Mesenteries – CT sheets that hold the abdominal cavity

DIGESTIVESYSTEM organs in place

§ With the help of the circulatory system, is like a a. Lesser omentum – connects the lesser curvature
gigantic ‘meals on wheels’, serving 100 T customers of the stomack to the liver and diaphragm
the nutrients they need
§ Has its own quality control and waste disposal b. Greater omentum – connects the greater curvature
methods of the stomach to the transverse colon and posterior
body wall
FUNCTIONS (IDEA) v Omental bursa – a long, double fold of
1. Ingestion of food. mesentery that extends inferiorly from the
2. Digestion of food. stomach before looping back to the
3. Elimination of wastes. transverse colon to create a cavity/pocket
4. Absorption of nutrients. v Mesentery proper – attaches the small
intestine to the posterior abdominal wall
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY
Digestive Tract / Gastrointestinal Tract Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs that have no
§ Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small mesenteries; duodenum, pancreas, ascending + descending
intestine, large intestine, anus colon, rectum, kidneys, adrenal glands, urinary bladder

Four Tunics ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, AND ESOPHAGUS

1. Mucosa
§ Innermost tunic
§ Consists of mucous epithelium, lamina propria (loose
CT), muscularis mucosae (thins SM layer)
§ Mouth, esophagus, anus; resists abrasion
§ Stomach, intestine; absorbs and secrets

2. Submucosa
§ Thick layer of loose CT, consists of nerves, blood
vessels, small glands
§ Plexus – extensive network of nerve cell processes
(innervated by the autonomic nerves)
Anatomy of Oral Cavity
§ Bounded by the lips and cheeks ++ contains the teeth
and tongue
Lips – muscular structures formed by the orbicularis oris
muscle
Cheeks – buccinators muscles flatten the cheeks against teeth
Mastification – begins the process of mechanical
digestion

3. Muscularis Tongue – plays a major role in the process of swallowing;

§ Consists of circular SM (inner), longitudinal SM major sensory organ for taste; one of the major organs of
(outer) speech
§ Enteric nervous system – composed of the nerve v Frenulum – thin fold of tissue inferior to the
plexuses of the submucosa and muscularis; controls tongue
movement and secretion within the tract Teeth
§ 32 teeth in normal adult mouth
4. Serosa § Located in the mandible and maxillae
§ Outermost layer 
§ Consists of the peritoneum (smooth epithelial layer + 1. Incisor – to cut
underlying CT) 2. Canine – to tear
§ Adventitia – connective tissue; regions of the DT not 3. Premolars
covered by the peritoneum 4. Molars
5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
Peritoneum
Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
1. Visceral Peritoneum / Serosa – serous membrane
that covers the organs
Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or baby teeth
2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous membrance that
covers the wall of the abdominal cavity Parts
a. Crown
b. Cusps
c. Neck

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 d. Root
Pulp cavity – center of the tooth; contains blood vessels
nerves, and pulp (connective tissue)
Dentin – bonelike tissue that surrounds the pulp cavity
Enamel – extremely hard, acellular substance that covers the
dentin of the tooth drown
Saliva
§ Helps keep the oral cavity moist
§ Contains enzymes that begin the process of digestion
Salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme that breaks the
covalent bonds bet. glucose molecules (starch) and other
polysaccharides; enhances the sweet taste of food
Lysozyme – enzyme that has weak antibacterial action

Cementum – covers the surface of the dentin in the root; Mastification

anchors the tooth in the jaw § Breaks large food particles into many small ones
§ Increases the efficiency of digestion
Alveoli (along the alveolar process of mandible x
maxillae) – where the teeth are rooted Pharynx
§ Throat
Gingiva – dense fibrous CT and most stratified squamous § Connects the mouth with the esophagus
epithelium that covers the alveolar processes § Oropharynx + laryngopharynx – transmit food
§ Contains pharyngeal constrictor muscles
Periodontal ligaments – CT fibers that extend from the
alveolar walls that hold the teeth in place
Esophagus
Dental caries / Tooth decay – result of the breakdown of § Muscular tube that ransports food from the pharynx
enamel by acids produced by bacteria on tooth surface to the stomach
§ Esophageal sphincters – regulate the movement of
Periodontal disease – inflammation x degeneration of food into and out of the esophagus
the periodontal ligaments, gingiva, alveolar bone § Cardiac sphincter – lower ES

Palate and Tonsils Swallowing / Deglutition

Palate – roof of the oral cavity; prevents food from passing 1. Voluntary Phase
into the nasal cavity during chewing and swallowing § Bolus (mass of food) us formed in the mouth
a. Hard palate – anterior part that contains bone § Bolus is pushed by the tongue forcing in into the
b. Soft palate – posterior portion that consists of oropharynx
skeletal muscle _ CT
v Uvula – grape-like; posterior extension of the soft 2. Pharyngeal Phase
§ A reflex initiated when a bolus of food stimulates
palate
receptors in the oropharynx
§ Epiglottis – tipped posteriorly to cover the larynx
Tonsils – protect against pathogens from entering the nose
and mouth
3. Esophageal Phase
Salivary Glands § Responsible for moving food form the pharynx to the
§ Produce saliva (serous + mucous fluids) stomach
§ Peristaltic waves – muscular contractions of the
3 Pairs of SG esophagus
1. Parotid glands – largest; serous glands located
anterior to each ear STOMACH
2. Submandibular glands – produce more serous than § Functions primarily as a storage and mixing chamber
mucous secretions for ingested food
3. Sublingual glands – smallest; produce primarily
mucous secretions Anatomy
Gastroesophageal opening – opening from the esophagus ino
Mumps – inflammation of the parotid gland caused by viral the stomach
infection
Cardiac region – region of t around the
gastroesophageal opening; near the heart

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Fundus – most superior part of the stomach
Body – largest part of the stomach v
Greater curvature
v Lesser curvature
Pyloric opening – opening from the stomach into the
small intestine
Pyloric sphincter – thick ring of smooth muscle
Pyloric region – region near the pyloric opening
Outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner obique
layer – produce a churning action in the stomach
Rugae – large folds where the submucosa and mucosa are
thrown into when the stomach is empty
Gastric pits – openings for the gastric glands; formed by
simple columnar epithelium
Epithelial cells of the Stomach
1. Surface mucous cells – inner surface of stomach &
lining the gastric pits; coats and protects the stomach
lining
2. Mucous neck cells – produce mucus
3. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid & intrinsic
factor
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory chemicals
5. Chief cells – produce pepsinogen (precursor of the
protein digesting enzyme pepsin)
Secretions of the Stomach
Chyme – semifluid mixture (food + stomach secretions)
1. Hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms and activates
pepsin
2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond of proteins to form
smaller peptide chains.
3. Mucus lubricates and protects epithelial cells from
the damaging effect of acidic chime + pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit. B12 (DNA synthesis
and RBC prod.) and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
1. Cephalic phase – stomach secretions are initiated by
the sight, smell, taste, or thought of food
2. Gastric phase – partially digested proteins and
distention of the stomach promote secretion
Ø Gastrin – hormone that enters the
circulation and is carried back to the
stomach
3. Intestinal phase – acidic chime in the duodenum
stimulates neuronal reflexes and the secretion of
hormones that inhibit gastric secretions by negative
feedback loops
Ø Secretin – hormone that inhibits gastric
secretions; released from the duodenum in
response to low pH
Ø Cholecystokinin – major inhibitor of gastric
motility; released from the duodenum
initiated by fatty acids and
peptides
Movement in the Stomach
§ Increased motility = increases emptying
§ Distention of stomach = increases gastric motility
A. Mixing waves – thoroughly mix ingested food with
stomach secretions to form chime
Ø Fluid part of chime – pushed toward the
pyloric sphincter
Ø Solid center – moves back toward the body
of the stomach
B. Peristaltic waves – force the chime toward and
through the pyloric sphincter
SMALL INTESTINE
§ Major site of digestion and absorption of food
§ Major function is the absorption of nutrients
Anatomy
1. Duodenum – 12 in. long
2. Jejunum – 2.5 m long; makes up 2/5
3. Ileum – 3.5 m long; makes up 3/5
Common bile duct (liver) and pancreatic duct
(pancreas) – join and empty into the duodenum
Increased surface area
1. Circular folds – formed by mucosa and submucosa
that run perpendicular to the long axis of the
digestive tract
2. Villi – formed by tiny, fingerlike projections of the
mucosa
3. Microvilli – numerous cytoplasmic extensions on the
surface of the villi
Lacteal – lymphatic capillary
Simple Columnar Epithelium
1. Absorptive cells – have microvilli, produce digestive
enzymes, absorb digested food
2. Goblet cells – produce a protective mucus
3. Granular cells – help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory hormones
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 2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen-poor blood but rich in
Intestinal glands – epithelial cells produced within tubular nutrients
galnds of mucosa
Hepatic veins – where blood exits the liver and empty
Duodenal glands – mucous glands in the submucosa of into the inferior vena cava
the duodenum
Portal Triads
Peyer patches – clusters of lymphatic nodules along the 1. Hepatic artery
digestive tract 2. Hepatic portal vein
3. Hepatic duct
Ileocecal junction – where the ileum connects to the
large intestine Hepatic cords – located bet. the center and margins of each
lobule
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth muscle
Hepatocytes – platelike groups that form the hepatic
Ileocecal valve – allow intestinal contents to move from the cords
ileum to the large intestine; but not in opposite
direction Hepatic sinusoids – blood channels that separates the hepatic
cords from one another
Secretions of the Small Intestine
1. Peptidases – break peptide bonds in proteins to form Central vein – where mixed blood flows toward the
amino acids center of each lobule

2. Disaccharidases – break down disaccharides Bile canaliculus – a cleftlike lumen bet. the cells of each
(maltose) into monosaccharides (glucose) hepatic cord

Movement of the Small Intestine
A. Peristaltic contractions – proceed along the length of
the intestine for variable distances; causes the chime
to move along the small
intestine
Common hepatic duct – right + left hepatic ducts
Common bile duct – common hepatic duct + cystic duct
Gallbladder – stores and concentrates bile

B. Segmental contractions – propagate for shot Duodenal papilla – where the common bile duct joind
distances; mix intestinal contents the pancreatic duct and opens into the duodenum

LIVER AND PANCREAS Functions of the Liver

Anatomy of Liver 1. Digestion
Major Lobes 2. Excretion
1. Right lobe 3. Nutrient storage
2. Left lobe 4. Nutrient conversion
5. Detoxification of harmful chemicals
Falciform ligament – CT septum that separates the right 6. Synthesis of new molecules
and left lobe of the liver
Bile – dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid; dramatically
Smaller Lobes increases the efficiency of fat digestion and absorption;
1. Caudate lobe stimulated by secretin
2. Quadrate lobe
Bile salts – emulsify fats
Porta – gate through which blood vessels, ducts, and
nerves enter and exit the liver Bilirubin – bile pigment that results from the
breakdown of hemoglobin
Sources of Blood in the Liver
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen-rich blood to the liver; Anatomy of Pancreas
supplies liver with oxygen 1. Head – near the midline of the body

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 2. Tail – extends to the left
Pancreatic islet / Islets of Langerhans – endocrine part; External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle at inferior end
produce insulin and glucagon
Hemorrhoids – enlarged or inflamed rectal or hemorrhoidal,
Compound acinar gland – exocrine part veins that supply the anal canal; may
cause pain, itching, bleeding around anus
Acini – produce digestive enymes
Functions of Large Intestine
Pancreatic duct – formed by larger ducts from clusters of acini 1. Feces production
2. Water absorption
Functions of the Pancreas
Major Proteolytic enzymes – continue protein digestion that Feces – converted chyme
began in the stomach
1. Trypsin Defecation – elimination of feces from the colon
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase Mass movements – strong contractions in the large parts of
the colon; propel the colon contents a considerable distance
Pancreatic amylase – continues polysaccharide digestion towards the anys
that began in the oral cavity
Defecation reflex – local (weak contractions) +
Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme parasympathetic (strong contractions) reflexes

Nucleases – enzymes that degrade DNA and RNA to DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND TRANSPORT
their component nucleotides Digestion – breakdown of food to molecules tha are small
enough to be absorbed into the circulation
LARGE INTESTINE a. Mechanical digestion – breaks large good particles
Anatomy into smaller ones
Cecum b. Chemical digestion – breaking of covalent chemical
§ Proximal end of the large intestine bonds in organic molecules by
digestive enzymes
Appendix – 9 cm tube attached to the cecum
Absorption – begin in stomach; lipid-soluble molecules diffuse
Colon through the stomach epithelium into the
1. Ascending colon circulation
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon Transport – requires carrier molecules and includes
4. Sigmoid colon facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and active transport

Crypts – straight, tubular glands in the mucosal lining of the Carbohydrates

colon § Consist primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose (table
sugar), small amounts of fructose (fruit sugar), and
Teniae coli – three bands lactose (milk sugar)

Rectum Polysaccharides – large carbohydrates that consist of many

§ Straight, muscular tube that begins at the termination sugars linked by chemical bonds
of sigmoid colon & ends at the anal
canal Salivary amylase – begins the digestion of
carbohydrates in the mouth
Anal Canal
§ Begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends at Pancreatic amylase – continues digestion of
the anus (external digestive tract opening) carbohydrates

Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle layer at Disaccharides – two sugars; broken down
superior end polysaccharide

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Disaccharidase – group of enzymes that break the
disaccharides to monosaccharides

Monosaccharides – single sugars; glucose, galactose,

and fructose

Lipids
§ Molecules which are insoluble or slightly soluble in
water

Triglycerides – most common type of lipid; 3 fatty acids bound

to glycerol

Saturated – fatty acids have only single bonds

Unsaturated – fatty acids have one or more double bonds

Emulsification – large lipid droplets are transformed into

much smaller droplets

Lipase – secreted by pancreas; digests lipid molecules

Micelles – aggregated bile salts around small droplets of

digested lipids

Chylomicrons – packaged lipid-protein complexes

(lipoproteins)

Chyle – lymph containing late amounts of absorbed

lipid

Proteins
§ Chains of amino acids

Pepsin – enzyme secreted by stomach that breaks down

proteins

Polypeptides – shorter amino acid chains

Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase – enzymes

produced by pancreas that continue the digestive
process

Peptidases – small peptides

Water and Minerals

§ Approximately 9 L of water enters the digestive tract
§ Approximately 2 L from food & drink & remaining 7
liters is from digestive secretions
§

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