilled life; Education at basic and post primary
school is a fundamental right of every child as it unveils their great potentials, an
essential for the exercise of all other human rights. It promotes individual freedom,
empowerment and yields important development benefits. Education inculcates in
the individual, knowledge, skills, character and desirable values that will foster
national development and self-actualization (Asiegbu, Okorji & Bosah, 2014).
According to Agbakwuru (2002) education equips one with marketable skills
thereby lifting the possessor up from the poverty arena. Essentially Uzoma, (2013)
mentioned that through education, the individual learns good health habits,
principles and practices which promote healthy living and longevity as well as
acquire marketable skills that confer economic power on the educated. {UNESCO}
2017).

Decades ago, most African women received some sort of informal

education, but formal education, has been reserved for men who occupy the more
important and elite roles in government and society (Eliza, 2010). Women without
formal education are denied the opportunity to develop their full potential and to
play a productive and equal role in their families, their societies, their country and
their world at large (Ahmad & Najeemah, 2013).

Education of the girl child has been show to contribute immensely to the
development of the family, the societies and the nation. Psacharopoulos and

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Patrinos, (2004) reported that child girl education contributes to the various aspects
of their lives such as increased productivity, family health and nutrition, reduced
fertility rates and related child mortality rates. Child girl education empower the
girl child to become self -sufficient adult capable of taking decision and controlling
her life. Jatau in Esomonu (1999) believes that the burden of nation building rests
much on women. She goes on “we need women to create a blissful home, have
well-educated and well-behaved children

The important of child girl education cannot be over emphasized. It is a global

human right concern demanding legislation across the nations of the world as child
girls are discriminated against. They are victims of various traditional and cultural
practices, they suffer degradation, they are objects of poverty, their faces are only
to be seen but their voices not to be heard, they are seen as being sub-servient to
their male counterparts; they are the inferior set, their place is in the kitchen
(Ahmad & Najeemah, 2013).

It is a veritable tool utilized by economically and socially marginalized adults and

children in achieving freedom from poverty and participate fully as citizens
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, The
developmental psychologist emphasizes in all aspect of child development process
laying particular emphasis on factors, which affect these developmental trends
.The global figure for out of school children by United Nation Children Education
Fund (UNICEF, 2000) report to 121 million children are out of school, 65 million
girls and 80 percent from Sub Sahara Africa. Many girls send out of school in to
the street to ‘hawk’ goods or other form of economic activities to supplement the
family income. Despite the United Nation Children Education Fund (UNICEF) and
Girl Education Project (GEP) and Nigeria Enhancing Girl Basic Education in

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Nigeria (ACTIONAID) to minimize child abuse of hawking and to teach these
girls’ basic literacy and skills that will help them to earn a living.

In order to understand the lives of children who live and work on the street, we
need to find out about the lives and roles of children in any culture. There are
certain African realities that affect children on the continent whatever their cultural
context, geographical situation or socio- economic status. In the first place,
children and young people from more than half the population of most African
countries, has implications for the distribution of resources and for policy. Closely
related to this demographic factor are the observations that significant deficits exist
in the schooling systems of most countries and that there is a general lack of
provision of child care for working mothers in urban settings, both of which are
likely to be significant contributory causes of streetism.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The girl child education in Kastina state came in to being when the federal
government of Nigeria in collaboration with United Nation Children Education
Fund (UNICEF) saw the need to minimize child abuse of hawking. Parents do not
care much about educating their girl child, many of them believe that she will be
some body’s property very soon, while others camouflage with religion. They do
not realize that every religion includes Islam and Christianity encouraged women
participation in education.

Girl child is usually saddled to domestic work and majority of them are withdrawn
from schools to the labour market to fend for the whole family through hawking or
petty trading (Nigeria Tribune, September 3, 2002). For this reason gender gap in
education must be closed, especially by creating socio-economic and political
conditions that will permit and encourage gild child to be in schools.

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Despite many gains recorded with regards to overall level of education worldwide
and more children than ever are now attending primary school (King, 2013), there
is still not world- wide gender parity in education. Girl child access to formal
education has continued to be low in developing part of the world especially in Sub
—Sahara Africa. Globally, two thirds of all those who have no access to education
are girls and women. Sixty- five million girls and women never even started
school, and an estimated 100 million do not complete primary education, often
because the quality is poor and their opportunities are far from equal to those of
boys (Iwalaiye, Abah, Johnson & Giwa & Ali, 2016). In a recent by World
Development (2012) there exist sizeable gender gaps for poor women and women
in poor places. The report revealed that in education where gaps have narrowed in
most countries, girls’ enrollment in primary and secondary schools in sub-Saharan
African countries and some parts of south Asia have not improved much (Anah,
2013). In Nigeria, particularly, the north parts of the country, access to basic
education among the child girl have remained low. As only 20 per cent of women
in the North West and North East of the country are literate and have attended
school (Unicef, 2007). Considering the vital role played by women in the society
and the nation, it is therefore paramount to review the challenging factors
militating against girl child education in Nigeria.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Although, female child hawking, cannot contribute to the economic growth and
development, however, the risks that are attached supersede the economic positive
aspect of it. Risks like motor accident, rape, kidnapping, extortion, sexual
molestation and the child involvement in robbery and other anti-social behaviours
are too great to ignore.

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Females girls hawking exposes the child to a lot of hazards like sexual defilement,
sexual assaults, neglects and threat of punishment for speaking out as exemplified
above. The consequences of these acts usually result in an unwanted pregnancy,
sexually transmitted diseases, psychological problems and a gradual withdrawal
from a healthy relationship with the opposite gender (UNICEF, 2000). Oloko
(1989) noted that street hawking exposes the male and female child to dangers
posed by fraudsters and actual murderers because of their vulnerability at odd
hawking hours. They are usually under personal jeopardy, harsh and hazardous
conditions such as becoming an easy target to occult predators (ritual killers).

Although, various efforts were made by federal government and non-governmental

organizations to stem the trend, such as the creation of children’s games village,
the passage of the Child’s Rights Bill in 2005 by the National Assembly and the
subsequent passage by some states, not much has been achieved as the trend
continues.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Although, the general objective of this study is to assess the effect of street
hawking on female child education a case study of Batagara local government,
Kastina State, Nigeria, the under listed were the specific objectives of our study:

i. To assess the implication of female child hawking.

ii. To identify measures that can be taken to curb the bad effects of female
child hawking towards the influence to the society.
iii. To investigate whether there is any difference in the impacts between street
hawking and female child education?
iv. To investigate the remote and immediate causes of female child hawking
and how its can be solved.

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1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The followings were the interrogative statements we posed from the objectives of
our study. They were research questions that this study answered (George, 2007)

i. What are the implications of female child hawking?

ii. What are the measures that can be taken to curb the bad effects of female
child hawking towards the influence to the society.
iii. Is there any difference in the impact between street hawking and female
child education?
iv. What were the remote and immediate causes of female child hawking and
how its can be solved?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

It was equally put forward some intelligent guesses, conjectural propositions or

assumptions known as hypotheses (George, 2007). The followings were the
hypotheses tested in this research work:

H0: there is no significance relationship between street hawking and female child
education.

H1: there is significance relationship between street hawking and female child
education.

H0: There is a no significant relationship between parent’s (s) or guardian’s level

of education and street hawking among female child educations.

H1: There is a significant relationship between parent’s (s) or guardian’s level of

education and street hawking among female child educations.

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H0: There is no significant relationship between parents‟ (s)or guardians‟
occupational level and street hawking among children

H1: There is a significant relationship between parents‟ (s)or guardians‟

occupational level and street hawking among children

H0: There is no significant relationship between family size and street hawking
among children.

H1: There is a significant relationship between family size and street hawking
among children.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The findings from this study will be useful for stakeholders as they develop
policies and programmes to address the challenge of street hawking among
adolescent school girls. It is also hoped that the findings of this study will provide
meaningful information as to the stoppage of the act in Kastina State in particular
and Nigeria as a whole.

This study is meant to investigate into one of the causes of children inability to
complete their formal education in urban areas.

The main aim of formal education is to prepare children for the future and to get
ready for important responsibilities. This is in line with two out of the five main
objective of the Nigerian would develop citizens who are responsible, bright,
united, strong and self- reliant.

It is a crystal clear that children street hawking is a distraction and an exposure of

children to bad habit and more danger.

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From this study parents would learn importance of formal education and so give it
its right position while drawing the scale of preference for their children.

Similarly, parents would then set goals for their children and motivate children in
their academic work so that the children would put formal education which gives
self esteem, respect, prestige and good personality before money making venture.

From this research, children could learn to improve on the ideas they have about
themselves as this could be a motivating factor for writing formal education. It
would also bring their knowledge that divided loyalty might be an hindrance to
better performance in school.

Divided loyalty in the sense that as a street hawker one runs after formal education
partially; the student would also realize that school education prepares people to
get the appropriate key to the doors of wealth.

In summary, finally, this research will serve as guide to parents, teachers and even
policy makers on now bets to develop children positively in order for them to
become more useful in the society

1.7 SCOPE OF OUR STUDY

Child hawking is a general social problem in Nigeria. It cuts across many

states in Nigeria. However, this study covered only Kastina State. Under
Kastina State, only Batagara local government Area was covered and few
respondents were selected. Moreover, our study only covered street hawking
as a sub set of female child education.

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1.8 LIMITATION OF OUR STUDY

Our study was limited by time. Fund was another limitating problem. The
study was self sponsored by the researcher. Moreover, other educational
resources and materials also posed limitation to the study.

1.9 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

This work was justifiable because of the significant importance that will be
derived. The work is expected to provide further information on the subject
matter relating to socio-economic factors promoting female child hawking
among the residents of Batagara. The work identified those socio-economic
determinant factors. The study is expected to enable government, non-
government organizations and related stake-holders to formulate policies on
how to abolish street hawking. The work will serve as an instrument of
enlightenment to parents about the need to protect the future of their children
of all genders. The study will add to the existing knowledge in the fields of
academics and increase the volume of literature on the child education in
Nigeria.

1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS

In order to make the study clearer and to avoid confusion, the following
term used is defined;

FEMALE: female is the sex of an organism that produces non-monile ova (egg
cells), which is the gamete that fuses with the male gamete during sexual
reproduction.

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COHORT: these refers to a group of pupils who were admitted at the beginning of
the school year and completed the programme in the same school

DROPOUT: in line, so cannot continue or fall out of school. A student or pupil

who terminates or stops school education before completing its full course of study

HAWKING: carrying of wares or goods about for sale

PHOBIA: having excessive fear, some object or a particular situation in the

absence of real danger

EDUCATION: the all round training and development given to a person or a

process by which any society passes on its culture (social, ethnic, intellectual e.t.c)
to the young ones

SOCIALIZATION: a process where the comes to behave in manner demand

appropriate by the society in which the person lives

UNDERACHIEVEMENT: the inability of a child to perform up to the child

measures aptitude for academic excellence

ATTRITION: a process of making somebody especially your enemy to do roles

CHILD: Child in this study means any person less than eighteen years of age

TRAFFICKING: The recruitment, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of a child for

the purpose of exploitation.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will provide the review of relevant literature related to the theme
under investigation. Hence, the review would conceptually and empirically focus
on these themes, assess the effect of street hawking on female child education a
case study of Batagara Local Government.

2.2 HISTORICAL BACKLGROUND OF THE STUDY

Even though most of the street hawkers live within the realm of the third world
nations, developed countries have their portion of street hawkers. Currently, the
estimated global population of street hawkers from the International Labour
Organisation (2013); Embalch (2013); Ali, Shahab, Ushijima, de Muynck, (2004);
Ensign & Gittelsohn (1998); Forster, Tannhauser, & Barros, (1996); Scanlon,
Tomkins, & Lynch, (1998); & Whyte, (1992) stood at one hundred and fifteen
million: Fifteen million in the United States, Europe, Australia, and Canada,
twenty million in Latin America, fourty million in Asia, and the remaining fourty
million in Africa number rising daily. Some social critics perceived the practice
differently. In most industrialized nations, the majority of street hawkers left home
to the street to escape physical battery often due to broken families, sexual abuse or
neglect. For some, being on the street may not be unconnected with the desire for
freedom, but also because of socio-economic problems (Ali et al., 2004). In Latin
America, the majority of street hawkers in some part of Brazil and Colombia
distinguished themselves as ‘‘workers’’ (Noto, Nappo, Gald uróz, Mattei, &
Carlini, 1997). In some southeast Asian countries, studies from India, Bangladesh,

11
Afghanistan, Los, and Cambodia by Hosen, Khandoker & Islam, (2010); Tiwari,
Gulati, Sethi, & Mehra, (2002); Lalor (1999); Scanlon et al. (1998); have indicated
that the reasons for children’s hawking is due to their desire for economic
independence. Research from India in particular, reports physical abuse at home as
a major cause for home leaving (Ali, et al 2004).

Globally, street hawkers are both victims of extreme socio-economic stress. Recent
report UNICEF (2014); UNDP, (2013); Ali et al (2004); & Aderinto (2000) widely
acknowledged their vulnerability to societal vices. A report from Brazil Noto et al
(1997) acknowledged suicide attempts by street hawkers due to their persistent
infuriating living conditions. Accounts from Ethiopia for instance, discovered older
boys to have frequently mugged girl hawkers of their income (Lalor, 1999).
According to the contributory classic of starvation UNICEF (2014) caring ability
plays a central role in the dietetic status of most street hawkers. In Kenya, Ayaya &
Esamai (2001) Pakistan, and India Ali et al (2004) also found malnourishment to
be rampant among street children. However, report from South Africa suggests that
street boys were found to be comparatively more underfed than girl hawkers
(Nzimakwe & Brookes, 1994). In the Philippines both females and males have
been found to be seriously malnourished and under-height due to lack of proper
diet and hygiene. In additional report, half of the sampled Canadian street hawkers
experienced food deprivation or hunger (Antoniades & Tarasuk, 1998). In contrast,
studies in Indonesia have found the nutrition status and health of street hawkers to
be much better than their socio-economic peers (Ali, et al., 2004). However, this
may not be unconnected with the various types of diets they must have been testing
while on their own n the street. Almost eighty five percent of street hawkers cited
poverty as the leading factor in their presence on the street; this included those
whose fathers were not working. Most of such hawkers hawked to supplement the

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family income for sustainability. The majority of the street hawkers had never been
to school, and about two-thirds of them were also uneducated. In most of the
African countries, studies from Nigeria, Ethiopia, Ghana, and South Africa have
shown that street hawkers range in age from 9 to 12 years (Umar, 2012; Estacio &
Marks, 2005; Aderinto 2000; Lalor, 1999). In Ghana for example, most of the
street hawkers had no ties with their parents. They often subjected to poverty, and
neglect. Specifically, poverty has been found to be a typical prerequisite of a
child’s early entry into the informal employment sector. However, the Ghanaian
scenario is totally different from what is found in Nigeria generally. The street
hawkers in this part of the country maintained regular ties or links with their
families. It is an established fact that, although they spent quiet a longer time on
the street, but their focus is home which they returned at the end of the daily sales
(Umar, 2012). In other words, majority of street children are on the street but they
have regular ties with their parents as they live with them. Most researchers have
argued that street hawking in Nigeria is seen as a projection of poverty (Usman,
2010). However, in Kastina state specifically, the motives for street hawking are
much more than that. Street hawking may also, not be unconnected with the
inadequacies and limitations of weak social policies on youth welfare system and
educational development. It is a “trend that has taken a toll f or the worse” and
thus, the ineffectiveness of such social policies have increased the proliferation of
street hawkers especially the girl-child in Kastina state. This and other similar
negative values have taken the place of positive values needed for development
human civilization in the society. Specifically, the girl-child dominated the ‘trade’
due to lack of equal op portunities in Kastina state. Most of these hawkers are
between the ages of seven to fourteen years, with very few of them falling above
fifteen years. The hawking scenario could be overwhelming to a stranger, but the
people including the researcher team have generally accepted it as part of their

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‘socio-economic’ culture (Ali et al., 2004). Therefore, the factors that enhanced the
emergence of such negative value in Kastina state need to be properly explained as
the basis of negativity in the value system.

2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This is the concept that’s talk about the effects and the causes of hawking of
females Childs towards their education systems in Nigeria and as well as their
socio- economic behaiviour. The following are the concept to be explained.

 Concept of street hawking

 Child girl education in Nigeria
 Benefits of child girl education
 Factors affecting child girl education
 Effect of Street hawking on social and physical wellbeing of children
 The concept of high cost of living and its effect on children’s street hawking.
 The concept of poor academic performance and its effect on female
children’s Hawking.
 Effects of street hawking on child’s education.

2.3.1 CONCEPT OF STREET HAWKING

The concept of street hawking and major factors associated with it Street hawking
is a form of selling goods along the road from one place to the other. (Umar, 2009)
It also extends to be an act of canvassing for sale items carried by a hawker along
the street, from house to house or in public space. (Ikechukwu, 2008) The dramatic
increase in street hawking in Batagara LGA. LGA is alarming. This can be
attributed to several factors. The rapid population growth of many less developing
countries, high rates of unemployment, inflation, economic recession, low wages,

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large family size, poor academic performance and deplorable working conditions
have contributed to incidence of street hawking and child labour as children
attempt to help and support their families. The hawking of wares and food products
on the roads and motor parts is an economic means of making ends meet, either
sponsored by parents or the child’s personal interest. (Egbede, 2003)

Fawole (2003) opined that cultural beliefs in treating the child is also another
cause of child labour as children are seen more as mere properties.

Other reasons put forward as predisposing factors to children’s street hawking

include high cost of living, lack of sponsorship, single parenting, large family size
peer group pressure, poor home conditions, lack of parental care, parents’
unemployment, parental pressure, poor academic achievements. Ewunigwe and
Naidu (2008) have identified that there is direct relationship between children’s
hawking and poverty. They found out that the need for survival often pushes some
children to secure employment outside home. Poverty has been given as a major
factor for engaging in street hawking due to the need to compensate for the
family’s income. (Onwuzulike, 2007).

Throughout the world, researchers like Olufayo(2006), Alebiosu (2007), Akpan

and Oluwamide (2010), Ekpenyong and Sibiri (2011), Abiosoye (2013) and many
others concurred that poverty is the principal cause of child labour which street
hawking is the chief. In fact, Abiosoye (2013) found that in Ibadan, as many as
93.3% of juvenile hawkers in his study attributed their involvement in hawking to
poor economy with parents having no job. Corroborating this fact, Oloko (2006)
submitted that the Nigerian Child labour is the direct victim of the poverty level of
his or her parents. Olufayo (2006) buttressed this view by saying that children with
poor socio-economic background were left with no option than to abandon their

15
right to education, withdrew from school and take to odd jobs including street
hawking.

Atugba (2006) observed that foster children who are not treated, educated or
settled moved out to towns and cities to engage in various forms of child labour
including hawking. In addition, Okafor (2010) noted that loss of parents, cultural
and religious factors coupled with lack of enforcement of labour restrictions and
inconsistencies in the anti-labour legislation.

2.3.2 CHILD GIRL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Over two decades, scholars from various field of study have carried out studies and
reviews relating to child girl education. Various propositions has been made and
agreed upon. Girl child education programme has been viewed by different people
interested in the programme in different ways. For instance, the ministry of
education is likely to see it as the formal school programme for all girls in school
to ensure they obtain the best learning experience. Those from the non-formal
sector see it as an educational programme designed for out of school girls to help
them make up their missed chance of schooling. Some see it as a programme
aimed at giving out of school girls vocational skills to help them break through
economically (Abdulkarim & Mamman, 2014). Girl-child education is the process
through which the girl-child is made functional members of her society (Iwalaiye,
Abah, Johnson, Giwa & Ali, 2016). It is a process through which the girl-child
acquires knowledge and realizes her potentialities and uses them for self-
actualization, to be useful to her and others. It is a means of preserving,
transmitting and improving the culture of the society. In every society education
connotes acquisition of something good, something worthwhile (Ocho, 2005).

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At every educational level, women have been recognized to perform well despite
challenges. Schacter (2010) argued that children’s intelligence could be
significantly influenced by environmental changes and that early childhood was a
key to improving later performances in various aspects of the individual’s life. In
view of this, Stronquist (2000) maintain that Girl-child education involves
equipping girls who later grow up to women with the knowledge, abilities and
mental powers with which they will be useful to themselves, the family and the
society. Women education helps women take advantage of opportunities that could
benefit them and their families, preparing women for the labor force and helping
them understand their legal as well as their reproductive rights. Basic education
provides girls and women with an understanding of basic health, nutrition and
family planning, giving their choices and the power to decide over their own lives
and bodies (Uzoma, 2013).

In recognition of the central position of education in the overall development of the

individual and the society Asiegbu, Okorji and Bosah (2015) mentioned that
Nigeria as a nation bases her philosophy of education on “the provision of equal
access to educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at the primary,
secondary and tertiary level both inside and outside the formal school system. Girl-
child education in Nigeria remained at the fore front of gender studies for a very
long time due to disparities observed in the number of girls in comparison to their
male counterparts in schools at the primary and secondary levels. Abdulkarim and
Mamman (2014) noted that, as a result of these observed disparities, programs
aimed at availing the girl-child and her male counterpart of the opportunities for
self-actualization and becoming useful members of the society through education
were initiated by various governments of the federation. In this regard both Federal

17
and State governments in Nigeria make a policy, which enables or encourage
people to be educated irrespective of their gender or ethnic background.
Also, the Nation constitution (1999), emphasis the right for education of all
its citizens, regardless of tribe, sex, physical disability or whatsoever. All these
show that the people of Nigeria consider Education as instrument par excellence
for realizing rapid national development, for reaching social change, and for
forging together a nation split by civil war (Csapo, 1981). Similarly, the United
Nations General Assembly (2001) adopted the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights which stipulates that everyone has the right to education which shall be free
at least in elementary and primary stages. In addition, Jomtien (1990) advocates for
the removal of disparities of the poor, street kids, working children, rural and
remote populations, indigenous people, ethnic, racial and linguistic minorities,
should not suffer any discrimination in cases of accessing education.
Girl-child education is not easy to come by as it is usually proclaimed as
many impediments stand in the way of the girl –child (Kasomo, 2009). The rights
of the girl-children are always being denied and this denial leads to lack of access
to education thus results in child labor, which deprives the girl-child of her
childhood potentials, dignity and joy. This agrees with Bolaji (2007) who noted
that there is still gender inequality in terms of accessibility to education in many
parts of Nigeria particularly the Northern States like Katsina, Kano, Bauchi, and
Jigawa, Akwa Ibom etc. Subsequent to Bolaji (2007), Osinulu (1994) lamented
that the girl- child is discriminated against in terms of education and given out to
marriage early thereby denying the girl-child the require competences for
community development. The resultant effect of such discrimination is poverty and
the only key to ending poverty among women-folk, as a whole is education of the
girl-child (Kasomo, 2009). According to Ahmad and Najeemah (2013) one of the

18
most important tools available to empower women within the family and within
society is education as it contains cascade of benefits.

2.3.3 BENEFITS OF CHILD GIRL EDUCATION

The benefit associated with girl child education remains vital in terms of her
options and resources over her life time. According to UNICEF, (2004) the
benefits extend beyond the girl in affecting her family and the society as a whole,
the benefits to society include enhanced economic development, education for the
next generation, healthier young girls and families and fewer maternal deaths.
Uzoma (2013) opined that women's education leads directly to better reproductive
health, improved family health, economic growth, for the family and for society, as
well as lower rates of child mortality and malnutrition. Women with better
education shows improved family life, as they tend to have smaller families and
better reproductive health planning information and services in achieving desired
family size. Eliza (2012) thus increase women education influences the level of
fertility, population growth, and infant and child mortality, family planning as well
as improved health.

In the words of Kobani and Nkpolu (2014) a woman’s literacy also increases
productivity and self-employment in the informal sector. Kobani and Nkpolu
(2014) cited that the educational level of rural women is linked to increased
productivity in agricultural sector in many developing countries. He argues that
literacy assists people to acquire skills and knowledge that help to facilitate better
use of natural resources and other agricultural inputs, hereby increasing their
productivity. Thus, girl-child being active participants in all stages of the
productive chain, such as hoeing, weeding, fertilizing, harvesting and threshing of
grains, storage and distribution of goods need to be educated to increase

19
productivity and their incomes. According to Stronquist (2000) politically, the girl-
child is relegated to the background in the society. They are in most cases under-
represented in the decision making process because of the notion that, a woman’s
place is in the kitchen. The problems also compounded by the girl-child’s
deficiency in educational qualification.
Enemuo (1999) pointed out that education helps in the fulfillment of
women’s obligation. The benefit of education for a girl and society can be
explained by the effect that education has on empowering girls to acquire and use
new personal, social and economic behavior that in turn, affect societal change
(Moulton, 1997). Ayodo (2010) observes that the quest for the provision of quality
education continues to be a matter of leading concern to both consumers and
providers of the education service in Kenya and other developing countries due to
its relevance in advancing the contribution of the girl child.

According to Ottaway (2000), the girl-child’s education has an effect on the

economic well-being of a country. Girl child with basic education could easily gain
employment in the formal labour force and therefore contribute not only to her
family income but the National GDP. When girls are gainfully employed, the
provide financial support to their families especially during economic recession
hence an educated woman with a good earning power can help reduce the financial
problems of the family and thus avert frustration and other financial problems.

2.3.4 FACTORS AFFECTING CHILD GIRL EDUCATION

Girl-child education as a global concern has been shown to be a hurricane task that
is not easily achievable as usually proclaimed due to many impediments which
stands in the way of the girl -child. According to ILO (2009) over Jane Butigah
Atayi (2008) observed that Parents’ demand for the education of their daughters is

20
low, reflecting both cultural norms and girls’ work in and around the home. In
addition, the cultural perceptions of girls as child minders, marriage material and a
burden to the family influence their educational attainment the contemporary
society. Also some parents decided in many cultures that, education is not
worthwhile for their daughters who will move into their husbands’ families when
they marry and that the gains in productivity or income due to education will
accrue to the families of the sons-in-law rather than to them. Prominent among this
factors militating against girl child education are poverty, parental influence, early
marriage, cultural practices, and religion.
Poverty has remained a serious enemy of girl child education. Driscoll and Nagel,
(2010) asserted that parents struggling to raise a child, often see poverty as adding
extensive stress to the family hence many girls who should class have been
withdrawn to work for money.
Also, traditional cultural practices strongly mitigate girls’ enrolment in educational
system. Family with limited resources tends to place more priority on boy child
education recognizing them as future heads of household. Meanwhile girls are
enrolled; they often face many more barriers to learning than boys do. For
example, given the paucity of adequate day-care centers throughout much of the
developing world and high levels of women’s participation in the informal and
formal labor markets, it is not uncommon for young girls to have to bring younger
siblings to school with them, disrupting not only their own studies but those of
other children (Leach, 2003).
Another Commonly cited factor militating against girl child education is
early marriage which conflicts with educational programmes. Bolaji (2007) noted
that early marriage has been institutionalized in many parts of Nigeria especially in
Kano, Kastina, Sokoto, Bauchi and Kaduna. He further said that early marriage
used to be the case among the Ibos, Ibibios and Urhobos, but with Western

21
education, the practice has abated but not completely eradicated. Girls are given
out in marriage for many reasons. On the other hand, once girls gain access to
schools, however, they may experience both direct physical threats and subtler
assaults on their confidence, self-esteem and identity (Pigozzi, 2002 in Onyeike &
Angela, 2011).
A study in the southern part of Adamawa state revealed that fathers are
deliberately not allowing their daughters to go to school because they consider
investment in female education as unprofitable, since the girls are likely to end up
in another man’s home (Abubakar, 2003). Parental influence has been identified as
an important factor affecting girl student’ academic achievement; parents’
education and encouragement are strongly related to improved student
achievement (Wang, Wildman & Colboum 1996). Parental education and social
economic status have an influence on student. Achievement. Students with parents
who were both college – educated tended to achieve at the highest levels. Children
whose parents are of high educational status have a better statistical chance of
participating in secondary Education (Oloo, 2003). Important factors include
parental involvement in their children education, how much Television children are
allowed to watch and how often students change schools (Hammer, 2003).
Another contributing factor influencing cultural traditions and practices of
the parents on girl-child education is the initiation ceremonies which still mark the
transition from childhood to adulthood among communities in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Evidently lot of confusion and dilemmas faced by girl-children were created by
attending ceremonies more especially when the schedules of such ceremonies
overlap with the school calendar and that leads to absenteeism and dropouts.
Although, communities accept the girls as adults, teachers or schools continue to
consider them as children. Sometimes they may be punished for not participating
in some activities which adults do not normally participate in.

22
 Traditionally, initiated girls may also feel it difficult to continue schooling
after passage to adult hood as the next step is expected to be marriage (UNESCO,
et al, 2002). Among the other cultural constrains on girl-child education that
creates similar dilemmas to those who pass-through initiation ceremonies are
Circumcision.
Njau and Wamahiu, (1998) established a relationship between. Girl-child
pregnancy and the incidence of dropout throughout Africa, these pregnancies end
the schooling of girl-child both though self -withdrawal and national pregnancy
policies that ensures the expulsion of girl children from the education system with
little or no chance of re-entry. Najau and Wamahiu (1998) argue that it is the
societal responses to pregnancy rather than pregnancy per se that push girl-children
out of school and hamper their opportunities for educational and career
development.

2.3.5 EFFECT OF STREET HAWKING ON SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL

WELLBEING OF CHILDREN
Some of the physical consequences of street hawking include malnourishment,
disease, muscular skeletal disorders from heavy labour, physical and sexual abuse,
injuries and exposure to toxic agents (Kathleen, 1988). Street hawking has a
negative impact on the mental health ofthe hawker. It has been observed that
children who engage in street hawking suffer verbal abuse from their parents or
guardians, consistent fear of punishment, low self esteem and a loss of imagination
and future direction in life (Bakand and Robinson, 2000). Hawkers also experience
poor academic performance, illiteracy, low school attendance and low enrolment
which have adverse effect on their educational development. The menace of street
hawking includes degrading the environment by littering the road with dirt and

23
impeding movement on pedestrian bridge. This practice of hawking items on the
road undermines the beautification and landscaping of cities in Nigeria.
Studies in Latin America, Asia and Africa have shown that street hawking has a lot
of physical and health consequences on children. Various problems such as
respiratory problems, injuries, malnourishment, extortion of income, police
harassment are associated with this form of child labour. Child labourers face
robbery, inadequate sleep due to fatigue and long hours on the job and confinement
in juvenile home (Ross, 1996). Amin (1994) asserts that street hawkers also
encounter problems related to their psychological well-being. For instance, they
experience stigmatization by the press and public, feeling of disheartenment, stress
and irritability, personality disorder, anti social behaviour, alienation and isolation
from their families. Eventually many grow up with deformed personality,
maladjusted behaviour patterns and psychopathology.

2.3.6 THE CONCEPT OF HIGH COST OF LIVING AND ITS EFFECT ON

CHILDREN’S STREET HAWKING

High cost of living has been defined as the general increase in monetary cost of
maintaining a particular standard of living, usually measured by calculating the
average cost of a number of specific goods and services required by a particular
group. Underestimating the high cost of living in Nigeria is one of the greatest
mistakes any researcher delving into this study would make. The cost of
accommodation in Nigeria is indiscriminately high; an average Nigerian cannot
afford a good accommodation talk more of sending his children to school.
Accommodation fees in cities like Ibadan, Enugu, Lagos, Abuja, Port-Harcourt is
quite exorbitant. Past researches reveal that a great number of people live in city-
ghettos, slums and squalid areas because of high cost of accommodation.

24
In the area of transportation, much like accommodation, Fawole (2003) posits that
the cost of driving and getting around in Nigeria can also levy some unexpected
fees which amount to high cost of living. In addition to the above, taking public
transport in Nigeria is not an option; the ramshackle buses and improvisional
motorbike (Okada) are often not road-worthy and are incredibly risky. The high
cost of education in Nigeria is not left out. The high cost of education across the
country today has negated the United Nation’s perception of education for all as a
right. The lingering high cost of education in Nigeria is becoming unbearable as
only the privileged rich Nigerians can afford to give qualitative education to their
children. This is indeed worrisome.

This “kill the poor that the rich may live” syndrome in our educational sector rears
its head in the following ways: Exorbitant fees: some of the fees paid in Nigerian
schools are scary. Studies show that some daycare centers, nursery, primary and
even secondary schools pay fees running into hundreds of thousands while some
private universities pay in millions, this is aside other expenditures that parents
must incur. From the aforementioned, it will not be wrong to assert that education
is reserved for the rich alone. Textbooks: before now, people use to hand over
books to their successors. This is a good way to save money on textbooks and
channel these funds to other critical areas. But this has vanished. Today, every
child must buy the same books that their predecessors used irrespective of whether
your elder sibling or relation used the book or not. Children are mandated to do
their homework inside their textbooks such that no other person can use that book.
In some cases, children that failed to meet up with the demands of the school are
sent home. All these will precipitate Children’s hawking as the parents/guardian
cannot meet up with the demands of the school. Thus, the children are compelled
to hawk.

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2.3.7 THE CONCEPT OF POOR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND ITS
EFFECT ON FEAMLE CHILDREN’S HAWKING

Wentling (2000) opined that academic performance refers to achievement of

individuals’ objective to various types of knowledge and skills. According to the
author, the objectives are established based on the age, prior learning and capacity
of individuals with regards to education, socialization and qualification. From the
above, poor academic performance could be taken to mean a situation when a child
is not able to attain individual’s objective a specific knowledge and/skill. Teachers,
parents and government frowned at the low performance of students in secondary
school result (WAEC, 2010), about 70% of students failed the exam including
English and Mathematics. They unanimously agreed that the results so far do not
commensurate with the huge investment made in the sector. Aremu and Sokan
(2003) identified the factors responsible for this abysmal performance of students
as motivational orientation; students are poorly motivated, emotional problems like
phobia has contributed immensely to the problem at hand, phobia he described to
be an impediment to learning of anything.

The researcher’s personal observation shows that today’s students have taken to
street hawking and other forms of child labour as a result of poor academic
performance. Bolaji (2005), in his study of influence of student’s attitude towards
education, identified teachers method of teaching and his personality as responsible
for students’ negative or positive attitudes towards learning. Most teachers have
failed to take into cognizance learners’ interest, needs, and individual differences
in planning of lessons and adoption of teaching method. Findings also revealed that
students have not been motivated properly in which truancy and lack of interest in
education became the end product. Sequel to the above, students who perform

26
poorly academically as a result of poor motivation resorted to hawking and other
menial jobs

2.3.8 EFFECTS OF STREET HAWKING ON CHILD’S EDUCATION

Across all socio-economic groups, parents face major challenges when it comes to
providing optimal care and education for their children. For poor families, these
challenges can be formidable, as parents are required to place top priority on
housing, food, clothing and health care. Danersty and Otediran (2002), stated that
street hawking amongst school students have psychologically imposed other
problems such as sex networking behaviours, juvenile delinquent behaviours
which takes much of the student time that necessitated the poor academic
performance and dropout syndrome noticed amongst students. In addition, they
also lamented that maternal and parental deprivation of the essential needs of the
young students has prompted their poor performance in public examinations such
as West African Examination Council (WAEC), National Examination Council
(NECO) and Joint Admission and Matriculation Board).

2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

For the research work to be intellectually sound, it must include a scientifically

based theoretical framework with which a systematic analysis will be carried out.
Therefore, the following theories are adopted for the study: Maslow’s Motivational
theory and Self -Determination theory

2.4.1 Maslow’s Motivational Theory

This is an important theory that is relevant to this study. The theory was developed
by Abraham Maslow (1970) and popularized by many researchers including Onyi
(2007). According to Maslow, motivation is constant and never ending, fluctuating

27
and complex. He asserted that man always has needs to satisfy. These needs,
according to him are arranged in a hierarchical order starting from the basic or
lower order needs to higher order needs. The hierarchy is categorized into two,
namely Deficit needs (physiological, safety, belonging and self esteem) and growth
needs (self-actualization). Maslow explained that once a particular need is
satisfied, it ceases to be a motivator ofbehaviour and another need emerges. The
above theory relates to this study because motivation is very important inlearning.
Children must be motivated if their academic performance must be improved. It is
imperative at home and in schools. One of the major problems confronting teachers
and parents is that of motivating learners to perform assigned tasks to meet oreven
excel pre-determined standards. Motivation energizes and sustains behaviour,
direct and regulates behaviour and even enhances selective behaviour. A learner
under motivated condition, exhibits purposeful behaviour aimed at achieving the
set goals. The students are motivated to learn by their satisfaction of needs like
physiological: Shelter, food, water, rest etc. Safety: materials, love and belonging.
The satisfaction of these needs leads to the quest to satisfy higher ones which are
self-esteem and self-actualization needs.

2.4.2 Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory was propounded by Deci and Ryan (1985). The

proponents stated that people are active organisms, with the growing tendencies
geared towards mastering ambient challenges, and integrating new experiences
into a coherent sense of self. They stressed that these natural development
tendencies do not operate automatically, but rather requires on-going social
nutriments and supports. According to them, the social context can either support
or thwart the natural tendencies towards active engagement and psychological
growth; furthermore the social context can catalyze to lack of integration, defense,

28
and fulfillment of need-substitutes. The proponents remarked that the dialectic
between the active organism and the social context is the basis for predictions
about behaviour, experience, and development. Self-determination theory is
applicable to this study, based on the fact that individuals or groups need to be self-
determined to achieve a set goal. The habit of determination can help children who
are in schools in their academic achievements. Hence, street hawking will be
avoided due to poor academic performance.

2.5 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

This section reviews some empirical works that have been done on areas relatedto
the study.

There have been several studies relating to child hawking. Uban (2014)
investigated on the effect of street hawking on the academic performance of
students in social studies in junior secondary school Nasarawa state, Nigeria. The
sample of one hundred (100) junior secondary school students was used. The study
found that street hawking has negative effect on students’ academic performance in
social studies.

Bosah, Offem and Obumneke (2015) investigated the influence of hawking on

socio-emotional development of the child. The study was guided by two research
questions. The sampled population consists of 140primary four pupils of public
primary schools in Cross River state. The data used for the study was gotten from
the questionnaire composed by the researchers. The questionnaire was structured
on a four point scale and the data were analyzed using mean scores: the mean of
2.50 and above shows acceptance while any mean value below 2.50 was not
accepted. The findings among others revealed that Hawking has a negative effect
on socio emotional development of the children.

29
Ofonime and Ihesie carried out a cross-sectional descriptive study carried out in
Uyo in April, 2015. The instrument of data collection was a self designed,
interviewer administered semi structured questionnaire. All consenting children
aged 5-17 years hawking along major traffic light intersections within
UyoMetropolis during the days of data collection were included in the study. Data
was analyzed using SPSS version 20.Level of significance was set at 0.05.

A total of 225 respondents participated in the study; 119 (52.9%) were males and
106 (47.1%) females. The mean age of respondents was 13.27 (2.52) years. Only
157 (73.03%)were presently in school, while 48 (21.3%) had dropped out and 10
(4.4%) never went to school. Up to 66 (29.3%) could not communicate fluently in
English. Fifty six (35.7%) of those in school reported worsening of their grades
since hawking began. A greater number, 168 (74.7%) lived with their parents. The
most common singular occupation of respondents’ mothers, 139 (61.8%) and
fathers, 52(23.1%) respectively was trading. Up to 42 (18.7%) had lost their
fathers. While hawking, 112 (49.8%) were robbed, 82 (36.4%) were involved in
fights, 101 (44.9%) were physically harassed by older adults and 6 (2.7%) had
been targets of attempted kidnapping. Majority, 145(64.4%) hawked to augment
family income, while 63 (28.8%) hawked to earn a living. More than half, 131
(58.2%) were unhappy with the work and desired to quit.

Ojo (2013) conducted a sociological investigation of the determinant factors and

the effects of Child Street hawking in Agege, Lagos State. The study revealed that
level of awareness of the dangers inherent in child hawking among the affected
children was low. The investigation of the study showed that parents’ level of
education, parents’ occupations and size of the family were significantly related to
the problem of child’s hawking in the study area.

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2.6 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review for this study focused on three main headings: introduction,
Historical Background of the study, the conceptual framework, theoretical
framework and the empirical studies. According to Umar (2009) is a form of
selling goods along the road from one place to the other. It also extends to be an
act of canvassing for sale items carried by a hawker along the street, from house to
house or in public space. High cost of living has been defined as the general
increase in monetary cost of maintaining a particular standard of living, usually
measured by calculating the average cost of a number of specific goods and
services required by a particular group. Under theoretical framework such theories
as Maslow’s motivational theory and self-determination were reviewed. Maslow’s
motivational theory argues that motivation is constant and never ending,
fluctuating and complex. He asserted that man always has needs to satisfy. These
needs, according to him are arranged in a hierarchical order starting from the basic
or lower order needs to higher order needs. Self-determination theory states that
people are active organisms, with the growing tendencies geared towards
mastering ambient challenges, and integrating new experiences into a coherent
sense of self. Finally, although some empirical studies indicated that large family
size, bad influence, loss of parents, culture, poverty, high cost of living, poor
academic performance, lack of enforcement of labour restrictions among others are
factors associated with children’s street hawking, a major problem that was evident
fromliterature was a general dearth of such research studies in Enugu State
especially in the study area (Batagara LGA. LGA). Most of the available research
studies were conducted inthe Western and Northern states. Therefore, there is need
to carry out the study in Batagara LGA. LGA. It is the bid to fill this gap that
motivated the study.

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter described the various procedures to be followed in carrying out the
study. It presents design of the study, area of the study, population of the study,
sample and sampling techniques, instrument for data collection, validation of the
instrument, reliability of the instrument and method of data analysis.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

Descriptive survey design adopted to examine the various factors associated with
street hawking on female child education, a case study of Batagara local
government, Kastina State Area. A survey research gathers data at a particular
point in time with the intention of describing the nature of the existing conditions
or identifying standard against which existing conditions can be compared, or
determining relationship that exist between specific events. (Cohen, Manion and
Morrison, 2009) It is the collection and the use of data systematically from a given
population to describe certain characteristics feature of the population source.
Therefore, survey research was considered appropriate for this study in that the
work is to describing the entire population vis-à-vis determining the factors
associated with street hawking among children of school age in Batagara LGA.

3.3 AREA OF STUDY

This study was carried out in Batagara Local Government Area. Kastina North
Local Government is made of places like GRA, its comprises of 1,380,000,
cardinal point of 12o 45’10”N7o14’31”E etc. The occupation of the people in this

32
area of study is mainly agriculture, trading and civil servants. The areas have an
area of 1,107km2 AT 2006 census. The postal code of the area is 820.

3.4 POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of the study comprised of 779 teachers. This includes 690 male
teachers and 89 female teachers in Batagara Local Government Area of Enugu
State.

3.5 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The sample size in this study was 264 teachers. 200 were retrieved from simple
percentages; Yaro Yamane was used in determining the sample size. Simple
random sampling was used in selecting 6 schools out of the 9 state government
secondary schools in Batagara LGA. Proportionate sampling technique was used in
selecting the final respondents from each school. The number of teachers that
formed the respondents from the 6 selected schools was 264.

3.6 INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

The instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire titled
“Factors associated with street hawking among children of school age in Batagara
LGA. Local Government Area of Enugu State.” The instrument was developed
based on the research questions. The instrument is made up of 28 items presented
in four sections. Each section addresses each of the respective research questions.
The responses are four options of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D)
and Strongly Disagree (SD).

33
3.7 VALIDATION OF THE INSTRUMENT

The instrument was submitted to three experts (one lecturer in guidance and
counseling department, one lecturer in measurement and evaluation and one
lecturer in economics education). Advice, criticisms, re-arrangements and
corrections were given by these three experts and were considered in producing the
final copy of the instrument. These processes ensure validity of the instrument.

3.8 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

The test retest reliability method was used here to establish the level of stability of
the instrument by administering the questionnaire to the six (6) schools involved in
the study (Batagara LGA) and after two weeks, the instrument was administered at
selected schools in Kastina South. The data obtained from the first and second
administrations were then correlated to determine the coefficient of stability using
Spearman’s Rank Order method of correlation. And the result yielded a coefficient
index value of 0.87. This indicates that the instrument is reliable for the study.

3.9 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The copies of the questionnaire were administered through personal contact by the
researcher and a research assistant who was well trained by the researcher. Two
hundred and sixty-four (264) copies were filled and retrieved which were used for
data analysis.

3.10 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

In the method of data analysis, simple percentages were used for demographic
questions and as well as effect of female hawking in Batagara LGA, and also the
statistical tools that were employed to answer the research questions are mean and
standard deviation. The responses to the questionnaire items are designed based on

34
a four point Likert Scale of measurement. Thus, Very High Extent (VHE) =4, High
Extent (HE) =3, Low Extent (LE) =2, Very Low Extent (VLE) = 1. The average of
those points is 2.50, (4+3+2+1 = 10/4 = 2.50). Therefore, in analyzing the
responses, items with the criterion mean 2.50 and above should be taken to indicate
significant of the items whilst items with criterion mean below 2.50 is taken to
indicate insignificant of the items.

35