The Nervous System o One involves sensationand

perception and the other is

- a complex network of nerves and cells
concerned with integrating sensory
that carry messages to and from the brain
input, primarily with the visual
and spinal cord to various parts of the
system.
body.
o The first function integrates
- includes both the Central nervous
sensory information to form a
system and Peripheral nervous system.
single perception (cognition).
 The Central Nervous System is made up
of the Brain and Spinal Cord
 The Peripheral Nervous System is made
up of the Somatic and the Autonomic
Nervous Systems.
Brain

- is an organ that serves as the center of

c. Occipital Lobe
the nervous system in all vertebrate and
- is the visual processing area of the brain.
most invertebrate animals.
- It is associated with visuospatial
- located in the head, usually close to the
processing, distance and depth
sensory organs for senses such as vision.
perception, color determination, object and
- It is the most complex organ in a
face recognition, and memory.
vertebrate's body
The brain has 6 important parts:
1. Cerebrum or the cerebral hemispheres
- are the most superior part of the brain

a. Frontal Lobe
o is the part of the brain that controls
important cognitive skills in
humans, such as emotional
expression, problem solving,
memory, language, judgment, and
sexual behaviors.
o It is, in essence, the “control panel”
of our personality and our ability to
communicate.
d. Temporal Lobe
- is involved in primary auditory perception,
such as hearing, and holds the primary
auditory cortex.
- The primary auditory cortex receives
sensory information from the ears and
secondary areas process the information
into meaningful units such as speech and
words.
-
2. Cerebellum –
- is a major structure of the hindbrain that is
located near the brainstem.
- This part of the brain is responsible for
coordinating voluntary movements.
- It is also responsible for a number of
functions including motor skills such as

b. Parietal Lobe
o The parietal lobes are divided into
two functional regions.
 balance, coordination, and posture. 6. Medulla Oblungata
- the continuation of the spinal cord within
the skull, forming the lowest part of the
brainstem and containing control centers
for the heart and lungs.
Protection of the CNS
3. Diencephalon
 Nervous Tissues are soft and delicate, even
- is a division of the forebrain (embryonic
slight pressure can injure the irreplaceable
prosencephalon), and is situated between
neurons. Nature tries to protect the brain and
the telencephalon and the midbrain
spinal cord by enclosing them within the bone
(embryonic mesencephalon).
(the skull and the vertebral column).
 There are also 3 additional protection for the
CNS:

A. Meninges
There are 3 connective tissue membranes
covering the CNS:
4. Midbrain 1. Dura Mater-the outermost layer, leathery,
- The midbrain or mesencephalon is the and double layered.
forward-most portion of the brainstem and
is associated with vision, hearing, motor
control, sleep and wakefulness, arousal
(alertness), and temperature regulation.It
consists of structures that are on either
side of the third ventricle, including the
thalamus, the hypothalamus, the
epithalamus and the subthalamus.
2. Arachnoid Mater - middle, meningeal
layer

5. Pons
- The pons is a portion of the brain stem, 3. Pia Mater- outermost layer, clings
located above the medulla oblongata and tightly to the surface of the brain.
below the midbrain.
- It is a bridge between various parts of the
nervous system, including the cerebellum
and cerebrum, which are both parts of the
brain

B. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

- is a watery “broth” with components
similar to blood plasma.
 - It is a clear, colorless body fluid found
in the brain and spinal
- It is produced by specialised
ependymal cells in the choroid
plexuses of the ventricles of the brain,
and absorbed in the arachnoid
granulations.
C. Blood-brain Barrier (BBB)
 is a highly selective semipermeable
border of endothelial cells that prevents
solutes in the circulating blood from non-
selectively crossing into the extracellular
fluid of the central nervous system where
neurons reside.
THE SPINAL CORD
 The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular
structure made up of nervous tissue,
which extends from the medulla oblongata
in the brainstem to the lumbar region of
the vertebral column.
 It encloses the central canal of the spinal
cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid.
There are 31 pairs of nerves in the Spinal
Cord; 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5
sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Each pair connects
the spinal cord with a specific region of the
body.
The spinal cord functions primarily in the
transmission of nerve signals from the motor
cortex to the body, and from the afferent
fibers of the sensory neurons to
the sensory cortex.
It is also a center for coordinating many
reflexes and contains reflex arcs that can
independently control reflexes.
The Peripheral Nervous System
refers to parts of
the nervous system outside the brain and
spinal cord.
It includes the cranial nerves,
spinal nerves and their roots and
branches, peripheral nerves, and
neuromuscular junctions.
THE NERVE
 A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle
of axons (the projections of neurons) in
the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 A nerve provides a structured pathway
that supports the electrochemical nerve
impulses transmitted along each of the
axons.
 The nerve works through its nerve cell
called the Neuron.
 The neuron is the basic working unit of
the brain, a specialized cell designed to
transmit information to other nerve cells,
muscle, or gland cells.
 Neurons are cells within the nervous
system that transmit information to other
nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells.
Most neurons have a cell body, an axon,
and dendrites
3. Axon
 An axon, or nerve fiber, is a long slender
projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that
conducts electrical impulses away from
the neuron's cell body or soma.
 Axons are in effect the primary
transmission lines of the nervous system,
and as bundles they help make up nerves.

 The parts of a Neuron are the following:

1. Soma or cell body

4. Myelin Sheath
 contains the nucleus and other structures
 Myelin is an insulating layer, or sheath
common to living cells. These structures
that forms around nerves, including those
support the chemical processing of the
in the brain and spinal cord.
neuron; the most important of which is the
 It is made up of protein and fatty
production of neurotransmitters.
substances.
 This myelin sheath allows electrical
impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently
along the nerve cells.

2. Dendrite
 Dendrites are appendages that are
designed to receive communications from
other cells.
 They resemble a tree-like structure,
forming projections that become
stimulated by other neurons and conduct 5. Schwann Cell
the electrochemical charge to the cell  Schwann cells are the main glial cell in the
body(or, more rarely, directly to the PNS and play an essential role in the
axons). survival and functions of neurons. In
response to nerve injury, Schwann cells
 undergo rapid changes in phenotype [199]
and their basal lamina provides a conduit
for axon regrowth, a critical process for
nerve regeneration.
CRANIAL NERVES
- The 12 pairs of the Cranial Nerves and
the 31 pairs of the Spinal Nerves makes
up the Peripheral Nervous System.
 The Peripheral Nervous System is
divided into the Autonomic Nervous
System and the Somatic Nervous
System.
Autonomic Nervous System
 The Autonomic Nervous System is the
motor subdivision of the PNS.
 It is a control system that acts largely
unconsciously and regulates bodily
functions, such as the heart rate,
digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary
response, urination, and sexual arousal.
 This system is the primary mechanism in
control of the fight-or-flight response.
 This system is divided into 2; the
Sympathetic and the Parasympathetic.
1. Sympathetic Nervous System
- directs the body's rapid involuntary
response to dangerous or stressful
situations.
- A flash flood of hormones boosts the
body's alertness and heart rate, sending
extra blood to the muscles.
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System
- is one of three divisions of the
autonomic nervous system.
- Sometimes called the rest and
digest system
- conserves energy as it slows the heart
rate, increases intestinal and gland
activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles in
the gastrointestinal
tract.
The Somatic Nervous System
- is the part of the peripheral nervous
system associated with the voluntary
control of body movements via skeletal
muscles
- consists of afferent nerves or sensory
nerves, and efferent nerves or motor
nerve.
1. Afferent or Sensory Nerves
- These are sensory neurons
carrying nerve impulses
from sensory stimuli toward the
central nervous system and brain.
- carry signals to the brain and spinal cord
as sensory
- transmits sensory gathered from the skin,
muscles and joints to the CNS.

2. Efferent or Motor Nerves

- carry impulses away from the
central nervous
- carries information from the CNS to the
muscles and glands.
 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Major Glands in Our Body

The Endocrine System
1. Hypothalamus
- is the collection of glands that produce 2. Pituitary gland
hormones that regulate metabolism, 3. Pineal gland
growth and development, tissue function, 4. Thyroid gland
sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and 5. Parathyroid glands
mood, among other things. 6. Adrenal glands
- It is the Second controlling system of the 7. Testes
body. 8. Ovaries
- It is also a fast-control system that uses
chemical messengers (hormones) that are
Two types of glands
released into the blood.
1. Endocrine
The 3 Main Functions of the Endocrine 2. Exocrine
System are:  Some glands have purely endocrine
functions.
1. Makes hormones that control your  Some have pure exocrine functions.
moods, growthand  Other glands are mixed glands, with both
development, metabolism, organs, and endocrine and exocrine functions
reproduction. (pancreas, gonads).
2. Controls how your hormones are
released. 1. Endocrine Glands
3. Sends t hose hormones into your
bloodstream so they can travel to other They are ductless glands and release the
body parts. substances that they make (hormones)
directly into the
Glands bloodstream.
- are organs which produces and releases
substances that perform a
specific function in the body. There are 8
major organs in our body.

Examples of Endocrine Glands

1. Anterior Pituitary
2. Thyroid
3. Adrenals
4. Parathyroids
2. Exocrine Glands
They are glands with ducts. The secretions
are delivered into ducts and end up on the
epithelial surface.
Examples of Exocrine Glands
1. Salivary Gland
2. Sweat Gland
HORMONES
- Hormones are chemical substances
secreted by endocrine cells into the
extracellular fluids that regulate the
metabolic activity of other cells in the
body.
The Chemistry of Hormones
 Hormones are produced by specialized
cells. These Cells secrete hormones into
extracellular fluids. Blood transfers
hormones to target sites. In target sites,
hormones regulate the activity of other
cells.
 Endocrinology is the scientific study of
hormones and endocrine organs
Hormones are classified chemically as:
1. Amino acid–based, which includes:
a. Proteins
b. Peptides
c. Amines
2. Steroids that are made from cholesterol
3. Prostaglandins which are made from
highly active lipids that act as local hormones.
Major Processes that Hormones Control
1. Reproduction
2. Growth and development
3. Mobilization of body defenses
4. Maintenance of much of homeostasis
5. Regulation of metabolism
HORMONE ACTION
 Hormones affect only certain tissues or
organs (target cells or target organs).
 For a target cell to respond, specific
protein receptors in which a hormone can
attach must be present. It then alters
arouse cells or alter cellular activity.
Typically, one or more of the following
occurs:
1. Change plasma membrane
permeability or membrane potential by
opening or closing ion channels
2. Activate or inactivate enzymes
3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a
product
5. Turn on or turn off transcription of
certain genes
Hormones Act by Two Mechanisms
1. Direct Gene Activation –
- used by steroid hormones and
thyroid hormone
a. Steroid hormones diffuse through the
plasma membrane of target cells
b. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters
the nucleus
c. Then, the hormone binds to a specific
protein within the nucleus
d. Hormone-receptor complex binds to
specific sites on the cell’s DNA
e. Certain genes are activated to transcribe 3. Neural stimuli
messenger RNA
f. New proteins are synthesized Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release. Most
are under the control of the sympathetic
B. Second-Messenger System nervous system.
- used by protein and peptide hormones Examples:
a. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal
membrane receptor medulla to release epinephrine and
b. Activated receptor sets off a series of norepinephrine
reactions that activates an enzyme
c. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY
produces a second-messenger molecule GLAND
(such as cyclic AMP, known as cAMP)
d. Oversees additional intracellular changes  Pituitary Gland
to promote a specific response in the - A pea-sized gland that hangs by a
target cell stalk from the hypothalamus in the
brain.
- It is protected by the sella turcica of
Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release the sphenoid bone.
 Negative feedback - It has two functional lobes; anterior
- Maintain hormone levels in the blood . pituitary and the posterior pituitary
- In this feedback system, a stimulus or gland.
low hormone levels in the blood will
trigger the release of more hormone.
The release of hormones stops once
an appropriate level in the blood is
reached.
The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall
into three major categories
1. hormonal
2. humoral or 1. Anterior Pituitary Gland
3. neural. - This gland is small, controls the activity
of so many other endocrine glands.
- They are often called the “Master
1. Hormonal Stimuli Endocrine Gland”. The adrenal,
- This is the most common category of thyroid and the gonad atrophies if
stimulus. Endocrine organs are there is an hyposecretion of these
activated by other hormones. hormones.
Example: - Hypothalamus produces Releasing
Hormones and Inhibiting Hormones to
Hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the
regulate the function of the anterior
anterior pituitary gland to secrete its
Pituitary Gland. These hormones are
hormones. Many anterior pituitary hormones
released into portal circulation, which
stimulate other endocrine organs to release
connects hypothalamus to anterior
their hormones in the blood.
pituitary gland.
2. Humoral indicates various body fluids,
such as blood and bile
Examples:
Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are
produced in response to changing levels of
blood calcium levels. Insulin is produced in
response to changing levels of blood glucose
levels
2. Posterior Pituitary Gland
- It is not an endocrine gland as it does not
make the hormones it releases but
instead it stands as storage for hormones
made by the hypothalamus.
- Stores 2 types of hormones from the
hypothalamus;
1. oxytocin and
2. anti-diuretic hormone.
1. Oxytocin
- This hormone is released only during
chidbirth. It stimulates contractions of the
uterus during labor, sexual relations, and
breastfeeding. It also causes milk ejection
(let-down reflex) in a breastfeeding
woman.
2. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)
- It is a chemical that inhibits urine
production (diuresis) by promoting water
reabsorption by the kidneys. As a result,
urine volume decreases and blood
pressure increases.
- In large amounts, causes constriction of
arterioles, leading toincreased blood
pressure (the reason why ADH is known
as vasopressin).Alcohol drinking inhibits
ADH secretion.
Six Anterior Pituitary Hormones Affecting
our Body
Two Hormones affect Nonendocrine targets
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin
Four are Tropic Hormones
3. Follicle-stimulating hormone
4. Luteinizing hormone
5. Thyrotropic hormone
6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
 All anterior pituitary hormones are
proteins (or peptides). They act through
second-messenger systems. Generally,
they are regulated by hormonal stimuli
and negative feedback.
1. Growth hormone (GH)
- GH is a general metabolic hormone.
- Its major effects are directed to growth
of skeletal muscles and long bones.
- The GH Plays a role in determining
final body size.
- It is protein- sparing and anabolic
hormone that causes amino acids to
be built into proteins.
- It also causes fats to be broken down
for a source of energy.
2. Prolactin (PRL).
- Prolactin stimulates and maintains milk
production following childbirth.
- Function in males is unknown.
 Gonadotropic Hormones
- they are hormones that regulate
hormonal activity of the gonads.
- There are 2 gonadotropic hormones in
the body: FSH and LH
- The Follicle-stimulating Hormone
(FSH)
- Stimulates follicle development
in ovaries in women and
stimulates sperm
development in testes in men.
3. The Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Triggers ovulation of an egg from the
ovary and causes the ruptured follicle
to produce progesterone and some
estrogen.
- Stimulates testosterone production in
males.
4. Thyrotropic hormone (TH), also called
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- This hormone Influences growth and
activity of the thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
It also regulates endocrine activity of
the adrenal cortex.
4. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
plays a large role in how your body
responds to stress.
- ACTH is produced in the pituitary
gland, its production stimulates the
production and release of cortisol from
the adrenal gland.
 PINEAL and THYROID GLANDS
I. Pineal Gland
- It is small, cone shaped gland that hangs
from the roof of the third ventricle of the
brain.
- Secretes melatonin in substantial
amounts.
 Melatonin is believed to trigger the
body’s sleep/wake cycle.
 It is also believed to coordinate the
hormones of fertility in humans and to
inhibit the reproductive system until
maturity occurs.
II. Thyroid Gland
- This gland is found at the base of the
throat, just inferior to the Adam’s apple.
- It is a large gland consisting of two lobes
joined by a central mass or isthmus.
- It produces two hormones
a) thyroid hormone and
b) calcitonin.
1. Thyroid hormone
- This is often referred to as a major
metabolic hormone.
- It controls rate of oxidation of glucose to
supply body heat and chemical energy
(ATP) and is needed for tissue growth
and development.
- It decreases blood calcium levels by
causing calcium deposition on bone
- It is composed of two active iodine-
containing hormones:
a) Thyroxine - secreted by thyroid follicles
b) Triiodothyronine (T3) - conversion of
T4 at target tissues
2. Calcitonin
- This hormone decreases blood calcium
levels by causing calcium deposition on
bone.
- It acts antagonistically to parathyroid
hormone.
- It produced by parafollicular cells found
between the follicles.
PARATHYROID AND THYMUS
I. Parathyroid Glands
- They are tiny masses on the posterior of
the thyroid.
- It secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH).
They are most important regulator of
calcium ion (Ca2+) homeostasis of the
blood. It also stimulates osteoclasts to
remove calcium from bone.
PTH - is a hypercalcemic hormone meaning it
increases blood calcium levels and it
stimulates the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium.
II. Thymus
- This hormone is located in the upper
thorax, posterior to the sternum.
- It is largest in infants and children and
decreases in size throughout adulthood.
- Thymus produces a hormone
called Thymosin which appears to be
essential for a special group of white
blood cells and the immune system.
ADRENAL GLANDS
Adrenal Glands
- This gland sits on top of the kidneys like
triangular hats.
- It has 2 regions;
 1. adrenal cortex and
2. adrenal medulla.
II.
Two Regions Composing the Adrenal Gland
1. Adrenal Cortex
- Produces 3 major groups of steroid
hormones which are collectively known as
corticosteroids. They are the
a) mineralocorticoids,
b) glucocorticoids,
c) sex hormones.
A. Mineralocorticoids (mainly
aldosterone)
- They are produced in outer adrenal
cortex.
- They are important in regulating mineral
(salt) content in blood, particularly sodium
and potassium ions.
- They also regulate water and electrolyte
balance.
- The target organ is the kidney.
Release of aldosterone is stimulated
by:
a) Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or
too many potassium ions in the blood)
b) Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
c) Renin and angiotensin II in response
to a drop in blood pressure
 Aldosterone production is inhibited by
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a hormone
produced by the heart when blood
pressure is too high.
B. Glucocorticoids (including cortisone
and cortisol)
- They are produced by middle layer of
adrenal cortex.
- It promotes normal cell metabolism and
help resist long-term stressors by
increasing blood glucose levels
(hyperglycemic hormone).
- It also Anti-inflammatory properties and
are released in response to increased
blood levels of ACTH.
C. Sex hormones
- It is produced in the inner layer of the
adrenal cortex and in small amounts are
made throughout life.
 Most of the hormones produced are
androgens (male sex hormones), but
some estrogens (female sex hormones)
are also formed
Adrenal Medulla
- It is a knot of nervous tissue.
- Produces two similar hormones or
catecholamines;
 epinephrine or
 norepinephrine.
a) Epinephrine or Adrenaline
- It is a hormone and medication.
- Adenaline is normally produced by
both the adrenal glands and a small
number of neurons in the medulla
oblongata, where it acts as a
neurotransmitter involved in regulating
visceral functions (e.g., respiration).
b) Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
- It is a naturally occurring chemical in
the body that acts as both a stress
hormone and neurotransmitter (a
substance that sends signals between
nerve cells). It's released into the blood
as a stress hormone when the brain
perceives that a stressful event has
occurred.
- These hormones prepare the body to
deal with short-term stress (“fight or
flight”) by increasing heart rate, blood
pressure, blood glucose levels and
dilating small passageways of
lungs.
PANCREAS
- It is located close to the stomach in the
abdominal cavity.
- It is a mixed gland, with both endocrine
and exocrine functions.
- The Pancreatic Islets or the Islets of
Langerhans produce 2 hormones;
 Insulin and
 Glucagon.
- These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis
1. Insulin
- These are produced by beta cells and
released when blood glucose levels are
high.
- This hormone increases the rate of
glucose uptake and metabolism by body
cells. Insulin removes sugar out of the
blood so its effect is Hypoglycemic.
2. Glucagon
- Glucagon is produced by alpha cells
and released when blood glucose
levels are low.
- It stimulates the liver to release
glucose to blood, thus increasing blood
glucose levels.
GONADS
Gonads
- The female and male gonads produce sex
cells.
- They also produce sex hormones identical
to those of adrenal cortex production.
Ovaries
- The female gonads or ovaries are paired,
slightly larger that almond-sized organs
are located in the pelvic cavity.
- They produce eggs or ova and 2 groups
of hormones namely:
 estrogen and
 progesterone.
a. Estrogens
- Stimulate the development of secondary
female characteristics and maturation of
the female reproductive organs.
- With progesterone, it also promote breast
development.
b. Progesterone
- It acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle.
- It also helps in the implantation of an
embryo in the uterus and helps prepare
breasts for lactation.
Testes
- The paired, oval male gonads or testes
are suspended in a sac called Scrotum
outside the pelvic cavity.
- It produces sperm and male sex
hormones or androgens, such as
testosterone.
- Testosterone is the most important
androgen because it is responsible for
adult male secondary sex characteristics.
It promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system and is required for
sperm cell production
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
Organs
 There are pockets of hormone-producing
cells that are found in the stomach, walls
of the small intestine, kidneys and heart.
Some hormones are also produced in the
placenta.
Placenta
- It is a remarkable organ formed
temporarily in the uterus.
- It produces hormones that maintain
pregnancy.
- It produces human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) in addition to
estrogen, progesterone, and other
hormones.
- The Human placental lactogen (hPL)
prepares the breasts for lactation. Relaxin
relaxes pelvic ligaments and pubic
symphysis for childbirth.
Other Sources of Hormones are Identified
in this Chart
 2. Immune system depression
STIMULUS 3. Lower metabolic rate
SOURCE HORMONE FOR 4. Cancer rates in some areas
SECRETION

Local
1.Plasma
irritation,
membrane of Prostaglandins
hormones,
all body cells
etc.

2. Stomach Gastrin Food

Intestinal
3.Duodenum Food
Gastrin

4. Duodenum Secretin Food

5. Duodenum Cholecystokinin Food

6.Kidney Erythropoetin Hypoxia

7.Kidney Active Vit D3 PTH

Atrial natriuretic Stretching of

8.Heart
Peptide(ANP) Atria

9.Adipose
Leptin Fatty Foods
Tissue

10.Adipose
Resistin Unknown
Tissue

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- In the absence of disease, efficiency of
the endocrine system remains high until
old age. Decreasing function of female
ovaries at menopause leads to such
symptoms as osteoporosis, increased
chance of heart disease, and possible
mood changes.
Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
System
- Efficiency of all endocrine glands
gradually decreases with aging, which
leads to a generalized increase in
incidence of:
1. Diabetes mellitus
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- is a series of organs responsible for
taking in oxygen and expelling carbon
dioxide.
- The primary organs of the respiratory
system are the lungs, which carry out
this exchange of gases as we breathe.
- The respiratory organs oversee the gas
exchanges that occur between the blood
and the external environment.
Organs of the Respiratory System
1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Trachea
5. Lungs
Functional Anatomy of the
Respiratory System
Gas exchanges between the blood and
external environment occur only in the alveoli
of the lungs:
 Upper respiratory tract includes
passageways from the nose to larynx
 Lower respiratory tract includes
passageways from trachea to alveoli
 Passageways to the lungs purify,
humidify, and warm the incoming air
Nose
- It is the only externally visible part of the
respiratory system. its nostrils (nares) are
the route through which air enters the
nose.
- The nasal cavity is the interior of the
nose while the Nasal septum divides the
nasal cavity.
- The Olfactory receptors are located in the
mucosa on the superior surface while the
rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory
mucosa, which:
a) Moistens air
b) Traps incoming foreign particles
c) Enzymes in the mucus destroy
bacteria chemically
Conchae are projections from the lateral walls
a) Increase surface area
b) Increase air turbulence within the
nasal cavity
c) Increased trapping of inhaled particles
The palate separates the nasal cavity from
the oral cavity
a) Hard palate is anterior and supported by
bone
b) Soft palate is posterior and unsupported
Paranasal sinuses
- They are the cavities within the
frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and
maxillary bones surrounding the nasal
cavity
Sinuses:
c) Lighten the skull
d) Act as resonance chambers for speech
e) Produce mucus
The Pharynx
- It is commonly called the throat.
- It is a Muscular passageway from
nasal cavity to larynx.
- It is continuous with the posterior
nasal aperture.
Three Regions of the Pharynx
1. Nasopharynx
- superior region behind nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx
- middle region behind mouth
3. Laryngopharynx
- inferior region attached to larynx
 Oropharynx and laryngopharynx serve
as common passageway for air and
food. Epiglottis routes food into the
posterior tube, the esophagus
 Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the
nasopharynx and drains the middle ear
 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue
that play a role in protecting the body from
infection.
a. Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid), a single
tonsil, is located in the nasopharynx.
b. Palatine tonsils (2) are located in the
oropharynx at the end of the
soft palate
c. Lingual tonsils (2) are found at the
base of the tongue
The Larynx
- Commonly called the voice box.
- Located inferior to the pharynx.
- Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages.
- Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) is
the largest.
Functions
a. Routes air and food into proper
channels
b. Plays a role in speech
Epiglottis
- a Spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage.
- It protects the superior opening of the
larynx.
- it routes food to the posteriorly situated
esophagus and routes air toward the
trachea
During swallowing, the epiglottis rises and
forms a lid over the opening of the larynx.
The Vocal folds (true vocal cords) vibrate with
expelled air and Allow us to speak.
The glottis includes the vocal cords and the
opening between the vocal cords
Trachea
- It is commonly called the windpipe.
- It is a 4-inch-long tube that connects to
the larynx.
- Its walls are reinforced with C-shaped
rings of hyaline cartilage, which keep the
trachea patent (open).
- It is lined with ciliated mucosa. The Cilia
beat continuously in the opposite direction
of incoming air so it can expel mucus
loaded with dust and other debris away
from lungs.
The Main Bronchi
- It is formed by division of the trachea.
- Each bronchus enters the lung at the
hilum (medial depression).
- The Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and
straighter than left.
Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
branches
Lungs
- Occupies the entire thoracic cavity except
for the central mediastinum.
- Apex of each lung is near the clavicle
(superior portion). The base rests on the
diaphragm.Each lung is divided into lobes
by fissures:
a. Left lung—two lobes
b. Right lung—three lobes
 Serosa covers the outer surface of the
lungs.
c. Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
lung surface
d. Parietal pleura lines the walls of the
thoracic cavity
 Pleural fluid fills the area between layers
-Allows the lungs to glide over the thorax
- Decreases friction during breathing
 Pleural space (between the layers) is
more of a potential space
The Bronchial Tree
- The main bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches.
- The Bronchial (respiratory) tree is the
network of branching passageways. All
but the smallest passageways have
reinforcing cartilage in the walls. Conduits
to and from the respiratory zone.
- The Bronchioles serves as the smallest
conducting passageways.
 Respiratory Physiology
Similar to a cough, except that
Functions of the Respiratory System expelled air is directed through
nasal cavities instead or
a. Supply the body with oxygen through oral cavity. The uvula,
b. Dispose of carbon dioxide a dangling tag of tissue hanging
Respiration includes four distinct events : Sneeze from the soft palate, becomes
depressed and closes oral
Four Events of Respiration cavity off from pharynx, rooting
air through nasal cavities.
1. Pulmonary Ventilation Sneezes clear upper
- moving air into and out of the lungs respiratory passages.
(commonly called breathing)
2. External Respiration Inspiration followed by a
- gas exchange between pulmonary blood release of air in a number of
and alveoli Crying short expirations. Primarily an
emotionally induced
a. Oxygen is loaded into the blood mechanism.
b. Carbon dioxide is unloaded from
the blood
Essentially same as crying in
3. Respiratory Gas Transport terms of the air movements
Laughing
produced. Also an emotionally
- transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
induced mechanism.
via the bloodstream
4. Internal Respiration
- gas exchange between blood and tissue Sudden inspirations resulting
cells in systemic capillaries from spasms of diaphragm;
initiated by irritation of
Mechanism of Breathing Hiccups diaphragm or phrenic nerves,
which serves diaphragm. The
1. Reflect on these questions: sound occurs when inspired air
2. What happens during Inspiration? hits vocal folds of closed glottis.
3. Is Expiration a passive, active or both?

Non-respiratory Gas Movements Very deep inspiration, taken

with jaws wide open; ventilates
 Many situations other than breathing Yawn all alveoli (some alveoli may
move air into or out of the lungs may remain collapsed during normal
modify the normal respiratory rhythm. quiet breathing)
Coughs and Sneezes clear the air
passages of debris of collected mucus.
Laughing and crying reflect our emotions.
Respiratory Sounds
Examples are the following:
 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
MOVEMENT MECHANISM AND RESULT  Two recognizable sounds can be heard
with a stethoscope:
Taking a deep breath, closing
1. Bronchial sounds
glottis, and forcing air superiorly
- produced by air rushing through
from the lungs against glottis.
large passageways such as the
Cough Then, glottis opens suddenly,
trachea and bronchi
and a blast of air rushes
2. Vesicular Breathing Sounds
upward. Coughs act to clear the
- soft sounds of air filling alveoli
lower respiratory passageways.
External Respiration, Gas Transport,
and Internal Respiration
I. Gas Transport
- Gas exchanges occur as a result of
diffusion.
- External respiration is an exchange of
gases occurring between the alveoli and
pulmonary blood (pulmonary gas
exchange).
- Internal respiration is an exchange of
gases occurring between the blood and
tissue cells (systemic capillary gas
exchange)
Movement of the gas is toward the area of
lower concentration
II. External Respiration
 Oxygen is loaded into the blood. Oxygen
diffuses from the oxygen-rich air of the
alveoli to the oxygen-poor blood of the
pulmonary capillaries.
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of the
blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the
blood of the pulmonary capillaries to the
alveoli
III. Gas Transport in the Blood
 Oxygen transport in the blood. Most
oxygen travels attached to hemoglobin
and forms oxyhemoglobin (HbO2).A small
dissolved amount is carried in the plasma.
 Carbon dioxide transport in the
blood. Most carbon dioxide is transported
in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3–
). A small amount is carried inside red
blood cells on hemoglobin, but at different
binding sites from those of oxygen
 For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood
into the alveoli, it must be released from
its bicarbonate form:
 Bicarbonate ions enter RBC. Combine
with hydrogen ions. Form carbonic acid
(H2CO3). Carbonic acid splits to form
water + CO2. Carbon dioxide diffuses
from blood into alveoli.
IV. Internal Respiration
 Exchange of gases between blood and
tissue cells. It is An opposite reaction from
what occurs in the lungs. Carbon dioxide
diffuses out of tissue cells to blood
(called loading). Oxygen diffuses from
blood into tissue (called unloading)
Respiratory Disorders
I. Chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD)
- It is exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
- Shared features of these diseases
1. Patients almost always have a history of
smoking
2. Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes
progressively worse
3. Coughing and frequent pulmonary
infections are common
4. Most COPD patients are hypoxic, retain
carbon dioxide and have respiratory
acidosis, and ultimately develop
respiratory failure
II. Chronic bronchitis
 Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages
becomes severely inflamed
 Excessive mucus production impairs
ventilation and gas exchange
 Patients become cyanotic and are
sometimes called “blue bloaters” as a
result of chronic hypoxia and carbon
dioxide retention
III. Emphysema
 Alveoli walls are destroyed; remaining
alveoli enlarge
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung
fibrosis, and lungs lose elasticity
 Patients use a large amount of energy to
exhale; some air remains in the lungs
 Sufferers are often called “pink puffers”
because oxygen exchange is efficient
 Overinflation of the lungs leads to a
permanently expanded barrel chest
 Cyanosis appears late in the disease
IV. Lung cancer
It is the leading cause of cancer death for
men and women. Nearly 90 percent of cases
result from smoking. It is an aggressive
cancer that metastasizes rapidly
 Three Common Types
1.Adenocarcinoma
2.Squamous cell carcinoma
3.Small cell carcinoma
 Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory System

 Lungs do not fully inflate until 2 weeks

after birth. This change from nonfunctional
to functional respiration depends on
surfactant. Surfactant lowers surface
tension so the alveoli do not
collapse. Surfactant is formed late in
pregnancy, around 28 to 30 weeks
 Respiratory rate changes throughout life
 Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
 Infants: 30 respirations per minute
 Age 5: 25 respirations per minute
 Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per
minute.
 Rate often increases again in old age

Asthma

 Chronically inflamed, hypersensitive

bronchiole passages
 Respond to irritants with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing
 Usually affects Youth and middle age
 Most respiratory system problems are a
result of external factors, such as
infections and substances that physically
block respiratory passageways

Effect of Aging
1. Elasticity of lungs decreases
2. Vital capacity decreases
3. Blood oxygen levels decrease
4. Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decrease
5. Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit
sleep apnea
6. More risks of respiratory tract infection
 The Cardiovascular System
- is an organ system that conveys blood
through vessels to and from all parts of
the body, carrying nutrients and oxygen to
tissues and removing carbon dioxide and
other wastes
- it is a closed tubular system in which the
blood is propelled by a muscular heart.
- Two circuits:
 the pulmonary and
 the systemic - consist of arterial,
capillary, and venous components.
- It is composed of your HEART and
BLOOD VESSELS.
Heart
 Is a muscular organ about the size of a
fist, located just behind and slightly left of
the breastbone
 Pumps blood through the network of
arteries and veins called the
cardiovascular system
 Located in the thoracic cavity, between
the lungs in the inferior mediastinum
 Apex is directed toward left hip and rests
on the diaphragm
 Base points toward right shoulder
Walls of the Heart
1. Epicardium
2. Myocardium
 Middle layer
 Mostly cardiac muscles
3. Endocardium
 Inner layer known as Endothelium
 Outside layer; Visceral pericardium
Blood Vessels
- Blood Vessels are tubular structures
carrying blood to the tissues and organs.
- There are are 3 major Types of Blood
Vessels:
1. Arteries transport blood and other
substances away from the heart.
2. Veins return blood back toward the
heart.
3. Capillaries surround body cells and
tissues to deliver and absorb oxygen,
nutrients and other substances.
Chambers of the Heart
1. Atria (right and left)
- Receiving chambers
- Assist with filling the ventricles
- Blood enters under low pressure
2. Ventricles (right and left)
- Discharging chambers
- Thick-walled pumps of the heart
- During contraction, blood is propelled
into circulation
3. Interatrial septum
- Separates the two atria longitudinally
4. Interventricular Septum
- Separates the two ventricles
longitudinally
 Blood flows from the right side of the heart
to the lungs and back to the left side of the
heart.
 Blood is pumped out of right side through
the pulmonary trunk, which splits into
pulmonary arteries and takes oxygen-poor
blood to lungs
 Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart
from the lungs via pulmonary veins
Systemic circulation
- Oxygen-rich blood returned to the left
side of the heart is pumped out into the
aorta
- Blood circulates to systemic arteries and
to all body tissues
- Left ventricle has thicker walls because it
pumps blood to the body through the
systemic circuit
 Oxygen-poor blood returns to the right
atrium via systemic veins, which empty
blood into the superior or inferior vena
cava
Heart Valves
- Allow blood to flow in only one direction,
to prevent backflow
1. Atrioventricular (AV) valves
- between atria and ventricles
 Left AV valve: bicuspid (mitral)
valve
 Right AV valve: tricuspid valve
- Anchored the cusps in place by chordae
tendineae to the walls of the ventricles
- Open during heart relaxation, when
blood passively fills the chambers
- Closed during ventricular contraction
2. Semilunar valves
- between ventricle and artery
 Pulmonary semilunar valve
 Aortic semilunar valve
- Closed during heart relaxation
- Open during ventricular contraction
- Valves open and close in response to
pressure changes in the heart
Cardiac Circulation
Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish
the myocardium.The heart has its own
nourishing circulatory system consisting of:
a. Coronary arteries
- branch from the aorta to supply
the heart muscle with
oxygenated blood
b. Cardiac veins
- drain the myocardium of blood
c. Coronary sinus
- a large vein on the posterior of
the heart
- receives blood from
cardiac veins
Blood empties into the right atrium via the
coronary sinus
Physiology of the Heart
Heart functions as a double pump
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart
 Veins carry blood toward the heart
Double pump
 Right side works as the pulmonary circuit
pump
 Left side works as the systemic circuit
pump
Intrinsic conduction system of the heart
 Cardiac muscle contracts spontaneously
and independently of nerve
impulses. Spontaneous contractions
occur in a regular and continuous way.
 Atrial cells beat 60 times per minute.
 Ventricular cells beat 20−40 times per
minute. It needs a unifying control
system—the intrinsic conduction system
(nodal system)
Two systems regulate heart activity
1. Autonomic nervous system
2. Intrinsic conduction system, or the
nodal system
- Sets the heart rhythm
- Composed of special nervous tissue
- Ensures heart muscle depolarization in
one direction only (atria
to ventricles)
- Enforces a heart rate of 75 beats per
minute
Components include:
1. Sinoatrial (SA) node
- Located in the right atrium
- Serves as the heart’s pacemaker
2. Atrioventricular (AV) node
- is at the junction of the atria and
ventricle.
- Atrioventricular (AV) bundle (bundle of
His) and bundle branches are in the
interventricular septum.
- Purkinje fibers spread within the
ventricle wall muscles.
 The sinoatrial node (SA node) starts each
heartbeat. Impulse spreads through the
atria to the AV node. Atria contract. At the
AV node, the impulse is delayed
briefly. Impulse travels through the AV
bundle, bundle branches, and Purkinje
fibers. Ventricles contract; blood is ejected
from the heart.
Tachycardia
- rapid heart rate, over 100 beats per
minute
Bradycardia
- slow heart rate, less than 60 beats per
minutes
Cardiac Cycle and Heart Sounds
- refers to one complete heartbeat, in
which both atria and ventricles
contract and then relax
 Systole - contraction
 Diastole - relaxation
 Average heart rate is approximately 75
beats per minute
 Cardiac cycle length is normally 0.8
second
Atrial diastole (ventricular filling)
- Heart is relaxed and pressure in heart
is low. At this point, Atrioventricular
valves are open and blood flows
passively into the atria and into
ventricles. Semilunar valves are
closed
Atrial systole
- Ventricles remain in diastole. Atria
contract. Blood is forced into the
ventricles to complete ventricular
filling.
Isovolumetric contraction
- Atrial systole ends; ventricular systole
begins. Intraventricular pressure
rises. AV valves close. For a moment,
the ventricles are completely closed
chambers
Ventricular systole (ejection phase)
- Ventricles continue to
contract. Intraventricular pressure now
surpasses the pressure in the major
arteries leaving the heart. Semilunar
valves open. Blood is ejected from the
ventricles. Atria are relaxed and filling
with blood
Isovolumetric relaxation
- Ventricular diastole begins. Pressure
falls below that in the major
arteries. Semilunar valves close. For
another moment, the ventricles are
completely closed chambers. When
atrial pressure increases above
intraventricular pressure, the AV
valves open.
Heart sounds
1. Lub
- longer, louder heart sound caused by
the closing of the AV valves
2. Dup
- short, sharp heart sound caused by
the closing of the semilunar valves at
the end of ventricular systole
Cardiac output (CO)
- Amount of blood pumped by each
side (ventricle) of the heart in 1 minute
Stroke volume (SV)
- Volume of blood pumped by each
ventricle in one contraction (each
heartbeat). About 70 ml of blood is
pumped out of the left ventricle with each
heartbeat
Heart rate (HR)
- Typically 75 beats per minute
 Cardiac output is the product of the heart
rate (HR) and the stroke volume (SV)
 CO = HR × SV
 CO = HR (75 beats/min) × SV (70
ml/beat)
 CO = 5250 ml/min = 5.25 L/min
Regulation of Stroke Volume
- 60 percent of blood in ventricles (about 70
ml) is pumped with each heartbeat.
Starling’s law of the heart
- The critical factor controlling SV is how
much cardiac muscle is stretched. The
more the cardiac muscle is stretched, the
stronger the contraction. Venous return is
the important factor influencing the stretch
of heart muscle
Factors modifying basic heart rate
1. Neural (ANS) controls
- Sympathetic nervous system speeds
heart rate
- Parasympathetic nervous system,
primarily vagus nerve fibers, slow and
steady the heart rate
2. Hormones and ions
- Epinephrine and thyroxine speed heart
rate
- Excess or lack of calcium, sodium, and
potassium ions also modify heart
activity
3. Physical factors
- Age, gender, exercise, body
temperature influence heart rate.
Blood Vessels
- Blood vessels form a closed vascular
system that transports blood to the
tissues and back to the heart.
Arteries and arterioles.
- Vessels that carry blood away from
the heart:
Capillary Beds
- Vessels that play a role in exchanges
between tissues and blood
Venules and Veins
- Vessels that return blood toward the
heart
Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels
Three layers (tunics) in blood vessels (except
the capillaries)
1. Tunica intima forms a friction-reducing
lining.
- Endothelium
2. Tunica Media
- Smooth muscle and elastic tissue
- Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system.
3. Tunica externa forms protective outermost
covering
- Mostly fibrous connective tissue
- Supports and protects the vessel.
Structural differences in Arteries,
Veins, and Capillaries
1. Arteries have a heavier, stronger,
stretchier tunica media than veins to
withstand changes in pressure
2. Veins have a thinner tunica media than
arteries and operate under low pressure.
Veins also have valves to prevent
backflow of blood. Lumen of veins is
larger than that of arteries. Skeletal
muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the
heart.
3. Capillaries have only one cell layer thick
(tunica intima). Allow for exchanges
between blood and tissue. Blood flow
through a capillary bed is known
as microcirculation. Form networks
called capillary beds that consist of:
a. A vascular shunt
b. True capillaries
4. True capillaries is a branch off a terminal
arteriole. Empty directly into a
postcapillary venule. Its Entrances to
capillary beds are guarded by precapillary
sphincters.
Gross Anatomy of Blood Vessels
A. Major arteries of systemic circulation
1. Aorta - largest artery in the body. Leaves
from the left ventricle of the heart
Regions
a. Ascending aorta
- leaves the left ventricle
b. Aortic arch
- arches to the left
c. Thoracic aorta
- travels downward through the thorax
d. Abdominal aorta
- passes through the diaphragm into
the abdominopelvic cavity. Arterial
branches of the abdominal
aorta. Celiac trunk is the first branch
of the abdominal aorta.
Three branches are:
1. Left gastric artery (stomach)
2. Splenic artery (spleen)
3. Common hepatic artery (liver)
Superior mesenteric artery supplies most of
the :
 Small intestine and first half of the
large intestine.
 Left and right renal arteries (kidney).
 Left and right gonadal arteries
- Ovarian arteries in females serve the
ovaries
- Testicular arteries in males serve the
testes
Lumbar arteries serve muscles of the
abdomen and trunk
e. Arterial branches of the ascending
aorta
- Right and left coronary arteries serve
the heart. Intercostal arteries supply
the muscles of the thorax wall. Other
branches of the thoracic aorta (not
illustrated) supply the:
- Lungs (bronchial arteries)
- Esophagus (esophageal arteries)
- Diaphragm (phrenic arteries)
 f. Arterial branches of the aortic arch
- Brachiocephalic trunk splits into the:
- Right common carotid artery
- Right subclavian artery
Left common carotid artery splits into the:
- Left internal and external carotid
arteries
Left subclavian artery branches into the:
- Vertebral artery
- In the axilla, the subclavian artery
becomes the axillary artery → brachial
artery → radial and ulnar arteries
 Inferior mesenteric artery serves the
second half of the large intestine. Left and
right common iliac arteries are the final
branches of the aorta. Internal iliac
arteries serve the pelvic organs. External
iliac arteries enter the thigh → femoral
artery→ popliteal artery → anterior and
posterior tibial arteries.
Major Veins of Systemic Circulation
 Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava
enter the right atrium of the
heart. Superior vena cava drains the head
and arms. Inferior vena cava drains the
lower body
 Veins draining into the superior vena
cava. Radial and ulnar veins → brachial
vein → axillary vein. Cephalic vein drains
the lateral aspect of the arm and empties
into the axillary vein. Basilic vein drains
the medial aspect of the arm and empties
into the brachial vein. Basilic and cephalic
veins are joined at the median cubital vein
(elbow area). Subclavian vein receives:
o Venous blood from the arm via the
axillary vein
o Venous blood from skin and muscles
via external jugular vein.
 Vertebral vein drains the posterior part of
the head. Internal jugular vein drains the
dural sinuses of the brain. Left and right
brachiocephalic veins receive venous
blood from the:
o Subclavian veins
o Vertebral veins
o Internal jugular veins
 Brachiocephalic veins join to form the
superior vena cava → right atrium of heart
o Azygos vein drains the thorax.
Veins draining into the inferior vena cava
 Anterior and posterior tibial veins and
fibial veins drain the legs. Posterior tibial
vein → popliteal vein → femoral vein →
external iliac vein. Great saphenous veins
(longest veins of the body) receive
superficial drainage of the legs. Each
common iliac vein (left and right) is
formed by the union of the internal and
external iliac vein on its own side.
 Right gonadal vein drains the right ovary
in females and right testicle in males. Left
gonadal vein empties into the left renal
vein. Left and right renal veins drain the
kidneys. Hepatic portal vein drains the
digestive organs and travels through the
liver before it enters systemic circulation.
Left and right hepatic veins drain the liver.
 Arterial supply of the brain and the circle
of Willis. Internal carotid arteries divide
into Anterior and Middle cerebral arteries.
These arteries supply most of the
cerebrum. Vertebral arteries join once
within the skull to form the basilar artery.
Basilar artery serves the brain stem and
cerebellum. Posterior cerebral arteries
form from the division of the basilar artery.
These arteries supply the posterior
cerebrum.
 Anterior and posterior blood supplies are
united by small communicating arterial
branches. Result—complete circle of
connecting blood vessels called cerebral
arterial circle, or circle of Willis.
o Hepatic portal circulation is
formed by veins draining the
digestive organs, which empty
into the hepatic portal vein:
1. Digestive organs
2. Spleen
3. Pancreas
 Hepatic portal vein carries this blood to
the liver, where it is processed before
returning to systemic circulation
Physiology of Circulation
 A. Vital signs
- Measurements of arterial pulse, blood
pressure, respiratory rate, and body
temperature
B. Arterial pulse
- Alternate expansion and recoil of a
blood vessel wall (the pressure wave)
that occurs as the heart beats.
Monitored at pressure points in
superficial arteries, where pulse is
easily palpated.
- Pulse averages 70 to 76 beats per
minute at rest, in a healthy person.
C. Blood Pressure
- The pressure the blood exerts against
the inner walls of the blood
vessels. The force that causes blood to
continue to flow in the blood vessels.
When the ventricles contract:
 Blood is forced into elastic arteries close
to the heart and blood flows along a
descending pressure gradient. Pressure
decreases in blood vessels as distance
from the heart increases. Pressure is high
in the arteries, lower in the capillaries, and
lowest in the veins.
Measuring Blood Pressure
Two arterial blood pressures are measured:
1. Systolic
- pressure in the arteries at the peak of
ventricular contraction
2. Diastolic
- pressure when ventricles relax
 Expressed as systolic pressure over
diastolic pressure in millimeters of
mercury (mm Hg) For example, 120/80
mm Hg
 Auscultatory method is an indirect
method of measuring systemic arterial
blood pressure, most often in the brachial
artery
Effects of Various Factors on Blood Pressure
 Arterial blood pressure (BP) is directly
related to cardiac output and peripheral
resistance. Cardiac output (CO; the
amount of blood pumped out of the left
ventricle per minute). Peripheral
resistance (PR; the amount of friction
blood encounters as it flows through
vessels):
BP = CO × PR
A. Neural factors: the autonomic
nervous system
- Parasympathetic nervous system has
little to no effect on blood
pressure. Sympathetic nervous system
promotes vasoconstriction (narrowing
of vessels), which increases blood
pressure.
B. Renal factors: the kidneys
- Kidneys regulate blood pressure by
altering blood volume. If blood pressure
is too high, the kidneys release water in
the urine. If blood pressure is too low,
the kidneys release renin to trigger
formation of angiotensin II, a
vasoconstrictor. Angiotensin II
stimulates release of aldosterone,
which enhances sodium (and water)
reabsorption by kidneys.
C. Temperature
- Heat has a vasodilating effect. Cold has
a vasoconstricting effect
D. Chemicals
- Various substances can cause
increases or decreases in blood
pressure. Epinephrine increases heart
rate and blood pressure.
E. Diet
- Commonly believed that a diet low in
salt, saturated fats, and cholesterol
prevents hypertension (high blood
pressure).
Variations in blood pressure
Normal human range is variable.
 Systolic pressure ranges from 110 to
140 mm Hg
 Diastolic pressure ranges from 70 to
80 mm Hg
 Hypotension (low blood pressure). Low
systolic (below 100 mm Hg). Often
associated with illness. Acute hypotension
is a warning sign for circulatory shock
 Hypertension (high blood
pressure). Sustained elevated arterial
pressure of 140/90 mm Hg. Warns of
increased peripheral resistance.
Capillary exchange of gases and nutrients
- Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid) is found
between cells. Substances move to and
from the blood and tissue cells through
 capillary walls. Exchange is due to
concentration gradients. Oxygen and
nutrients leave the blood and move into
tissue cells. Carbon dioxide and other
wastes exit tissue cells and enter the
blood.
Substances take various routes entering or
leaving the blood
1. Direct diffusion through membranes
2. Diffusion through intercellular clefts
(gaps between cells in the capillary
wall)
3. Diffusion through pores of fenestrated
capillaries
4. Transport via vesicles
Fluid movements at capillary beds. Fluid
movement out of or into a capillary depends
on the difference between the two pressures:
1. Blood pressure forces fluid and
solutes out of capillaries
2. Osmotic pressure draws fluid into
capillaries
Blood pressure is higher than osmotic
pressure at the arterial end of the capillary
bed. Blood pressure is lower than osmotic
pressure at the venous end of the capillary
bed. Thus, fluid moves out of the capillary at
the beginning of the bed and is reclaimed at
the opposite (venule) end.
Developmental Aspects of the
Cardiovascular System
In an embryo
- The heart develops as a simple tube
and pumps blood by week 4 of
pregnancy. The heart becomes a four-
chambered organ capable of acting as
a double pump over the next 3 weeks.
Umbilical cord
- Carries nutrients and oxygen from
maternal blood to fetal blood. Fetal
wastes move from fetal blood to
maternal blood.
Houses:
 One umbilical vein, which carries nutrient-
and oxygen-rich blood to the fetus. Two
umbilical arteries, which carry wastes and
carbon dioxide–rich blood from the fetus
to placenta.
 Shunts bypassing the lungs and liver are
present in a fetus.
 Blood flow bypasses the liver through the
ductus venosus and enters
the inferior vena cava → right
atrium of heart. Blood flow bypasses the
lungs. Blood entering right atrium is
shunted directly into left atrium through
foramen ovale (becomes fossa ovalis at or
after birth). Ductus arteriosus connects
aorta and pulmonary trunk (becomes
ligamentum arteriosum at birth).
Age-related problems associated with the
cardiovascular system include:
 Weakening of venous valves
 Varicose veins
 Progressive arteriosclerosis
 Hypertension resulting from loss of
elasticity of vessels
 Coronary artery disease resulting from
fatty, calcified deposits in the vessels
Blood
- is the fluid that carries oxygen and
other elements to the tissues and
carbon dioxide away from the tissues
through the heart and vascular system
of humans and other animals.
Blood characteristics
1. Sticky, opaque fluid
2. Heavier and thicker than water
3. Color range
a. Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
b. Oxygen-poor blood is dull red or purple
4. Metallic, salty taste
5. Blood pH is slightly alkaline, between
7.35 and 7.45
6. Blood temperature is slightly higher than
body temperature, at 38ºC or 100.4ºF
Blood transports everything that must be
carried from one place to another, such as:
1. Nutrients
2. Wastes
3. Hormones
4. Body heat
Blood volume
- About 5–6 liters, or about 6 quarts, of
blood are found in a healthy
adult. Blood makes up 8 percent of
body weight.
Components of Blood
Blood is the only fluid tissue, a type of
connective tissue, in the human body.
a. Formed elements (living cells)
b. Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix)
When blood is separated:
 Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45
percent of blood, a percentage known
as the hematocrit). Buffy coat contains
leukocytes and platelets (less than 1
percent of blood). Buffy coat is a thin,
whitish layer between the erythrocytes
and plasma. Plasma rises to the top
(55 percent of blood)
Plasma
- It is 90 percent water, straw-colored
fluid.
- Includes many dissolved substances
 Nutrients
 Salts (electrolytes)
 Respiratory gases
 Hormones
 Plasma proteins
 Waste products
- Plasma proteins are the most
abundant solutes in plasma. Most are
made by the liver. Include:
1. Albumin—an important blood buffer and
contributes to osmotic pressure
2. Clotting proteins—help to stem blood
loss when a blood vessel is injured
3. Antibodies—help protect the body from
pathogens
Blood composition varies as cells exchange
substances with the blood. Liver makes more
proteins when levels drop. Respiratory and
urinary systems restore blood pH to normal
when blood becomes too acidic or
alkaline. Plasma helps distribute body heat.
Formed Elements
1. Erythrocytes
2. Leukocytes
3. Platelets
I. Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or
RBCs)
- Main function is to carry
oxygen. Normal count is 5 million RBCs
per cubic millimeter (mm3) of blood.
- RBCs differ from other blood cells
because:
1. Anucleate (no nucleus)
2. Contain few organelles; lack
mitochondria
3. Essentially bags of hemoglobin
(Hb)
4. Shaped like biconcave discs
 Hemoglobin is an iron-bearing
protein. Binds oxygen. Each
hemoglobin molecule can bind 4
oxygen molecules. Each erythrocyte
has 250 million hemoglobin
molecules. Normal blood contains 12–
18 g of hemoglobin per 100 milliliters
(ml) of blood.
Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs
Anemia is a decrease in the oxygen-carrying
ability of the blood due to:
 Lower-than-normal number of RBCs
 Abnormal or deficient hemoglobin
content in the RBCs.
Sickle cell Anemia (SCA) results from
abnormally shaped hemoglobin
II. White Blood Cells
- WBCs, also called leukocytes, are an
important part of the immune
system. These cells help fight
infections by attacking bacteria,
viruses, and germs that invade the
body. White blood cells originate in
the bone marrow but circulate
throughout the bloodstream.
- Crucial in body’s defense against
disease. They are complete cells, with
nucleus and organelles. Able to move
into and out of blood vessels
(diapedesis). Respond to chemicals
released by damaged tissues (known
as positive chemotaxis). Move by
amoeboid motion. Our body
has 4,800 to 10,800 WBCs per mm3
of blood
Disorders
 Leukocytosis ii. Eosinophils
- WBC count above 11,000 cells per - Nucleus stains blue-red. Brick-red
mm3 of blood. Generally indicates an cytoplasmic granules. Function is to
infection. kill parasitic worms and play a role in
 Leukopenia allergy attacks. 100–400 eosinophils
- Abnormally low WBC count per mm3 of blood (1–4 percent of
- Commonly caused by certain drugs, WBCs).
such as corticosteroids and anticancer iii. Basophils
agents. - Rarest of the WBCs. Large histamine-
 Leukemia containing granules that stain dark
- Bone marrow becomes cancerous blue. Contain heparin
- Numerous immature WBC are (anticoagulant). 20–50 basophils per
produced mm3 of blood (0–1 percent of WBCs)
B. Agranulocytes
Types of leukocytes i. Lymphocytes
- Large, dark purple nucleus. Slightly
1. Granulocytes larger than RBCs. Reside in lymphatic
- Granules in their cytoplasm can be tissues. Play a role in immune
stained response. 1,500–3,000 lymphocytes
- -Possess lobed nuclei per mm3 of blood (20–45 percent of
- Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and WBCs)
basophils ii. Monocytes
2. Agranulocytes - Largest of the white blood
- Lack visible cytoplasmic granules cells. Distinctive U- or kidney-shaped
- Nuclei are spherical, oval, or kidney- nucleus. Function as macrophages
shaped when they migrate into
- Include lymphocytes and monocytes tissues. Important in fighting chronic
infection. 100–700 monocytes per
List of the WBCs, from most to least
mm3 of blood (4–8 percent of WBCs)
abundant
C. Platelets
1. Neutrophils
Fragments of megakaryocytes (multinucleate
2. Lymphocytes
cells). Needed for the clotting
3. Monocytes
process. Normal platelet count is 300,000
4. Eosinophils
platelets per mm3 of blood
5. Basophils
Easy way to remember this list Hematopoiesis (Blood Cell
Formation)
 Never
- Hematopoiesis is the process of blood
 Let
cell formation. Occurs in red bone
 Monkeys
marrow (myeloid tissue). All blood
 Eat
cells are derived from a common stem
 Bananas
cell (hemocytoblast). Hemocytoblasts
form two types of descendants
A. Granulocytes
a. Lymphoid stem cell, which produces
i. Neutrophils
lymphocytes
- Most numerous WBC. Multilobed
b. Myeloid stem cell, which can produce
nucleus. Cytoplasm stains pink and
all other formed elements
contains fine granules. Function as
phagocytes at active sites of Formation of Red Blood Cells
infection. Numbers increase during
infection. 3,000–7,000 neutrophils per Since RBCs are anucleate, they are unable to
mm3 of blood (40–70 percent of divide, grow, or synthesize proteins. RBCs
WBCs). wear out in 100 to 120 days. When worn out,
RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the
spleen or liver. Lost cells are replaced by
division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow.
Rate of RBC production is controlled by a
hormone called erythropoietin. Kidneys
produce most erythropoietin as a response to
reduced oxygen levels in the
blood. Homeostasis is maintained by
negative feedback from blood oxygen levels.
Formation of White Blood Cells and
Platelets
WBC and platelet production is controlled by
hormones. Colony stimulating factors (CSFs)
and interleukins prompt bone marrow to
generate leukocytes. Thrombopoietin
stimulates production of platelets from
megakaryocytes.
Hemostasis
Hemostasis is the process of stopping the
bleeding that results from a break in a blood
vessel .Hemostasis involves three phases or
steps:
1. Vascular spasms
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation (blood clotting)
Step 1: Vascular Spasms
a. Immediate response to blood vessel
injury.
b. Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel
to spasm
c. Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
decreasing blood loss
Step 2: Platelet Plug Formation
- Collagen fibers are exposed by a
break in a blood vessel. Platelets
become “sticky” and cling to
fibers. Anchored platelets release
chemicals to attract more
platelets. Platelets pile up to form a
platelet plug (white thrombus)
Step 3: Coagulation
- Injured tissues release tissue factor
(TF). PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts
with TF, blood protein clotting factors,
and calcium ions to trigger a clotting
cascade. Prothrombin activator
converts prothrombin to thrombin (an
enzyme).
- Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into
hairlike molecules of insoluble
fibrin. Fibrin forms a meshwork (the
basis for a clot). Within the hour,
serum is squeezed from the clot as it
retracts. Serum is plasma minus
clotting proteins.
- Blood usually clots within 3 to 6
minutes. The clot remains as
endothelium regenerates. The clot is
broken down after tissue repair.
Disorders of Hemostasis
I. Undesirable clotting
a. Thrombus
- A clot in an unbroken blood vessel.
It Can be deadly in areas such as the
lungs
b. Embolus
- A thrombus that breaks away and
floats freely in the bloodstream. Can
later clog vessels in critical areas such
as the brain.
II. Bleeding disorders
A. Thrombocytopenia
- Insufficient number of circulating
platelets. Arises from any condition
that suppresses the bone
marrow. Even normal movements can
cause bleeding from small blood
vessels that require platelets for
clotting. Evidenced by petechiae
(small purplish blotches on the skin).
A. Hemophilia
- Hereditary bleeding disorder. Normal
clotting factors are missing. Minor
tissue damage can cause life-
threatening prolonged bleeding.
Blood Groups and Transfusions
Large losses of blood have serious
consequences. Loss of 15 to 30 percent
causes weakness. Loss of over 30 percent
causes shock, which can be fatal
Blood transfusions are given for substantial
blood loss, to treat severe anemia, or for
thrombocytopenia.
Blood contains genetically determined
proteins known as antigens. Antigens are
substances that the body recognizes as
foreign and that the immune system may
attack. Most antigens are foreign
proteins. We tolerate our own “self”
antigens. Antibodies are the “recognizers”
that bind foreign antigens. Blood is “typed” by
using antibodies that will cause blood with
certain proteins to clump (agglutination) and
lyse.
There are over 30 common red blood cell
antigens. The most vigorous transfusion
reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood
group antigens.
Human Blood Groups
I. ABO Blood Group
Blood types are based on the presence or
absence of two antigens:
1. Type A
2. Type B
a. Presence of both antigens A and B is
called type AB
b. Presence of antigen A is called type A
c. Presence of antigen B is called type B
d. Lack of both antigens A and B is
called type O
- Type AB can receive A, B, AB, and O
blood
- Type AB is the “universal recipient”
- Type B can receive B and O blood
- Type A can receive A and O blood
- Type O can receive O blood
- Type O is the “universal donor”
Rh blood group
- Named for the eight Rh antigens
(agglutinogen D). Most Americans are
Rh+ (Rh-positive), meaning they carry
the Rh antigen
- If an Rh–(Rh-negative) person
receives Rh+ blood:
a. The immune system becomes
sensitized and begins producing
antibodies; hemolysis does not
occur, because as it takes time to
produce antibodies
b. Second, and subsequent,
transfusions involve antibodies
attacking donor’s Rh+ RBCs, and
hemolysis occurs (rupture of
RBCs).
- Rh-related problem during pregnancy
- Danger occurs only when the mother
is Rh–, the father is Rh+, and the child
inherits the Rh+ factor
- RhoGAM shot can prevent buildup of
anti-Rh+ antibodies in mother’s blood
The mismatch of an Rh-mother carrying an
Rh+ baby can cause problems for the unborn
child
The first pregnancy usually proceeds without
problems; the immune system is sensitized
after the first pregnancy. In a second
pregnancy, the mother’s immune system
produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood
(hemolytic disease of the newborn)
Blood Typing
Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and
anti-B serum. Agglutination or the lack of
agglutination leads to identification of blood
type. Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done
in the same manner. Cross matching—testing
for agglutination of donor RBCs by the
recipient’s serum, and vice versa
Developmental Aspects of Blood
Sites of blood cell formation
- The fetal liver and spleen are early
sites of blood cell formation. Bone
marrow takes over hematopoiesis by
the seventh month. Congenital blood
defects include various types of
hemolytic anemias and
hemophilia. Incompatibility between
maternal and fetal blood can result in
fetal cyanosis, resulting from
destruction of fetal blood cells. Fetal
hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin
produced after birth. Physiologic
jaundice occurs in infants when the
liver cannot rid the body of
hemoglobin breakdown products fast
enough.
Leukemias are most common in the very
young and very old. Older adults are also at
risk for anemia and clotting disorders.
Blood Circulation
- The cardiovascular system is
composed of 2 circulatory paths:
1. pulmonary circulation, the circuit through
the lungs where the body is oxygenated;
2. the systemic circulation, the circuit
through the rest of the body to provide
oxygenated blood.
 The Lymphatic System
- is a network of tissues and organs
that help rid the body of toxins, waste
and other unwanted materials. The
primary function of the lymphatic
system is to transport lymph, a fluid
containing infection-fighting white
blood cells, throughout the body.
- Consists of two semi-independent
parts:
1. Lymphatic vessels
2. Lymphoid tissues and organs
Lymphatic System Functions
1. Transports escaped fluids from the
cardiovascular system back to
the blood
3. Plays essential roles in body defense
and resistance to disease
Lymphatic Vessels
Lymph consists of excess tissue fluid and
plasma proteins carried by lymphatic
vessels. If fluids are not picked up, edema
occurs as fluid accumulates in
tissues. Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
pick up excess fluid (lymph) and return it
to the blood
Lymphatic vessels (lymphatics) form a
one-way system. Lymph flows only toward
the heart
Lymph capillaries weave between tissue
cells and blood capillaries. Walls overlap
to form flaplike minivalves. Fluid leaks into
lymph capillaries. Capillaries are anchored
to connective tissue by filaments. Higher
pressure on the inside closes
minivalves. Fluid is forced along the
vessel.
Lymphatic collecting vessels
Collect lymph from lymph
capillaries. Carry lymph to and away from
lymph nodes. Return fluid to circulatory
veins near the heart. Right lymphatic duct
drains the lymph from the right arm and
the right side of the head and
thorax. Thoracic duct drains lymph from
rest of body.
Lymphatic vessels are similar to veins of
the cardiovascular system. They are thin-
walled. Larger vessels have valves. Low-
pressure, pumpless system.
Lymph transport is aided by:
 Milking action of skeletal muscles
 Pressure changes in thorax during
breathing
 Smooth muscle in walls of
lymphatics
Lymph nodes
- are small glands that filter lymph, the
clear fluid that circulates through
the lymphatic system.
- They become swollen in response to
infection and tumors. Lymphatic fluid
circulates through
the lymphatic system, which is made
of channels throughout your body that
are similar to blood vessels.
Lymph nodes filter lymph before it is
returned to the blood.
Harmful materials that are filtered :
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Cancer cells
 Cell debris
Defense cells within lymph nodes
a. Macrophages
 - engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses,
and other foreign substances in lymph
b. Lymphocytes
- respond to foreign substances in
lymph
Most lymph nodes are kidney-shaped,
less than 1 inch long, and buried in
connective tissue. Surrounded by a
capsule. Divided into compartments by
trabeculae:
a. Cortex (outer part) contains follicles
- collections of lymphocytes.
- Germinal centers enlarge when
antibodies are released by plasma
cells
b. Medulla (inner part) contains
phagocytic macrophages.
Flow of lymph through nodes
 Lymph enters the convex side through
afferent lymphatic vessels. Lymph flows
through a number of sinuses inside the
node. Lymph exits through efferent
lymphatic vessels. Because there are
fewer efferent than afferent vessels, flow
is slowed.
 Several other lymphoid organs contribute
to lymphatic function (in addition to the
lymph nodes)
 Spleen
 Thymus
 Tonsils
 Peyer’s patches
 Appendix
Spleen
- Located on the left side of the
abdomen. Filters and cleans blood of
bacteria, viruses, debris. Provides a
site for lymphocyte proliferation and
immune surveillance. Destroys worn-
out blood cells. Forms blood cells in
the fetus. Acts as a blood reservoir.
Thymus
- Found overlying the heart. Functions
at peak levels only during youth
Tonsils
- Small masses of lymphoid tissue deep
to the mucosa surrounding the
pharynx (throat). Trap and remove
bacteria and other foreign
pathogens. Tonsillitis results when the
tonsils become congested with
bacteria
Peyer’s patches
- Found in the wall of the small
intestine. Similar lymphoid follicles are
found in the appendix. Macrophages
capture and destroy bacteria in the
intestine
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue
(MALT)
- Acts as a sentinel to protect
respiratory and digestive tracts
- Includes:
 Peyer’s patches
 Tonsils
 Appendix
Body Defenses
Two mechanisms that make up the
immune system defend us from foreign
materials
1. Innate ( nonspecific ) defense system
- Mechanisms protect against a variety
of invaders. Responds immediately to
protect body from foreign materials.
2. Adaptive (specific) defense system
- Fights invaders that get past the
innate system. Specific defense is
required for each type of invader. The
highly specific resistance to disease
is immunity.
 Immunity—specific resistance to disease
 Immune system is a functional system
rather than an organ system in an
anatomical sense
 Innate body defenses are mechanical
barriers to pathogens (harmful or disease-
causing microorganisms) and include:
1. Body surface coverings
 Intact skin
 Mucous membranes
2. Specialized human cells
3. Chemicals produced by the body
Surface Membrane Barriers
- Surface membrane barriers, such as
the skin and mucous membranes,
provide the first line
of defense against the invasion of
microorganism
- Protective secretions produced by
these membranes. Acidic skin
secretions inhibit bacterial growth.
Sebum is toxic to bacteria
- Mucus traps microorganisms. Gastric
juices are acidic and kill
pathogens. Saliva and tears contain
lysozyme (enzyme that destroys
bacteria.
Internal Defenses: Cells and
Chemicals
 Cells and chemicals provide a second
line of defense. They are natural killer
cells and phagocytes. It is an
inflammatory response. It uses
chemicals that kill pathogens. It also
induces fever.
A. Natural killer (NK) cells
 Lyse (burst) and kill cancer cells,
virus-infected cells
 Release chemicals
called perforin and granzymes to
degrade target cell content
B. Inflammatory Response
- Triggered when body tissues are
injured
- Four most common indicators
(cardinal signs) of acute inflammation
1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Pain
I.
4. Swelling (edema)
- Damaged cells release inflammatory
chemicals such as:
a. Histamine
b. Kinin
- These chemicals causes blood
vessels to dilate, capillaries to
become leaky and Phagocytes and
white blood cells to move into the area
(called positive chemotaxis)
Functions of the Inflammatory
Response
a. Prevents spread of damaging
agents
b. Disposes of cell debris and
pathogens through
phagocytosis
c. Sets the stage for repair
Process of the Inflammatory Response
1. Neutrophils migrate to the area of
inflammation by rolling along the
vessel wall (following the scent of
chemicals from inflammation)
2. Neutrophils squeeze through the
capillary walls by diapedesis to sites of
inflammation
3. Neutrophils gather in the precise site
of tissue injury (positive chemotaxis)
and consume any foreign
material present
Phagocytes
- Cells such as neutrophils and
macrophages engulf foreign material
by phagocytosis. The phagocytic
vesicle is fused with a lysosome, and
enzymes digest the cell’s contents.
- Antimicrobial proteins enhance innate
defenses by:
1. Attacking microorganisms directly
2. Hindering reproduction of
microorganisms
- Most important types
1. Complement proteins
2. Interferon
Antimicrobial Proteins:
Complement Proteins
- Complement refers to a group of at
least 20 plasma proteins that circulate
in the plasma. Complement is
activated when these plasma proteins
encounter and attach to cells (known
as complement fixation). Membrane
attack complexes (MACs) as a result
of complement fixation. It will then
produce holes or pores in cells. Pores
allow water to rush into the cell then
the cell bursts (lyses).
II. Antimicrobial Proteins: Interferons
- Interferons are small proteins
secreted by virus-infected cells.
Interferons bind to membrane
receptors on healthy cell surfaces
to interfere with the ability of viruses to
multiply
Antigens
Fever
 Abnormally high body temperature is a
systemic response to invasion by
microorganisms
 Hypothalamus regulates body
temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF)
 The hypothalamus thermostat can be
reset higher by pyrogens (secreted by
white blood cells)
 High temperatures inhibit the release
of iron and zinc (needed by bacteria)
from the liver and spleen
 Fever also increases the speed of
repair processes
Adaptive Body Defenses
- Adaptive body defenses are the
body’s specific defense system, or
the third line of defense.
- Immune response is the immune
system’s response to a threat.
Antigens are targeted and destroyed
by antibodies.
- Three aspects of adaptive defense
1. Antigen specific
- the adaptive defense system
recognizes and
acts against particular foreign
substances.
2. Systemic
- immunity is not restricted to
the initial infection site.
3. Memory
- the adaptive defense system
recognizes and mounts a
stronger attack on previously
encountered pathogens
Two Arms of the Adaptive Defense
System
1. Humoral Immunity
- antibody-mediated immunity
- Provided by antibodies
present in body fluids.
2. Cellular Immunity
- cell-mediated immunity
- Targets virus-infected cells, cancer
cells, and cells of foreign grafts
- Antigens are any substance capable
of exciting the immune system and
provoking an immune response. Two
types; self and non self
- The antigens that do not originate in
your body are called non-self
antigens. Immune cells called
lymphocytes recognize non-self
antigens and
produce antibodies that bind
specifically to each antigen.
Examples of common nonself antigens
a. Foreign proteins provoke the
strongest response
b. Nucleic acids
c. Large carbohydrates
d. Some lipids
e. Pollen grains
f. Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi,
viruses
Self-antigen
- The antigens on your own cells are
known as self-antigens,
- Human cells have many protein and
carbohydrate molecules. Self-antigens
do not trigger an immune response in
us. The presence of our cells in
another person’s body can trigger an
immune response because they are
foreign. Restricts donors for
transplants.
- Haptens, or incomplete antigens, are
not antigenic by themselves. When
they link up with our own proteins, the
immune system may recognize the
combination as foreign and respond
with an attack. Found in poison ivy,
animal dander, detergents, hair dyes,
cosmetics
Cells of the Adaptive Defense
System: An Overview
Crucial cells of the adaptive system
A. Lymphocytes
- respond to specific antigens
 B lymphocytes (B cells) produce
antibodies and oversee humoral
immunity
 T lymphocytes (T cells) constitute
the cell-mediated arm of the
adaptive defenses; do not make
antibodies
B. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
- help the lymphocytes but do not
respond to specific antigens
1. Lymphocytes
- Arise from hemocytoblasts of bone
marrow. Whether a lymphocyte
matures into a B cell or T cell depends
on where it becomes
immunocompetent.
2. Immunocompetence
- The capability to respond to a specific
antigen by binding to it with antigen-
specific receptors that appear on the
lymphocyte’s surface. T cells develop
immunocompetence in the thymus
and oversee cell-mediated
immunity. Identify foreign
antigens. Those that bind self-
antigens are destroyed. Self-tolerance
is important part of lymphocyte
“education”.
 B cells develop immunocompetence
in bone marrow and provide humoral
immunity. Immunocompetent T and B
lymphocytes migrate to the lymph
nodes and spleen, where encounters
with antigens occur. Differentiation from
naïve cells into mature lymphocytes is
complete when they bind with
recognized antigens. Mature
lymphocytes (especially T cells)
circulate continuously throughout the
body
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
- Engulf antigens and then present
fragments of them on their own
surfaces, where they can be
recognized by T cells.
Major types of cells behaving as APC's
1. Dendritic cells
2. Macrophages
3. B lymphocytes
When they present antigens, dendritic
cells and macrophages activate T cells,
which release chemicals.
Humoral (Antibody-Mediated)
Immune Response
 B lymphocytes with specific receptors
bind to a specific antigen. The binding
event sensitizes, or activates, the
lymphocyte to undergo clonal
selection. A large number of clones is
produced (primary humoral response)
 Most of the B cell clone members
(descendants) become plasma cells
 Produce antibodies to destroy
antigens
 Activity lasts for 4 or 5 days
 Plasma cells begin to die
 Some B cells become long-lived
memory cells capable of mounting a
rapid attack against the same antigen
in subsequent meetings
(secondary humoral response). These
cells provide immunological memory.
Active Immunity
- Occurs when B cells encounter
antigens and produce
antibodies. Active immunity can be:
 Naturally acquired during
bacterial and viral infections
 Artificially acquired from
vaccines
Passive immunity
- Occurs when antibodies are obtained
from someone else. Naturally
acquired from a mother to her fetus or
in the breast milk. Artificially acquired
from immune serum or gamma
globulin (donated
antibodies). Immunological memory
does not occur. Protection is short-
lived (2–3 weeks)
Monoclonal Antibodies
- Antibodies prepared for clinical testing
for diagnostic services. Produced from
 descendants of a single cell
line. Exhibit specificity for only one
antigen.
Examples of Uses for Monoclonal
Antibodies
a. Cancer treatment
b. Diagnosis of pregnancy
c. Treatment after exposure to
hepatitis and rabies
Antibodies (immunoglobulins, Igs)
- Constitute gamma globulin part of
blood proteins. Soluble proteins
secreted by activated B cells (plasma
cells). Formed in response to a huge
number of antigens
Antibody structure
- Four polypeptide chains, two heavy
and two light, linked by disulfide
bonds to form a T- or Y-shaped
molecule. Each polypeptide chain has
a variable (V) region and a constant
(C) region. Variable regions form
antigen-binding sites, one on each
arm of the T or Y. Constant regions
determine the type of antibody formed
(antibody class)
Antibody classes
- Antibodies of each class have slightly
different roles and differ structurally
and functionally.
Five major immunoglobulin classes
(MADGE)
1. IgM—can fix complement
2. IgA—found mainly in secretions,
such as mucus or tears
3. IgD—important in activation of B
cell
4. IgG—can cross the placental
barrier and fix complement; most
abundant antibody in plasma
5. IgE—involved in allergies
Antibody Function
- Antibodies inactivate antigens in a
number of ways. Complement
fixation: chief antibody ammunition
used against cellular antigens.
1. Neutralization: antibodies bind to specific
sites on bacterial exotoxins or on viruses
that can cause cell injury
2. Agglutination: antibody-antigen reaction
that causes clumping of cells
3. Precipitation: cross-linking reaction in
which antigen-antibody complex settles
out of solution
Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response
 Main difference between two arms of
the adaptive response
 B cells secrete antibodies
 T cells fight antigens directly
 Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are
activated to form a clone
 Like B cells, immunocompetent T cells are
activated to form a clone by binding a
recognized antigen. Unlike B cells, T cells
are unable to bind to free
antigens. Antigens must be presented by
a macrophage, and double recognition
must occur. APC engulfs and presents the
processed antigen in combination with a
protein from the APC
Different Classes of Effector T Cells
1. Helper T cells
2. Cytotoxic T cells
T cells must recognize nonself and self
through the process of antigen presentation
 Nonself—the antigen fragment
presented by APC
 Self—coupling with a specific
glycoprotein on the APC’s surface
at the same time
Cytotoxic (killer) T cells
- Specialize in killing infected
cells. Insert a toxic chemical
(perforin or granzyme). The perforin
enters the foreign cell’s plasma
membrane. Pores now appear in
the target
cell’s membrane. Granzymes
(protein-digesting enzymes) enter
and kill the foreign cell.
Helper T cells
- Recruit other cells to fight
invaders. Interact directly with B
 cells bound to an antigen, prodding
the B cells into clone
production. Release cytokines,
chemicals that act directly to rid the
body of antigens.
Regulatory T cells
- Release chemicals to suppress the
activity of T and B cells. Stop the
immune response to prevent
uncontrolled activity. A few
members of each clone are
memory cells
Organ Transplants and Rejection
Major Types of Transplants, or Grafts
 Autografts
- tissue transplanted from one site to
another on the same person
 Isografts
- tissue grafts from a genetically
identical person (identical twin)
 Allografts
- tissue taken from a person other
than an identical twin (most
common type of graft)
 Xenografts
- tissue taken from a different animal
species (never successful)
Blood group and tissue matching is done
to ensure the best match possible. 75%
match is needed to attempt a graft. Organ
transplant is followed by
immunosuppressive therapy to prevent
rejection
Disorders of Immunity
The Most Important Disorders of the
Immune System
1. Allergies
2. Autoimmune diseases
3. Immunodeficiencies
Allergies
- Allergies, or hypersensitives, are
abnormal, vigorous immune
responses. The immune system
overreacts to an otherwise
harmless antigen, and tissue
damage occurs.
Types of Allergies
a. Immediate (acute) Hypersensitivity
- Seen in hives and anaphylaxis.
Due to IgE antibodies and
histamine. Anaphylactic
shock is systemic, acute allergic
response and is rare
b. Delayed hypersensitivity
- Reflects activity of T cells,
macrophages, and cytokines.
Symptoms usually a
ppear 1–3 days after contact with
antigen. Allergic
contact dermatitis (poison
ivy, cosmetics)
Autoimmune Diseases
- Occurs when the body’s self-
tolerance breaks down. The body
produces auto-antibodies and
sensitized T lymphocytes that
attack its own tissues. Most forms
of autoimmune disease result from
the appearance of formerly hidden
self-antigens or changes in the
structure of self-antigens, and
antibodies formed against foreign
antigens that resemble self-
antigens
Examples of Autoimmune Diseases
1. Rheumatoid arthritis
- destroys joints
2. Myasthenia gravis
- impairs communication between
nerves and skeletal muscles
3. Multiple sclerosis
- white matter of brain and spinal
cord is destroyed
4. Graves’ disease
- thyroid gland produces excess
thyroxine
5. Type I diabetes mellitus
- destroys pancreatic beta cells,
resulting in deficient insulin
production
6. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
- affects kidney, heart, lung, and skin
7. Glomerulonephritis
- severe impairment of kidney
function due to acute inflammation
Immunodeficiencies
- May be congenital or acquired.
Severe combined
immunodeficiency disease (SCID)
is a congenital disease. AIDS
(acquired immune deficiency
syndrome) is caused by a virus
that attacks and cripples the helper
T cells. Result from abnormalities in
any immune element. Production
or function of immune cells or
complement is abnormal.

Developmental Aspects of the

Lymphatic System and Body
Defenses
Lymphatic vessels form by budding off
from veins. Lymph nodes present by fifth
week of development. The thymus and
the spleen are the first lymphoid organs to
appear in the embryo. Other lymphoid
organs are poorly developed before
birth. The immune response develops
around the time of birth
The ability of immunocompetent cells to
recognize foreign antigens is
genetically determined. Stress appears to
interfere with normal immune
response. Efficiency of immune response
wanes in old age, and infections, cancer,
immunodeficiencies, and autoimmune
diseases become more prevalent