The Macadamia Industry in Malawi

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.01 About the Manual
1.02 The Macadamia Industry in Malawi
2. COMPOSITION AND USES

2.01 Composition and Uses
2.02 References
3. BOTANY
3.01 Taxonomy
3.02 Origins and Distribution
3.03 Structure and Habit
3.04 References
4. PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOLOGY

4.01 Proteoid Roots
4.02 Leaf and Stem Structure and Function
4.03 Floral Initiation
4.04 Flowering and Pollination
4.05 Fruit Development, Nut Drop and Maturation
4.06 Phenology of Macadamia
4.07 Physiology
4.08 Genetics and Clonal Improvement
4.09 References
5. ECOLOGY AND CLIMATE

5.01 Temperature
5.02 Rainfall
5.03 Humidity
5.04 Light
5.05 Wind
5.06 Reliability
5.07 Altitude
5.08 Soils
5.09 References
6. CULTURAL PRACTICES
6.01 Nursery and Propagation
6.02 Rootstocks
6.03 Seed Selection
6.04 Germination
6.05 Transplanting
6.06 Potting Media
6.07 Timing of Operations
6.08 Culling and Plant Selection
6.09 Grafting
6.10 Initial Training
6.11 Field Operations
6.12 Land Preparation
6.13 Orchard Layout
6.14 Tree Establishment and Tree Training
6.15 Planting and Establishment
6.16 Tree Training
6.17 Nutrition and Mulching
6.18 Weed Control
6.19 Irrigation
6.20 Pruning
6.21 References
7. PESTS AND DISEASES

7.01 Major Pests
7.02 Minor Pests
7.03 Diseases
7.04 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Techniques
7.05 Monitoring Guidelines
7.06 Action Levels
7.07 Pesticide Quantities
7.08 Spraying Equipment
7.09 Biological Control Agents
7.10 Scouting and Training
7.11 References
8. YIELDS AND QUALITY

8.01 Yields
8.02 Nut Quality
8.03 Kernel Recovery
8.04 Factors Affecting Yield and Nut Quality
8.04 References
9. HARVESTING, HANDLING AND STORAGE

9.01 Assessment of Maturity
9.02 Preharvest Clean-up
9.03 Ground Harvesting
9.04 Tree Harvesting
9.05 Dehusking
9.06 Drying and Storage
9.07 Maintenance of Quality General Handling
9.08 References
10. ECONOMICS
10.01 Development Budget and Gross Margins
10.02 Future Trends and World Situation
11. RESEARCH, EXTENSION AND TRAINING

11.01 Agronomy
11.02 Pests and Diseases
11.03 Farming Systems
12. INDUSTRY BODIES

12.01 Tree Nut Grower's Association (TNGA)
12.02 Tree Nut Authority (TNA)
13. COMMENTS ON THE FUTURE
14. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

MACADAMIA REFERENCE MANUAL
PREFACE:
Writing this manual has presented a challenge and also some difficulties. The challenge has been to relate the
technical material available to conditions in Malawi and make suggestions on current production practices or ideas
for the future. The difficulties have been to have enough technical material, especially that relating to the Malawian
situation. Information on macadamia in general is limited and macadamia in Malawi more so.
However field observations and grower comments are used and gratefully acknowledged as local knowledge is
important. Information is subject to change and this manual will need to be updated in the future as more information
becomes available. Section 7 has been contributed primarily by Ironside and Fero as this deals with their specific area
of Pests and Diseases. A considerable amount of effort has been put into the preparation of the manuscript by Mr W
R G Banda and Mr A E Mpasa. Members of the Tree Nut Growers Association Technical Liaison Committee have
provided editorial Comment. All the above are gratefully acknowledged. I hope the manual will provide a sound
technical base to augment the local knowledge of macadamia growing in Malawi as well as future research needs and
directions.
I would also like to acknowledge the effort of Mrs Eunice Dakalira and Dr M St J Clowes of CDC for editing and final
corrections and CDC for their assistance.
W M Hancock
Tree Nut Agronomist,
Bvumbwe Research Station,
P O Box 5748,
Limbe.
Malawi.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.01 About the Manual

The purpose of the Macadamia Reference Manual is to provide a sound basic guide for macadamia production and
research in Malawi, using the best available information at the time of writing. It will need to be updated regularly as
more information becomes available. Each section will contain a brief introduction, a literature review, current
practices in Malawi and suggestions for improvements where applicable. A list of references will complete each
section. Much of the information in the manual is from outside Malawi and will require some interpretation based on
local conditions and production systems.
The aim of the manual is to provide a useful source of reference for large and small growers in the industry. Individual
growers can then adapt the information to their own situations and or seek advice from the Tree Nut Unit at
Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station. References cited will be available at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station
library should anyone wish to consult them.
The macadamia industry is still in the early development stage consequently available literature is not extensive.
There appears to have been a general shortage of information available to the industry in Malawi and the manual will
help fill this gap.
The information in this manual will be used to produce simplified training guides for each of the key operations.
1.02 The Macadamia Industry In Malawi.

The early history of macadamia planting is not documented but some old trees, believed to have been the first
introductions still survive in the Bvumbwe, Ntchisi and Rumphi areas. The five original trees at Bvumbwe Research
Station are believed to have come from this source and were used in trials by Spurling in the late sixties. These trees
have subsequently been uprooted to facilitate the expansion of the current nursery. The first commercial planting
occurred in the late sixties, in the Thyolo area and at Chombe in the North. .
Interest has fluctuated and some plantings have occurred as a diversification crop; often on poorer lands on estates.
A processing facility was established at Naming'omba Tea Estate in Thyolo which has paved the way for industry
expansion through the production and sale of kernel, in particular to export markets. Recent good returns have led to
an increase in interest and the industry has grown considerably in recent years. Some 2,000 hectares are currently
planted and further expansion is planned. The decline in the Tung Oil Industry has led to the conversion of tung
lands to macadamia. About half of the area is yet to commence significant production, so rapid expansion in
production will continue for many years, even if there are no further plantings.
There has been considerable expansion in plantings and production worldwide. Competition on export markets will
increase as a result of this so it is vital that Malawi can compete effectively and continue to generate income from
macadamias. Improvements in yield and quality of kernel produced are needed to meet this challenge. A sound
research programme is required to ensure future competitiveness. The manual is aimed at providing information that
will ensure growers follow current recommendations which are based on ensuring the long term viability of the
macadamia industry in Malawi. This extends beyond the farm gate into processing and marketing. A strong industry
body is desirable to guide the industry into the future.
2. COMPOSITION AND USES
2.01 Composition and Uses

The macadamia is primarily used as a dessert nut, eaten fresh or roasted, commonly salted. Oil is extracted from the
lower grade kernel and used as a salad or cooking oil or for cosmetics and soaps. Diced kernel is used in biscuits,
confectionery, and ice-creams. The presscake can be used for animal feed and the shells burnt for fuel. The wood of
the tree produces a hard and durable timber. Commercialization has centred on kernel with other products being of
secondary importance. The shell is difficult to crack and this has limited the nut's appeal as a nut-in-shell product.
Most nuts are presented shelled as raw or roasted kernel.
The kernels are rich in unsaturated fatty acids with an oil content of 89% (Dela Cruz et al, 1966). M. integrifolia is
slightly higher in unsaturated to saturated fatty acids than M. tetraphylla ( Saleeb et al, 1973.) This could have
beneficial results on health and is currently undergoing medical research.
Composition of whole roasted kernel is as follows ( after Wenkham and Miller 1965).
Oil 78.2%
Carbohydrates 10.0%
Protein 9.2%
Moisture 1.5 - 2.5%
Potassium 0.37%
Phosphorus 0.17%
Magnesium 0.12%
Calcium 360.0 mg/Kg
Sodium 66.0 mg/Kg
Iron 18.0 mg/Kg
Zinc 14.0 mg/Kg
Manganese 3.8 mg/Kg
Copper 3.3 mg/Kg
Niacin 16.0 mg/Kg
Thiamine 2.2 mg/Kg
Riboflavin 1.2 mg/Kg
The composition of the oil varies between species and clones (Saleeb et al 1973) and is considered to have
outstanding stability. Dela Cruz et al, and Saleeb et al, give the main oil constituents as oleic (59.1-67.14%) palmitoleic
(19.1-22.1%) and palmitic (6.15-8.7%). Protein composition also varies and consists primarily of arginine, formic acid,
glutamic acid and leucine but methionine is low. Lott et al (1978) found proteins generally contain phosphorus,
potassium and calcium. The nut is attractive and has an appealing flavour and texture. The oil content is very
important. Malawi has been producing a large quantity of low oil content nuts which has reduced the proportion of
high quality saleable kernels. Mason (1983) concluded that kernels with a low oil content relating to a specific gravity
of <1.0% (grade 1) were of acceptable eating and processing quality, those of 1.0% to 1.025% second grade but still
useful for some lower grade products and over 1.025% commercially unacceptable. Oil is extracted from this grade.
Suggestions For Malawi

Since the world trade in macadamia kernel is centred on grade 1 for direct consumption, Malawi should continue to
concentrate on producing this type of product. Developing a reputation for selling grade 1 of high quality is in the
long term interest of the industry. As the proportion of grade 1 increases, the other grades reduce and the need for
by-products reduces although they will still be important. The market for processing nuts (i.e. for biscuits,
confectionery and ice cream) is likely to increase but it will also demand the best quality. The oil market is an
unknown quantity but will continue to be important to Malawi.
2.02 References
1 Dela Cruz, Cavalleto C.G., Ross E. and Yamamoto H.Y. (1966) Food Technology 20:198-111. (From
Stephenson R.A. Unpublished Review of Macadamia. MHRS Nambour QLD. Australia)
2 Lott J.N.A. Buttrose M.S. (1978) Location of Reserves of Mineral Elements in Seed Protein Bodies:
Macadamia Nut, Walnut and Hazelnut. Canadian Journal of Botany 56(12)2072- 2082
3 Mason R.L (1983) Macadamia: Harvesting and Maturity Testing. AGDEX 246/56 QLD. DPI. P.O Box 46,
Brisbane, Australia.
4 Saleeb W.F.C. Yermanos D.M. Huszan C.K. Storey W.B. and Labanauskas C.K. (1973). The Oil and Protein in
Nuts Macadamia tetraphylla, L. Johnson, M. integrifolia, Maiden & Betch, and their F1 Hybrids. Journal of
American Society for Horticultural Science 98:453-456
5 Stephenson R.A. (1988) Unpublished, Review of Macadamia. MHRS Nambour QLD. Australia.
6 Wenkham N.S. and Miller (1985) HAES Bulletin 135. (From Stephenso n Unpublished, Review of Macadamia.
MHRS Nambour QLD Australia
3. BOTANY
3.01 Taxonomy
The macadamia is an evergreen tree of the FAMILY PROTEACEAE. It is the only commercially developed food crop
native to Australia at this time. There are ten trees and shrubs in the Genus Macadamia (F. Von Mueller), 6 are native
to Australia, 3 to New Caledonia and 1 to Sulawesi in Indonesia (IBPGR 1986). The following species are listed from
Story 1965,(IBPGR 1986):-
Macadamia integrifolia (from Australia)
M. tetraphylla
M. ternifolia
M. heyana
M. prealta
M. whelani
M. francii (from New Caledonia)
M. roussellii
M. veillandii
M. hildebrandii (from Sulawesi)
Of the above, the first two are of commercial importance with M. integrifolia dominating current clonal material.
Hybridization occurs freely between M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla and is becoming an important source of
variability for clonal selection (Bell 1990 pers comm.). M. whelani is a tropical species with an edible nut which may
have some value in breeding programmes for tropical adaptation. Some confusion has existed with M. ternifolia and
M. integrifolia but the former produces small, bitter, unpalatable kernels and is not used commercially.
Natural stands of macadamia are highly variable in characteristics such as fruit size, shell thickness and yield.
Seedling plantings exhibit a wide range of morphological features such as size, branching habit and foliage density,
indicating a heterozygous outbreeding nature. A visit to the seedling planting at Bvumbwe will confirm this.
3.02 Origins and Distribution

M. integrifolia occurs naturally from 25 degrees South to 28 degrees South and M. tetraphylla only between 28 and
29 degrees South, along the Eastern coastal strip of Australia where wild populations still exist. They occur in
rainforest and timbered areas but the original habitat has largely been cleared (Storey, from IBPGR 1986). M.
tetraphylla is generally considered to be more temperate and has more restricted range than M. integri folia. Survival
and vigour of some M. tetraphylla seedlings at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station does not appear to be as
good as M. integrifolia, the latter generally considered the hardier of the two species.
Cultivation began in the late 1800s and the tree has been introduced to many subtropical and tropical areas since.
Commercialization began in Hawaii and has continued there and elsewhere but it appears that further genetic
improvement is likely in the future.
3.03 Structure and Habit

The trees are variable in structure and habit, reaching 18 m plus in height and 15 m in canopy width. The canopy can
be open or dense, with an upright through to spreading form, single or multiple stemmed. The wood is brittle when
fresh (hard when dry) which causes problems with branch breakage if crotch angles are poor. Wind damage is
common.
The following is a brief description of M. integrifolia (IBPGR 1986).
Leaves:Long, linear, lanceolate, often spiny when juvenile, usually entire or rarely so when adult, 10 - 30 cm long and
2.5 - 7.5 cm wide, in whorls of 3 or occasionally 4, with petioles.
Inflorence: Racemes, pendant, born on 2 year old, or older wood; rachis 10 - 30 cm long.
Flowers:100 - 300, small (ca. 12 mm at anthesis), perfect, in pairs in the axils of minute bracts. Perianth regular, of 4
petaloid sepals. Ovary superior, with single carpel containing 2 ovules only one of which usually develops. Stamens
4, perigynous and attached to the upper part of the perianth.
Fruit: A follicle, comprising a more or less fleshy pericarp (husk). The husk splits along a suture line from the stalk to
the distal end as the fruit ripens or sometimes holds seed tightly.
Seed: Spherical 1.2 - 2.5 cm in diameter with a very hard testa (shell) and a creamy white kernel, rich in fat.
Other notable features are the sclerophyllous leaf structures thought to be an adaptation to drought (Johnson and
Briggs 1975 from Stephenson 1988) and proteoid roots, a dense cluster of rootlets radiating from a root (Malcolm and
Trochoulias, 1979), thought to be an adaptation to low fertility soils, especially phosphate deficient types.
Table 1. Principal Taxonomic Characters of M. ternifolia, M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla.

___________________________________________________________________________________
Character M. ternifolia M. integrifolia M. tetraphylla
___________________________________________________________________________________
Phyllotaxy 3 leaves in a 3 leaves in a 4 leaves in a

nodal whorl, nodal whorl, nodal whorl,
young seedlings young seedlings young seedlings
may have only usually have usually have
2, occasional only 2, occasio- only 2,occasio-
branches have nal branches nal branches
3 or 5. have 4. have 3 or 5.
Leaf Petiolate Petiolate Sessile or

attachment scarcely
subsessile
Adult Leaf Lanceolate Oblanceolate to oblanceolate

shape obovate
Adult Leaf Scarcely Generally entire numerous

Margin serrated, with sometimes with serrations
8 - 10 teeth 1 - 12 teeth on ranging from
on a side. on a side. 15 - 40 on a
side, occasional leaves
have fewer than 15.
Colour of Pink to red Pale green, Pink to red,

New Growth occasional occasional
individuals with individuals
bronze tinging. yellowish
green due to lack of
anthocyanin.
Flower Pink White Pink; white or

Colour cream coloured
in individuals
lacking anthocyanin
Racemes 5 - 12 cm long 10 - 30 cm long 15 - 45 cm long
with 50 - 100 with 100 - 300 with 100 - 300
flowers. flowers. flowers.
Pericarp grayish-green bright clear grayish-green

appearance due green, due to in appearance
to dense white nearly glabrous due to fairly
pubescence, condition, often dense white
dehisces fully fails to dehisce pubescence
on tree before when fruit is dehisces fully
fruit drops. still on tree. on tree before
fruit drops.
Seed Size 9 - 32 mm 12 - 32 mm 12 - 38 mm
Seed Shape commonly commonly commonly

fusiform spherical fusiform, some
to nearly nearly
spherical spherical
Seed smooth to generally smo oth, generally

Surface scarcely rarely with pebbled
pebbled. slight pebbling. infrequently
smooth or nearly so
Kernel bitter, sweet, highly sweet, highly

unpalatable. palatable. palatable.
Suggestions for Malawi

The release of clones must by law be approved by the Variety Release Committee of Government. All clones are
currently of the M. integrifolia types although many new clones are hybrids. The reasoning for the use of M.
integrifolia clones was based on the superior processing qualities of the species over M. tetraphylla (the latter
usually having a higher sugar content which browns during roasting). For the future, it would be advisable to base
clones on desired characteristics other than species of origin and not exclude the advances made with hybrids.
3.04 References
1 Bell, H.D.F. (pers com) Hidden Valley Plantations, P.O. Box 64519 Beerwah, QLD, Australia.
2 International Board of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) 1986 Genetic Resources of Tropical and Subtropical
Fruits and Nuts Excluding Musa, Rome, Italy.
3 Malcolm, H.A. and Trochoulias, T. (1979). Proteoid Roots Help Macadamia Nut Trees. AGDEX 245/30., NSW
Dept. of Agriculture Gazette, Vol. NO 1.
4 Stephenson, R.A. (1988) Review of Macadamia, Unpublished Report, MHRS, Nambour, QLD, Australia.
4. PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOLOGY
Since the commercial development of macadamia is relatively recent, physiology and biology are not well understood.
Evidence is emerging of a plant that is hardy, tolerant to stress and fairly adaptable. The production of a high oil
content kernel limits the yield because so much energy (photosynthate) goes towards oil accumulation. The
responses of the tree to such factors as heat, water stress and light intensity are still being studied and the
phenology of the crop in relation to the environment varies from site to site. (Phenology is the study of expressed
responses to the prevailing conditions such as vegetative and floral flushing patterns). A phenological study in
Malawi has begun to quantify the patterns for management purposes.
4.01 Proteoid Roots

This phenomenon occurs in many plants of the Proteacae family, hence the term `Proteoid'. Malcolm and Trochoulias
(1979) conducted a study on proteoid roots of macadamia and other plants. Proteoid roots consist of a dense cluster
of short lateral roots in well defined rows around the parent root. These short laterals extend to over 1 cm and are
covered with root hairs at maturity. They appear to last 2 - 3 months before dying, starting as whitish extensions
without root hairs and maturing with a brownish colour from tannin deposition. They are readily visible in young
seedlings but also occur in mature trees, and can `colonise' pieces of organic matter. Although the proteoid roots die,
the parent root is unaffected.
Growth of proteoid roots is greatest in poor soils or potting media - high nutrient status appears to depress the
production of new clusters or they may be absent. The presence of the roots is thought to be for nutrient uptake by
increasing root surface area which corresponds to the above. The causal agent is not known but thought to be a
micro-organism or biological agent. The reasoning for this is that gamma radiation of inoculum collected from infected
trees fails to produce a response in plants grown in sterile media. The action is similar to mycorrhiza with the majority
of the proteoid roots occurring in the surface or mulch layer. Seedlings grow faster once inoculated and the response
of seedlings to macadamia husks in the mix may be related to this (husks could be ìnfected' on the ground prior to
harvest). No change to water absorption ability has been reported but water logging is detrimental to all root growth
in macadamia.

There are two ways for the industry to use proteoid roots to advantage. One is to use lighter, more open mixes with
organic matter (possibly containing decomposed husks) to encourage proteoid root development and faster seedling
growth. This will help overcome some of the nursery problems and improve drainage and aeration in pots. The
second is the application of organic mulch to encourage the development of proteoid roots as well as normal roots
and improve nutrient uptake and recycling. This will improve the health of trees and improve the efficiency of applied
fertilizers - possibly reducing the requirements. Some trees in Malawi are showing signs of dieback or decline. The
use of husks has helped alleviate this condition in Australia and could presumably be of benefit in Malawi. Exposure
of a root system at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station (BARS) has shown how extensive the root system is the
tree and root growth should be encouraged.
4.02 Leaf and Stem Structure and Function

Recent work conducted in Australia (Lloyd, unpublished 1990 pers com; Stephenson, 1988), has shown the tolerance
of macadamia to water stress. The sclerophyllous nature of the mature leaf resists collapse after loss of turgidity and
does not show stress until it is extreme. Damage is then usually irreversible. Young foliage does wilt at lower stress
levels and wind burn can be a problem. Lloyd found the xylem vessels in the stem to be very efficient in water
transportation and the roots to be equally efficient at extracting water from the soil. Stephenson is currently
investigating the effect of water stress at various stages of the phenological cycle to determine critical levels and
periods. This information should give a guide to deficit irrigation strategies.
Macadamia has a well developed medullary ray system which aids in lateral water movement in the stem, improving
efficiency. It appears the tree is well adapted to periods of stress and competition for water which occur commonly in
it's native habitat. However, the effect of stress on productivity is less well known.
Whilst the nature of the tree is such that it can tolerate and survive moisture stress, the tree performs better at sites
with 1,200 mm or more per year of rainfall, reasonable soils, and temperatures below 30 degrees Celsius and a dry
season not exceeding 4-5 months. It is advisable to select superior sites for macadamia. Moisture conservation
practices such as mulching trees, windbreaks and erosion control in addition to balanced nutrition of trees will help
control stress and make more effective use of available moisture.
4.03 Floral Initiation

The macadamia flowers profusely however only a small percentage of flowers set and produce mature nuts. A
number of studies have been conducted on the floral biology of macadamia to gain insights useful in production.
These have started with initiation through to immature nut drop, including pollination mechanisms.
Potential yield could be considered to be determined at floral initiation (Stephenson, 1987). Macadamias flower from
axillary buds, usually from wood two years old or older. Stephenson and Gallagher (1986) found flower initiation to
occur under shortening day conditions with night temperatures of 11 - 15 degrees Celsius. Development of flowers
was best after a cooler period. Sakai et al (1983) following earlier study by Nagao found that initiation in Hawaii
occurs at higher temperatures (15 - 21 degrees Celsius) and development was greatest under colder nights (12 - 18
d
egrees Celsius). Higher night temperatures inhibited both initiation and development in both studies. There
appeared to be considerable ability to compensate for smaller flowerings as the number of flowers produced has little
effect on final nut set. Adverse conditions following initiation (and loss of early racemes) can be overcome to some
extent by later initiation at higher temperatures. Initiation and development occurred over a long period of time (14
weeks in Stephenson, 31 weeks in Sakai). An excess of flowers could represent a waste of carbohydrate and may limit
nut set and yield.
The experience in Malawi has not been documented. However, there appears to be a more concentrated flowering in
the lower, warmer areas which have a more consistent climatic pattern. The upper Thyolo seems to have wider spread
of flowering with an earlier initiation and development phase. This can result in more crop than the later flowering
which corresponds to the lower areas' main flowering. These flowering patterns are likely to be the result of
differences in the climate. In the upper Thyolo - cool, cloudy days with relatively warm nights followed by clear days
and cool nights during the later wet season could trigger initiation and development. The hotter, more uniform climate
in the lower areas may delay initiation. Either way, it appears that flowering is not limiting in Malawi in the main
production areas. Moving towards lower altitudes (approx. 500 m in the South) where night temperatures are
consistently warm, would limit flowering and these areas should be avoided.
4.04 Flowering and Pollination

Macadamia flowers are borne on racemes arising from the stems and branches. A raceme may have over 200 flowers.
The flowers are perfect (i.e. contain functional male and female parts) and are similar in structure to other proteaceae
flowers. Each flower consists of four perianth lobes with inter-locking margins with four stamens opposite and
attached to the perianth lobes. The pistil has an ovary with two ovules and a long style (about 10 cm long) with a
small stigma at the tip. (Sedgley, et al 1985).
The floral behavior is protandrous (i.e. the anthers release pollen before the flower is open, commonly depositing
pollen on the style and stigma which is usually not receptive at that stage; maturation of the male reproductive parts
before the female parts). Once open, the flower remains receptive for several days unless conditions are adverse.
Pollination is slow and takes a minimum of 48 hours after opening (Ito et al, 1984). Sedgley et al found that pollen tube
growth of the flower's own pollen did not commence until two days after flower opening when the stigma was fully
receptive. This was associated with biochemical changes in the transmitting tract. In addition, Sedgley (1983) also
found varying degrees of self incompatibility, resulting from inhibition of the pollen tube growth in the style.
Although the ovary contains two ovules, only one pollen tube was observed to reach the ovary - which may explain
why only one ovule develops (twins are often common in seedlings and clones are selected against twinning
characteristics).
Pollination is completed when the ovary is fertilized. Ito et al (1984) found increased initial nut set with cross
pollination over self pollination. Ironside (1989 pers com) indicated in observation trials an increased initial set from
cross pollination. Sedgley and Vithanage (1984) listed three major problems associated with flowering and fruit set
which may reduce yield:-
(1) Self-incompatibility - can be alleviated by the interplanting of different cultivars.
(2) Pollen transfer in the orchard - insects are required to transfer pollen between flowers of different cultivars.
Placing honey bee hives in the orchard may be the best way of assisting pollen transfer, but the use of
pesticides at flowering presents a problem.
(3) Premature nut drop - does not appear to be associated with defective embryo or endosperm development. It
may be a physiological problem and further work is required in this area. Approaches involving hormones,
with cinct uring and shoot tip removal treatments may be of benefit, and tree management practices are
probably of importance.
In Malawi, flowering does not appear to be a problems per se. Monoclonal blocks such as those on some estates are
low yielding and pollination appears to be a problem. Pollen transfer within orchards is likely to be a problem in many
orchards. There does not appear to have been a study of the main pollinators in Malawi. Trees close to honey bee
hives at one estate had a higher nut set (on a v isual assessment) than those further away. Premature nut drop is often
seen as a serious problem in Malawi, particularly as this coincides with the dry season. The majority of the nut drop
is in the 5-10 mm range which is generally considered to have been pollinated. Whilst this is worrying for a grower, it
may not necessarily be a problem as the carrying capacity of the trees is limited and some rationalization takes place.
A similar pattern of nut drop occurs in Australia and Hawaii. However, some trees in Malawi are very low yielding
despite reasonable flowering and sometimes apparent nut set, and this needs to be investigated further. Agronomic
factors may be important.
4.05 Fruit Development, Nut Drop and Maturation

After fertilization, one ovule develops and usually suppresses the growth of the other ovule. Rapid development
occurs from about two weeks after pollination and continues for 14-16 weeks when shell hardening occurs. No further
growth occurs after this but continued physiological changes take place inside the shell. Sakai and Nagao (1984)
observed a single sigmoidal growth pattern for macadamia. They observed a rapid increase in flesh weight about 5 - 6
weeks after anthesis and this continued until 15 -18 weeks when no further increase in flesh weight was observed.
They found abscission of flowers and fruit to be continuous from anthesis through to maturity with three periods
evident. The first abscission occurred in the first two weeks after anthesis and involved over 90% of the flowers. The
second period occurred 3 - 8 weeks after anthesis and commonly involved over 80% of the initial nut set. The third
period was gradual and occurred from 9 weeks until maturity at 28 - 30 weeks. The patterns in Malawi are similar
although time taken to maturity can be longer and extended flowering can confuse the issue. Ito (1980) stated that
only 0.3% of flowers end in mature nuts. The period of most nut drop coincides with the period of rapid early growth.
It appears that there is considerable compensating capacity built in to the flowering, fruit set and nut development
phases, with much less in the later maturation stages. This is particularly important in field operations, especially
protection of the nuts from pests such as nut borer and bugs which can cause the nuts to fall or affect the kernel
during maturation. In general terms, the crop is relatively fixed at about 8 weeks after anthesis when the majority of
abscission has occurred. Major nut drops after this period will greatly reduce yield.
Maturation occurs after the shell hardening stage. It is characterised by the accumulation of oil (up to 80%) in the
endosperm and the maturation of the embryo to facilitate germination. Oil is largely dependent on photosynthesis
and since oil has a lower specific gravity than water the weight of the kernel does not increase. Agronomic factors
such as adequate nutrition and water are important as are the genetics of the clone in determining the oil content.
Optimal quality is measured by oil content as well as visually. The individual nuts may fall enclosed in the husk or
may fall free, depending on clones or may be retained on the tree - `stick tights'. It is important that the majority of the
nuts falling have a high oil content and be visually sound, free fromblemish on the kernel or insect damage to ensure
nut quality is high.
Pollination is a problem in some orchards. Close planting with dense canopies, often mono-clonal, seem to inhibit
pollination activity. The large size of many fields means that resident or imported populations of pollinators such as
honey bees would be required during flowering to ensure adequate pollination. An investigation of the status of
insects visiting the flowers may be useful to determine the importance of native insects. The use of bee hives would
be advantageous (2-3 hives per hectare).
Flower diseases may be a serious problem (e.g Botrytis) and recent research initiatives in this area should be
beneficial. It is necessary to quantify the severity and impact of this problem. Early out of season flowering is
occurring in the upper Thyolo areas. This makes management more difficult. The effect on yield and nut quality is not
known nor is the proportion of the crop attributed to each flowering. It would be worthwhile to quantify the effect of
early flowering (or flower removal) to get information for improved management.
Nut drop is considered to be a major problem, probably because it is so visible and occurs at a time of perceived
stress. However, the patterns are similar in Malawi as elsewhere in well managed as well as poor orchards. It is more
likely to be a result of internal factors rather than external factors. The actual water stress levels of macadamia at
various sites is not quantified but this information would be useful in checking if environmental stress is a factor.
Management strategies aimed at protecting the nuts remaining after the main drop phase are very important in
determining final yield. This can be complicated by the existence of nuts from different flowerings of different ages on
the tree at the same time. The use of Integrated Pest Management monitoring systems is beneficial as is the
encouragement of parasites of borer and bug.
The nut in shell quality is determined at maturity and abscission from the tree. The nut does not improve in quality
after that. It is important to maximise the nut in shell quality prior to abscission with good management, in particular,
nutrition.
4.06 Phenology of Macadamia

Phenology of macadamia refers to the reproductive and vegetative growth patterns in relation to environment. This is
a useful management tool because it allows the agronomic management to follow the natural patterns of the tree. A
management calendar has been worked out for Australian conditions based on the phenological cycling of the crop
(Vock 1988). This work has not been done in Malawi but a study has commenced.
In general terms, macadamias grow in flushes. The length is usually determined by environmental factors but can be
influenced by agronomy such as nitrogen nutrition (Stephenson, 1988). Juvenile trees commonly have more
vegetative flushes than fruiting trees. A small `spring' flush and a large summer flush is common in Australia. Trees in
Malawi have been observed to have many flushes, which may explain the large tree size in many cases. Flowering is
variable in many areas, including Malawi. Verheij (1986) indicated the balance between vegetative and floral activity
is of prime importance to yield, hence the need to know the phenology.

It is important that the phenological cycle of macadamia be observed and recorded for the main growing sites in
Malawi. This information is an integral part of a management plan for the crop. It should also be noted that a trade off
usually occurs between vegetative and floral activity. Avoidance of excessive vegetative growth is sound practice
in macadamia.
4.07 Physiology
The physiology of macadamia is not well understood but information is gradually becoming available. Much of the
research has been directed at understanding key areas useful from an agronomic point of view. This includes basic
nutrition, water relations, response to environment and so on. Some growth regulators or plant hormone studies have
been done. The use of Ethephon (an ethylene precursor) to induce nut drop or raceme abscission is documented
(Nagao and Sakai 1985, Stephenson and Gallagher 1987). An ethephon spray to induce nut drop of " stick tight" nuts
is recommended by Vock (1988).
Cultar (paclobutrazol - a gibberellin inhibitor) has been used experimentally on macadamia in Malawi and South
Africa. Results in Malawi have been variable based on observations made by the grower who applied the chemical. A
small on-station trial is underway at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station. Phiri (pers com 1990) is conducting
extensive studies on growth regulators in the United Kingdom as a part of a PhD programme. The information from
South Africa is not sufficient to include and recommendations for use in Malawi are available as
yet.
The physiology in relation to climate will be covered in a later section.
Research on physiology is usually expensive, requiring facilities and equipment not readily available in Malawi.
However, much of the basic physiological information is readily transferable and can be utilised here.
Quantifying basic parameters such as stress levels, phenology and field responses is useful and can be done at low
cost. It is best to leave the expensive research to those who can afford it and utilise the results in relation to local
conditions.
As Verheij (1986) stated, the manipulation of the tree to find a balance between fruiting and growth is necessary for
evergreen branching trees. The phenological cycle provides the patterns which allow for manipulation of the
vegetative growth, root growth and flowering/fruit growth. Cull (1986) indicates the need to use the phenological
expression as a way of studying the various growth patterns to gain insights into the physiology behind these
patterns. This can be used as a basis for a structured research programme utilizing the patterns to gain optimal
productivity. This is a holistic approach to the tree where a number of subsystems are combined into one, although
various parts may be studied separately.
He described two groups of limiting factors:-

- Those which limit the maximum allocation of carbohydrate to the productive parts.
- Those which otherwise physically constrain the normal function of the plant (physical constraints such as
pollen development problems, critical water stress levels, minor elements deficiencies and root growth
limited by disease _ these can be researched independently of the total system).

Using the approach outlined above, the main productivity determinants can be described for the crop once local
factors have been accurately determined. This simplifies research and allows for a more structured approach. Utilizing
this approach in Malawi will give a sound output of information useful in management.
4.08 Genetics and Clonal Improvement

The majority of early macadamia clones were selections from mass populations or open pollinated seedlings. More
recently, attempts are being made with controlled crosses and genetic manipulation. Genetic improvement is at a very
early stage for macadamia and there is considerable room for improvement. However, knowledge is limited as to
inheritance of particular characters and the outcrossing nature of the floral mechanism implies a heterozygous or
variable population. Without inbred lines of known characteristics it is difficult to carry out controlled breeding and
testing.
Chromosome number is given as 2n = 28 for M. integrifolia, M. tetraphylla and M. ternifolia. Polyploidy is known
with at least one M. integrifolia having 2n = 56 (IBPGR 1986). Interspecific hybrids are found in nature and as a result
of close plantings in cultivation. Although controlled breeding is difficult, the potential for selection from known
good parent crosses is high given the heterozygosity of the tree. Large populations are required for selection which
is a disadvantage and a time frame of up to 15 years may be required. The identification of superior parent lines
becomes important (i.e. parents whose progeny have a high proportion of superior characteristics). A good example
of this is the recent evaluation of seedlings at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station where the best trees for nut
quality and kernel recovery were all from the same parent (3 trees from 200).
Hamilton and Ito (1985) in a summary of cultivar development in Hawaii felt that the potential for improvement in yield
on Hawaiian levels was over 25%, kernel recovery to over 45% and grade 1 to 95%. On Australian performance levels,
Ito felt this would equate to a 70% increase in yield over existing levels (Watson et al 1984). Given that Malawi has
yields of less than or comparable to Australia, using similar varieties from Hawaii, the potential must be similar here.
They go on to stress the need for selection in the local environment to overcome the limitations experienced with
Hawaiian selections in Australia (lower yields, variable quality and poor climate adaptation such as 508 in hot sites).
Selection in Hawaii begun in 1934 and about 100,000 seedlings have been examined so far. Some 863 selections have
resulted from this with nine cultivars being selected and another fifty still under observations. Many of the earlier
selections have been superseded. Many of the trees not released in Hawaii for whatever reason have been tried
elsewhere sometimes with success (791 has been claimed to be a star performer in South Africa although rejected on
locally important factors in Hawaii; Blight, 1989).
Clones 246, 508 were named in 1948 so it is not surprising that better material is available, although some later
releases such as 333 have also lost favour. The Australian industry is actively developing locally adapted clones
(Nissen and William 1978; Bell 1984,1990; Winks et al 1988) from local selections as well as introduced material
(mostly from Hawaii in origin).
Nissen et al (1978) outlined procedures for selection based on nut quality. Nut quality and kernel recovery are the
first characters that a potential clone must possess. Yield is considered next. Desirable characteristics are dependant
on many possible factors and this is where local conditions are important. Climatic adaptation, the type of production
system being used, type of processing and so on can be used to select superior clones. Bell (1984) gives a detailed
list of characters and weightings used in selecting potential clones at his establishment in Australia. This programme
has led to the patenting of two clones for Australian conditions (Commercial Horticulture 1989), under Australian
Plant Variety Rights Legislation. These were the first plants of any type patented in Australia and arose from about
600 seedlings the selection `Renown'.
Bell and Bell (1988) listed updates or changes to the selection criteria and reflected upon many years of experience
with clonal selection. They concluded that the selection of superior parents can give a reasonable chance of
successful progeny and reduce the number of plants needed for selection. A high degree of uniformity was found in
Hawaiian parents such as 660 and 344 with progeny being similar to the parent. The Australian selection, `Renown'
produced a wider range of progeny types, indicating more variability. Renown is a M. integrifolia /M. tetraphylla
hybrid and more heterozygous than the Hawaiian lines which were selected from a small genetic base. Selected
parents and parent crosses should give a high degree of useful progeny. Some degree of inbreeding is apparent from
observations of Hawaiian progeny lines so controlled inbreeding and later hybridization is possible. The use of
interspecific hybrids should not be discounted and the use of locally based selections encouraged.
A brief description of the main cultivars in Malawi is given below.(From Hamilton and Ito, 1985; Stephenson, 1988).
`Keauhou', Formally known as HAES 246, is the oldest Hawaiian cultivar first selected in 1935 and named in 1948. The
tree is broadly spreading in form with wide crotch angles and strong branch structure. It therefore requires wider
spacing in the orchard than narrower more upright cultivars. It yields well and has attractive nut characteristics, but
the kernel quality has proven somewhat marginal in some years in certain locations. `Keauhou' is not considered
hardy or wind resistant.
`Kakea', HAES 508, is an excellent commercial cultivar selected in 1936 and named in 1948. It has performed
exceptionally well in long-term yield trials at the Poamoho, Waiakea and Kona experimental farms. It is reasonably
hardy, producing kernels of excellent quality and has been consistently productive, and long lived in all test
locations. Its growth habit is more upright than `Keauhou' and young trees often need to be topped. Nurserymen
consider `Kakea' harder to graft than other varieties but skilled propagators are able to get a high percentage of takes.
`Kakea' is one of the best and most reliable varieties for commercial planting in Hawaii.
Ìkaika', HAES 333, was selected in 1936 and named in 1953, largely because of its early bearing tendencies, dark
green foliage and vigorous tree characteristics. It has been widely planted in areas where wind problems are limiting
factors in growth and production. The nuts are relatively thick-shelled so that recovery of grade 1 kernels is usually
less than 30%. Ìkaika' is hardy and productive but because its nut and kernel characteristics are not as desirable as
those of other Hawaiian cultivars, it is not now being planted as extensively as before.
`Keaau', HAES 660, is a relatively new variety, first selected in 1948 and named in 1966. It has an upright growth habit
permitting somewhat closer planting than most other cultivars without undue crowding. `Keaau' has outstanding nut
and kernel characteristics with 42 to 46 percent kernel recovery and more than 90 percent of grade 1 kernels. The nuts
are excellent for processing and the trees have performed well during the limited period that this variety has been
tested. This clone has a tendency of producing small nuts.
`Kau', HAES 344, is a recently introduced cultivar. Although first selected in 1935, it was not officially named until
1971. `Kau' most resembles `Keauhou' in nut characteristics and productivity but has appreciably better kernel quality
in most locations. The tree form is more upright than `Keauhou' and it is also considered hardier and more wind
resistant. `Kau' is a relatively hardy, productive and wind resistant variety considered suitable for commercial
planting in difficult areas.
`Mauka', HAES 741, is one of the newer Hawaiian cultivars selected for its good performance at high elevations. Tree
characteristics are similar to `Kau' being more upright than `Keauhou'. It is expected to produce higher yields than
`Kakea' at high elevations or cooler sites. The nuts are of good quality but show some kernel discolouration in some
seasons. (Winks et al, 1988).
`Makai', HAES 800, was selected for its good performance at lower elevations. The tree has a very spreading growth
habit and tends to look `scraggly' with long, lanky limbs and irregular branching. Nut quality is consistently superior
both in Australia and in Hawaii (Ito and Hamilton 1983, Winks et al, 1988).
Suggestions for Malawi.

If Malawi is to compete successfully on the export market, the quality and productivity of the clones used must be at
least comparable to, if not better than, those being used by competitors. The new generation of clones used
elsewhere are superior to existing clones grown in Malawi which originated from Hawaii. It is necessary for Malawi to
develop locally adapted clones by selecting progeny from superior parent material. Although time consuming, this
can be done without a lot of resources as Bell has demonstrated. Locally important factors should be included in the
selection criteria such as tree size. The information is readily available to support such a programme. Altitudinal
effects are latitude specific so a high altitude Hawaiian clone will not necessarily perform well in high altitudes in
different latitudes. Similarly climates vary such as between the Northern and Southern Regions of Malawi. Clonal
evaluations need to take place in all major growing areas.
Older clones such as 246 whose performance has been erratic can be replaced by topworking with improved clones.
333 has performed well under very adverse conditions in Malawi and may be a good Smallholder tree despite the
lower kernel recoveries.
4.09 References
1. Bell, H.D.F. (1984) Criteria and Selective Methods Used in Assessing Potential New Varieties of Macadamia
Nut Trees, Session 2 Paper No 1 Proceedings, First Australian Macadamia Research Workshop, Australia.
2. Bell, H.D.(1990 pers com) Hidden Valley Plantations, Alf's Pinch Rd Beerwah QLD Australia, P.O. Box 64519.
3. Bell H.F.D., Bell D.J.D., Winks C.W., Gallagher E.C. (1988) - Macadamia Tree Breeding and Selection Program
Update 1987. Session 2 Paper No 3. Proceedings of Second Australian Macadamia Research Workshop.
Bangalow, NSW Australia.
4. Blight H.C. (1989) A New Macadamia Cultivar Selection for Local Conditions. M. integrifolia 791 - Richard.
Citrus and Subtropical Journal No 645 24 - 25.
5. Commercial Horticulture (1989). First P.V.R. Application Approved Pg.4 - 6. Rural Press Ltd, Richmond, NSW,
Australia.
6. Cull B.W. (1986) A Phenological Cycling Approach to Tree Crop Productivity Research. Symposium on
Physiology of Productivity of Subtropical and Tropical Tree Fruits - Acta Horticulturae No 175, 1986.
7. Hamilton R.A. and Ito P.J. (1989), Development of Macadamia Nut Cultivars in Hawaii; Hawaiian Macadamia
Grower Annual Conference Proceedings.
8. Hancock W.M. (1990) Tree Size and Yield Relatio nship for Macadamia in Malawi. Macadamia Growers
Newsletter - December Vol. 1. TNA. Blantyre, Malawi.
9. International Board of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) Rome, 1986 Genetic Resources of Tropical and
Subtropical Fruits and Nuts (including Macadamias).
10. Ironside D.A. 1990 (pers com) Macadamia Entomologist Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Box
5748, Limbe, Malawi.
11. Ito P.J., Evre J.M., Cabrar S. (1984) Preliminary Study on Pollination of Five Macadamia Cultivars. Session 4
Paper 2 - Proceedings of First Australian Macadamia Research Workshop.
12. Lloyd J. 1990 (pers com via Dr. M.S.J. Clowes, Commonwealth Development Corporation, Lilongwe)
Unpublished Papers on Stress and Water Use by Macadamia Wollongbar Agricultural Institute, Wollongbar,
NSW, Australia.
13. Malcolm H. and Trochoulias T. (1979) - Proteoid Roots Help Macadamia Nut Trees. New South Wales,
Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Gazette Vol. 90, No 1, February, 1979, AGDEX 245/30.
14. Nagao M. and Sakai W.S. (1985) Effects of Growth Regulators on Abscission of Young Macadamia Fruit.
Journal of American Society for Horticulture Science 110 (5): 654 - 657.
15. Nissen R.J., Williams, R.R. (1978) Assessment of Macadamia Selections Based on Nut Quality. Californian
Macadamia Society Yearbook vol. 26, 1988.
16. Phiri I.M.G. (1990 pers com) Malawian Incumbent Macadamia Agronomist, Currently at School of Biological
Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom.
17. Sakai W., Nakata S., Nagao M., Quedado R. (?) Further Study of Night Temperatures on Flower Initiation and
Rate of Flower Growth and Development in M. integrifolia, College of Agriculture, Hilo Manoa, University of
Hawaii, Hawaii.
18. Sakai W. and Nagao M. (1984) Fruit Growth and Abscission M. integrifolia Physiology of Plants - 64: 455 -
460, Copenhagen.
19. Sedgley M. (1983) Pollen Tube Growth in Macadamia. Scientia Horticulturae, 18: 333 - 341 Amsterdam,
Netherlands.
20. Sedgley M., Vithanage H.I.M.V., (1984) Pollination and Early Nut Development of Macadamia. Session 4,
Paper No 1, Proceedings of First Australian Macadamia Research Workshop.
21. Sedgley M., Blessing M.A., and Vithanage H.I.M.V., (1985). The Study of the Structure and Receptivity of
the Macadamia Pistil in Relation to Protandry and Self-incompatibility. Botany Gazette 146 (1): 6 - 14.
Univ ersity of Chicago, Illinois, USA.
22. Stephenson R.A. (1983) Floral Initiation and Floral Development in Macadamia (Abstract only). Australian
Horticultural Research Newsletter No 55: 129.
23. Stephenson R.A. (1988) A Review of Macadamia, Unpublished MHRS Nambour, QLD Australia.
24. Stephenson R.A. and Gallagher E.C. (1986) Effects of Night Temperatures on Floral Initiation and Raceme
Development in Macadamia. Scientia Horticulturae, 30 213 - 218. Amsterdam, Netherlands.
25. Stephenson R.A. and Gallagher E.C. (1987) Effects of Ethephon on Macadamia Racemes. Journal on
Horticultural Science, 62 (4): 539 - 544.
26. Verheij E.W.M. (1986) Towards a Classification of Tropical Fruit Trees. Symposium on Physiology of
Productivity of Subtropical and Tropical Tree Fruits. Acta Horticulturae No 175.
27. Vock N.T. (1988) Macadamia Management Calendar. Farm Note, Agriculture Development 246/11, Ohio,
Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane, Australia.
28. Watson B.J., Bell H.F.D., Winks C.W., Ito P.J., Vock N., Spash J., (1984) Panel discussion. Genetic Limitations
to Higher Yields - Session 5, Panel Proceedings, First Australian Macadamia Research Workshop.
29. Winks C.W., Gallagher E.C., Lanham T.E. (1988) Regional Macadamia Varietal Trials. Session 2 Paper 2,
Proceedings of the Second A ustralian Macadamia Research Workshop, Bangalow, NSW Australia.
5. ECOLOGY AND CLIMATE
Although the macadamia originates from a small ecological zone, it has adapted and performed well in areas outside
this zone. Tropical Hawaii is the classic example. However, commercial production and viability is dependent on four
main factors (Cull and Trochoulias 1982):
- tree survival
- yield
- reliability of production
- kernel quality
Hence the performance is more important than environmental range per se and environment of origin may not be a
good indicator of likely performance. Genetic selection in situ as the Hawaiians have done has given superior
performance over the centre of origin using the same genetic material. Shigeru (1981) went as far as to suggest that
the main macadamia areas in Australia did not have the best temperature regimes for production! However,
temperature is considered to be very important in production.
Production areas in Malawi are about 10 to 16 degrees South which is well North of the centre of origin latitudes (25
to 29 degrees South) and from a different type of climate. Tree survival has been good but the other factors have
been variable. Climate is not the only variable affecting these so it is necessary to be mindful of this.
5.01 Temperature
The temperature requirement for the main Malawian sites have been tabulated and will be presented with climatic data
later in this section.
A number of studies on temperature effects on macadamia have been conducted. In Australia, temperatures in the
centre of origin can vary from minus three to forty degrees for short periods and tree survival outside of this range
has been recorded (Cull and Trochoulias 1982). Hawaii has a more even temperature regime than Australia.
Temperature affects flower initiation (See previous section on Flower Initiation). This limits the range for macadamia
in tropical areas where high night temperatures inhibit floral initiation and growth. The lowland areas of Malawi
would be in this range.
Temperature affects growth. Trochoulias and Lahav (1983) in glass house trials showed growth ceased at 10 degrees
Celsius and at thirty degrees, growth became chlorotic and later necrotic. At thirty five degrees Celsius multiple bud
break occurred, which callused and then died. Highest dry matter accumulation was in the leaves at 20 to 25 degrees
Celsius which accounted for most of the dry matter produced. Allan et al (1978) considered the optimum temperature
for net photosynthesis to be 23 to 24 degrees Celsius, with photosynthesis reducing over 26 degrees, but continuing
until about 40 degrees Celsius. They also found that respiration rates at night were temperature dependent.
Respiration (as measured by CO2 production from carbohydrate breakdown) was 75% faster at 29 degrees Celsius
compared to 18-19 degrees Celsius. This is very important, particularly during oil accumulation which occurs during
the warmest months. High night temperature would thus restrict the build up of reserves and may reduce the final oil
content of the nuts. Stephenson and Gallagher (1986) found that in controlled environments temperatures over 30
degrees increased nut drop 10 weeks after flowering.
Allan (1972) in comparing heat units concluded that mean summer temperatures of around 25 degrees with maximum
not exceeding 38 degrees and little or no frost as the best production areas. However, although favourable areas in
Hawaii have more heat units than Australia, these occur at different stages in the phenological cycle, especially
during oil accumulation. This results in higher oil content in kernels in the same clones in Australia compared to
Hawaii (Mason 1982, from Cull and Trochoulias 1982). Higher temperatures (presumably with lower night
temperatures or at least a good diurnal range of around 10 degrees) usually results in higher oil content, although
yield may be lower. Cull and Trochoulias suggest that high temperatures in the three months after flowering when the
shell is forming will result in early hardening of shells and small nuts. This could be a factor in Malawi where
temperatures peak in October and November at the shell hardening stage for the later flowering. Clones also vary in
heat tolerance, 508 showing a high sensitivity to heat. In general terms the following could be said:- a more equitable
temperature regime is desirable over extremes, a practical range of 0 to 38 degrees Celsius with 10 to 30 degrees
Celsius preferred; with a period of cooler nights for floral initiation 12 to 18 degrees Celsius followed by a period of 2 -
3 months dormancy before flowering.
5.02 Rainfall
Malawi has a long dry season which is variable in length and ends with the temperature peak prior to rains. The
length and severity of the dry season increases towards lower altitudes and many local factors are important. The
cost of irrigation is high so choosing favourable sites is necessary. Storey 1969 (from Cull and Trochoulias 1982)
gives 1,000 mm per annum of well distributed rainfall as the minimum rainfall requirement for macadamia. The areas of
origin are generally higher than this although the July to November period is commonly low in rainfall. This
corresponds to Malawi but rainfall is commonly absent in Malawi during this period. Hawaiian areas tend to have a
higher, more evenly distributed rainfall. An understanding of water stress and the effects this has on growth, yield
and nut quality is required. Recent and continuing investigations into this area is being undertaken in Australia by
Stephenson and Lloyd (pers com 1990). The results so far indicate a plant very tolerant to water stress but effects on
yield have yet to be determined. Trochoulias (1988) found no yield response to irrigation in the favourable sites
(approx. 1600 mm per annum) over 10 years. Site and soil are also important as these influence water usage
(exposure) and the amount of water available (soil reserve, water table).
However, a minimum of 1,200 mm per annum with a dry season not exceeding five months with a good soil depth
should be a reasonable guide for Malawi without supplementary irrigation for mature trees. Field trees do not
normally show symptoms of water stress at sites with over 1,200 mm of rainfall in Malawi.
5.03 Humidity
The humidity during the dry season can be quite low especially towards the end of this season. However a Chiperoni
(a cool misty period) is close to 100% humidity and these occur almost anytime on the South East facing slopes in
Southern Malawi. Storey (1969 from Cull et al 1982) felt that humidity was of no great importance. Lloyd (1990 pers
com) found similar results in relation to water stress and photosynthesis. Low humidity during flowering could affect
pollen viability or stigma receptivity but this is not documented. Periods of low humidity are common in Australia
with no apparent effect.
High humidity at flowering encourages fungal attack and this problem is being investigated presently by the
Pathology staff at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station. Bee activity is reduced by cool cloudy conditions and
pollen is washed from flowers by rain, both of which could affect pollination. Fungal infection on the husk does not
seem to be a problem in Malawi. With the exception of the `flower blight' complex, humidity does not seem to be a
limiting factor in growing areas in Malawi. Stephenson and Gallagher (1987) found it had little effect on premature nut
drop at 30 degrees Celsius.
5.04 Light
Light intensity for photosynthesis was studied by Allan et al (1972). They found that net photosynthesis declined
below 600 watts per meter square and fell sharply below 300 watts per meter square. Low light intensity has been
associated with twining growth on the Atherton tablelands in Australia and similar symptoms have been observed at
upper Thyolo and Kawalazi in the north. Light intensities are reduced by cloud cover and high levels of cloud cover
are common in Malawi. When associated with cold conditions or warm nights, adverse effects on carbohydrate
production and reserves could be expected. Lower light intensities during the early part of the wet season could
result in low oil contents as this is the oil accumulation stage.
The photoperiod of macadamia is not documented but Cull et al (1982) considered it likely to be a short day (or long
night) plant because flowers are initiated in the cooler autumn period. Extended flowering and poor flowering has
been recorded in many tropical areas. The extended or early flowering in Malawi could be associated with the low
light intensities and cool temperatures during the wet season. Quantifying the light levels for different sites could be
useful along with heat units in gaining insights into productivity in Malawi. Sunburn has been observed towards the
end of the dry season, being severe in 1990 on all clones at some sites.
5.05 Wind
Because the wood is fairly brittle macadamia is susceptible to wind damage and extremely windy sites should be
avoided. Tree training when young does help reduce breakage especially of large branches. Wind also induces
stress, especially hot dry wind which is not uncommon during the dry season. Windburn on new shoots is common
as is physical damage from abrasion. Storms frequently cause breakages in Malawi.
Windbreaks are generally recommended in Australia and Hawaii (Trochoulias et al 1984, but does not appear to be
practiced in Malawi. Staking of trees to overcome wind damage has not been found to be successful in Australia
(Wrigley pers com 1989). Menzies (1985) in a study of the value of windbreaks listed the following (adapted for
macadamia) -:
- Improved tree growth.
- Reduced moisture loss and stress.
- Improved conditions for spraying pesticides.
- Protection for better tree training and shape.
- Better conditions for bee activity and pollination.

The use of windbreaks would be beneficial in Malawi. Generally a filtering windbreak is best. Single lines or double
lines forming a triangular planting pattern are used with close spacings (2-3 m between trees). Leave a row space
before the first macadamia line to avoid competition. Use leguminous species or natives or introduced species such
as Grevillia. Avoid pine and eucalypts.
5.06 Reliability
The climate in the producing areas of Malawi seems to be variable. However, since it is very difficult to predict
weather, averages are used which level out extremes. Areas of erratic rainfall and extremes of temperatures should be
avoided. It is best to choose suitable areas.
5.07 Altitude
Macadamia is being grown successfully above about 550 meters in Malawi. Increasing altitude reduces temperatures
consequently the lower estates are much hotter than the those at higher altitudes. This pattern can be confused by
cloud cover at higher altitudes which reduces light intensities. It seems that altitudes much over 1500 meters would
probably start to limit growth and yields, and the same below 550 meters. This is similar to the range reported for
Guatemala by Benitez (?), of 550 m to 1600 m; and Davenport (1982 from Cull et al) of about 1600 meters in Kenya to
700 meters in Costa Rica. Davenport reported problems with cloud cover and frequent rain, slower tree development,
thick shells and lower kernel yields in the 700 to 830 meters range in Hawaii. Banda and Fero (1990 pers com) reported
poor growth and tree health in trees planted in the lower Ntchisi area (< 450 m) where the conditions are hot and dry
but better growth and health at higher altitudes in the same area.
5.08 Soils
The macadamia is tolerant to variable soil types except for saline or calcareous soils and heavy impenetrable clays.
The preference is for well drained soils with high organic matter content and medium cation exchange capacity. Soil
pH (water method) seems best in the range 5.0 to 6.5 (Cull and Trochoulias 1982).
In recent times much more work has been done on soils and nutrit ion (Vimpany 1989 pers com) Phosphorous is
known to cause phytotoxicity and can affect uptake of other elements, such as iron. Macadamia has demonstrated
deficiency symptoms to most elements and the following elements have been shown to affect growth, yield or
quality:- N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S, Zn, Cu,and B.
Soils are variable and good local knowledge is helpful. Most soils in growing sites in Malawi appear suitable
although some are heavy. The management of the soil depends on good basic information, a history of nutrition and
inherent characteristics. A recent survey of micronutrients in Malawi soils (Sillanpaa 1990) indicates that boron, zinc,
sulphur and magnesium were often deficient as was molybdenum in many cases.
This is important and tends to back up field observations of boron, zinc and magnesium deficiencies. Low pH was
also noted and can cause magnesium deficiencies. Low pH values have been reported in Malawi (Davies 1990 pers
com). Soils were generally low in organic matter with low cation exchange capacities. Mulching and liming would
therefore be beneficial as would be the use of cover crops and soil/plant ameliorants to overcome deficiencies.
Leaf samples have shown high manganese levels and macadamia is a known accumulator of manganese. With low pH
values manganese and aluminum toxicity and nutrient uptake problems are likely. Accurate leaf and soil analysis is
required to check this. Root studies may be beneficial. Soil management is necessary for sustainable production (Pier
1987) and goes beyond just applying fertilizers, erosion control, pH control and building up of organic matter and
cation exchange capacities. Soil degradation and erosion are easy to see in orchards in Malawi and this needs
immediate action by managers.

The following forms a good basis for macadamia production:-
• Rainfall of above 1,200 mm with a short dry season not exceeding 5 months.
• Maximum temperatures of not more than 38 degrees with a diurnal range of at least 10 degrees, minimum of 0
degrees and a preferred range of 10 - 30 degrees.
• Avoid areas of consistent high day and night temperatures.
• Avoid windy and exposed areas.
• Altitude should be above 550 meters with an upper limit not known but about 1,500 meters.
• Soils should preferably be deep > 1.00 meters in depth and free draining.
• Steep terrain should be avoided as this makes orchard management difficult.
• Soil management needs much more attention to ensure long term sustainability of production through
mulching, erosion and degradation control, organic matter and Cation Exchange Capacity build up and pH
management.
• Soil degradation and erosion control need to be part of the management strategies right from the planning
stage.
5.09 References
1. Allan P. 1972 (a) The Future for Macadamia Nuts : Part 1 Citrus Grower and Subtropical Fruit Journal No. 458
9-12.
2. Allan P. 1972 (b) The Future for Macadamia Nuts : Part 2 Citrus Grower and Subtropical Fruit Journal No. 459
17-21.
3. Allan P., and de Jager J. (1978) Net Photosynthesis in Macadamia and Pawpaw and the Possible alleviation
of Heat Stress : Crop Production 7, 125-128 Republic of South Africa.
4. Banda W.R.G. and Fero W.K. (1990 pers com) following Smallholder Macadamia Survey, Ntchisi Area.
Technical Officers, Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Box 5748, Limbe, Malawi, Africa.
5. Benitez J.M.(?) Story of the Macadamia Nut Crop in Guatemala, California Macadamia Society Yearbook,
year unknown.
6. Cull B.W. and Trochoulias T. (1982) Macadamias - Environmental Range for Commercial Production.
Proceedings of Tree Crops: The Third Component. 1st Australian Conference on Tree nuts Crops,
Cornucopia Press, Perth, Australia.
7. Davies R.J. (1990 pers com) Manager, Mafisi/Lelembwe Macadamia Estates, Thyolo, Malawi.
8. Lloyd J. (1990) Senior Research Scientist, Wollongbar Agricultural Institute, Wollongbar, New South Wales,
Australia.
9. Macadamias, District Crop Summary (North Morton) (1984): DPI 9th Edition, QLD Australia.
10. Menzier, R. (1985) Windbreaks: A neglected area of orchard management, Irrigation Research and Extension
Committee Farmers Newsletter NO. 162, Australia.
11. Pier C. (1987). Management of arid tropical soils in Africa in Proceedings of Management of Arid Tropical
Soils for Sustainable Production IBSRAM. Bangkok, Thailand.
12. Shigeura G.T. (1981), Minimum temperature regimes for Macadamia - a concept. Proceedings, Hawaii
Macadamia Producers Association.
13. Shigeura G.T. (1984). Further data to support the minimum temperature regime concept for Macadamia,
14. Scientia Horticulture 36. Journal of American Society for Horticultural Sciences.
15. Sillanpaa, M. (1990). Micronutrient assessment at the country level : An international Study FAO/FINNIDA,
FAO SOILS Bulletin 63, FAO Rome.
16. Stephenson R.A. (pers com. 1990) Regional Manager, MHRS Nambour QLD, Australia. .
17. Stephenson R.A. Gallagher E.C. (1986) Effects of temperature on premature nut drop in Macadamia. QLD.
Journal of Agricultural and Animal Sciences, Vol 43(2) 97-100.
18. Stephenson R.A. Gallagher E.C. (1987) Effects of temperature, tree water status and relative humidity on
premature nut drop from macadamia. Scientia Horticulture 33: 113 - 121, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
19. Trochoulias T, Lavav E. (1983). The Effect of Temperature on growth and dry matter production of
macadamia. Scientia Horticulture, 19:167-176, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
20. Trochoulias T. (1988) Is it necessary to irrigate macadamia the north coast of NSW. Session 4, Paper No 1.
Proceedings of the Second Macadamia Research Workshop. Bangalow NSW. Australia.
21. Trochoulias T, Chalker F.C., Loebel M.R. (1984). Macadamia culture. Agfact 3.1.6, AGDEX 246/20 NSW Dept
of Agric. Australia.
22. Vimpany I, 1989 (pers com) Senior Soil Chemist Alstonville Tropical Fruit Research Station, Alstonville.
23. Wrigley J. (1989 pers com) Formerly Director, National Botanical Gardens, Canberra, now Horticultural
consultant, Coffs, Harbour, NSW, Australia.
6. CULTURAL PRACTICES
This is an area where growers have the potential to change and make improvements quickly in relation to how they
see their situation. In combination with environment and genetics, cultural practices have a major impact on yield and
quality actually produced. Genetics determine the potential realizable from the environment and cultural practices.
Since control over the environment is very limited, cultural practices remain the major manipulative means available to
the grower. As mentioned earlier in the physiology of the crop, tree manipulation and tree balance are very important
in productivity. Balancing vegetative and floral growth cycles in relation to carbohydrate production is the key to
maximizing production. Unfortunately, it is not always easy to bring a tree into balance once it has become largely
vegetative as is the case for many trees in Malawi.
Cultural practices will vary between estates and with individual smallholders and managers. The majority of the
literature available on macadamia is on a `western' style of production. This information is not necessarily
transferable to Malawi. The majority of production in Malawi is on a large scale but utilizing a labour intensive
approach. Mechanization using tractors and mounted equipment is at a low level in Malawi since the cost of
machinery is high relative to labour. In this section, the suggestions will be based on production systems currently in
use. Pest and disease management will be covered in another section.
6.01 Nursery and Propagation

The industry is currently based on Hawaiian selections which must be propagated vegetatively. The studies by
Spurling (1978) into Macadamia propagation recommended approach grafting and this has been the principle method
used since (Newton, 1989 pers com). Although not used extensively elsewhere, this method has generally been
successful in Malawi.
General propagation for tree crops including macadamia has been covered in the Nursery and Propagation Manual
(Hancock 1990). The following is a useful summary for producing grafted trees.
6.02 Rootstocks
M. tetraphylla or M. integrifolia are used as rootstocks. Incompatibility symptoms are commo nly seen but have not
yet been quantified. Symptoms are usually overgrowing of the scion over the rootstock or vice versa. Sometimes
swelling occurs at the graft site. Incompatibility may have some effect on productivity. M. tetraphylla has commonly
been used as a rootstock because of its' seedling vigour and early nut shedding which facilitates nursery operations.
Bell (1989, pers com) has reported problems with grafting some lines he is developing and indicated similar problems
with some Hawaiian selections. Long term rootstock/scion trials have been initiated in Malawi at BARS and in
Australia (Trochoulias, 1988). Little published information is available from Hawaii which is surprising, considering
the length of time the crop has been grown there. Trochoulias reported poor establishment and heavy losses from
wind in clonal (presumed from cuttings) rootstocks as opposed to
seedlings of the same parents.
Attempts to graft M. integrifolia onto other rootstocks were reported by Camacho (1978), using related Proteaceae
plants in Costa Rica. Panopsis suavealens gave a high initial success rate but longer term survival was low; Roupala
glaberrima gave no success at all. Neither could be recommended as a rootstock.
Malawi has a number of proteaceae genera but none have been reported as having been tried as a rootstock. Given
the local adaptation of these plants, it may be useful to investigate these plants as possible rootstocks. On the other
hand, if incompatibility is occurring between species within the genera, the chances of success between genera is
probably low.
Uniformity in rootstocks is important. It is common to get a large amount of variability in seedlings, even from the
same parent tree. Personal observation of seedlings and reports by Bell (1988) indicate a greater degree of uniformity
from seedling progeny of Hawaiian clones such as 660. Albinos are common and these and other weak seedlings
should be discarded. M. tetraphylla has advantages as far as nursery operations are concerned in that the nuts are
often shed earlier so that the growing/production cycle in the nursery can commence during the warmer part of the
year. Germination and early growth is much better under warm condition and a larger plant grows faster out of a cool
spell. This results in either a reduction in time to grafting or getting a larger plant for grafting.
Attempts at tree manipulation such as size control by dwarfing rootstocks have yet to be tried for macadamia. Since
large variations exist in tree size, the potential should be good but long term studies are needed. Some 3 trees are
currently under observation at BARS for dwarfing potential. Developing a dwarfing tree would allow major changes
in production systems to take place (e.g. high density planting, efficient tree harvesting) which would allow Malawi
to make better use of its labour pool and limitations on mechanization. Operations such as spraying would be more
efficient, and tree harvesting made easier.
In short, there is not yet an answer to the question "What is the best rootstock?". However, recent information from
Hawaii recommends M. integrifolia in preference to M. tetraphylla as a rootstock (Bittenbender et al 1990:- see
further references).
6.03 Seed Selection

Choose fresh, medium sized seed from the desired parent trees which should be in good health. Seed can be soaked
in clean water for 24 hours - discard floaters. Avoid storing the nut for a long period as the kernels dry and shrink
and the embryo often dies, thereby reducing germination percentage. Seed can be stored fresh in sealed plastic bags
under refrigeration (but well above freezing) for a couple of months.
6.04 Germination
Germination is quickest at high temperatures and adequate moisture levels (30-35 degrees Celsius soil temperature
give the best germination usually to 8 weeks from sowing). Below 24 degrees Celsius, germination is much slower.
Seed beds of sand or sand/organic matter can be used to avoid water logging. Pre-germination is also a useful and
easy technique - place fresh seed between moist hessian bags in a warm spot and keep wet. The nuts crack along the
suture line and the shoots emerge. Regular checks will reveal those nuts that are cracked and the embryo growing.
These can be moved directly to pots and covered by about 2 cm of mix. Discard nuts which have not pre-germinated
after 8 weeks. Place nuts with the suture line facing downwards with a vertical orientation (either in the seedbed or
pregerminated).
6.05 Transplanting
Allow the first 1-2 sets of leaves to harden in the seedbed before transplanting into pots. Moving in plants earlier or
when they are actively growing often results in large losses. Discard albinos or generally weak seedlings. A
reasonable cull rate should be expected - do not waste space on poor seedlings as they grow very slowly.
6.06 Potting Media

An open potting mix with good aeration and drainage, comprising well composted organic matter such as leaf mould
or husks with a pH of 4-6 is recommended. Avoid an excess of nutrients, especially phosphorus in the mix (fertilizers
may not be needed at all, foliar feed can be used and micronutrients are often beneficial, avoid an excess of lime as
this can cause chlorosis). Composted nut husks, form an excellent base for mixes. The size of pot used depends on
the length of time the plant will be in the nursery, smaller pots, less time, larger pots more time. Trochoulias (et al
1989) found airspaces in the potting media ensured fast seedling growth. Many of the mixes used in Malawi are too
heavy and therefore seedling growth is slow.
6.07 Timing of Operations

Collect and sow seed early (December - March) to take advantage of fresh seed and warm weather conditions. Older
dry seed and cool conditions can prolong germination to several months with a lower success rate. Pot seedlings
before the weather cools too much, say before June so that they are ready to graft in about February and planted in
the following season. Timeliness of operations has been a problem in many nurseries - seed is often sown late with
slow germination, poor plants and low success rates. This in turn affects other nursery operations.
6.08 Culling and Plant Selection

Culling is important at each stage of nursery operation to ensure only strong and vigorous plants are used.
Macadamia tends to produce a large number of poorer plants and as a general rule, it is best to sow about twice the
quantity of seed based on the number of grafted plants needed (e.g. 20,000 seed for 10,000 successful grafted field
plantings). Select only clean, straight healthy plants with large internodes and discard the rest.
6.09 Grafting
Macadamia can be grafted in a number of ways - the common method used in Malawi is approach grafting using
fairly small rootstocks. Provided this is done well on small trees with sufficient aftercare (including initial tree
training), reasonable trees can be produced. Ensure the rootstock and scion are closely matched for size and the
finished graft is straight. Ensure the graft is well healed and neat without excess callus.
Train to a central leader and leave in the nursery long enough to produce a reasonable size tree e.g. 60 cm tall above
pot level before planting.
Other methods commonly used are whip or splice grafting - this is best on larger rootstocks with good reserves (i.e.
plants which are large enough to have some carbohydrate reserves in stems and roots and which can be grafted high
enough on the stem to leave leaves below the graft). The rootstocks are grafted when coming into a flush of growth.
Scion material is from clean healthy trees, usually at least one season old or one flush back from last flush, that have
been cinctured for at least 8 weeks. A small hand plane is useful as the wood is usually hard. A cleft or wedge graft
can be used but these are not as neat.
Side grafting in much the same way as the above (although often using smaller rootstocks) is also used. Since the
top of the rootstock is not removed until the graft has taken, the reserves are not as important.
Budding is also successful. Chip budding, (a miniature graft) is done on reasonable sized rootstock using cinctured
wood. The whole bud may be covered. Punch budding on very active rootstock with active, uncinctured scion wood
is also used. This is usually done on large rootstocks using a small hand tool. Macadamias are commonly slow to
take when grafted and protection of the scion with mastic and white plastic paint is useful in harsh conditions, as is a
plastic bag or polytent. Grafting of all types is best in the warm weather when growth potential is good. Use
rootstocks that are coming into a flush or actively flushing for grafting and budding.
There are many possible causes of poor success rates in grafting and attention to detail in all aspects is required.
Rootstock vigour and health are very important as are quality of scion wood, quality of workmanship and aftercare.
Cuttings and seed grafting are successful to varying degrees but are not recommended for commercial use because
of variable success rates and problems with field establishment. Marcottage or aerial layering also works with
variable results but is very slow. Personal observations indicate that marcotts may take many months to produce
roots and yellowing and leaf drop are common. Training is more difficult with marcotts and cuttings.
6.10 Initial Training

It is easier to do initial training in the nursery and grow trees to a reasonable size and shape before planting.
Approach grafted trees often have problems because a branch structure may be in place at grafting. A central leader
is desirable for the first few seasons of growth with a well spaced branching habit in the field. Trees should be about
60 cm above pot height before they leave the nursery.
6.11 Field Operations

Field operations usually start with planning the orchard followed by subsequent infield operations. Orchard layout
depends on the terrain the production system being used and, ultimately, tree size at maturity.
6.12 Land Preparation

It appears that most land being planted to macadamia has been used previously and is not "virgin". Often
unprofitable or unsuitable tung, tea and coffee lands are being used, or even bluegum or tobacco (Whitehouse 1990,
pers com). The main problem in Malawi appears to be Armillaria infection.
Soils can also be very low in pH and organic matter content. Ring barking of existing trees to deplete the
carbohydrate reserves of the roots is generally done to reduce armillaria attack. Isolation of infected trees is also
practical using deep trenching (Whitehouse, pers com 1990). Soil pH values as low as 3.5 have been reported by
Davies (1990 pers com) for old tobacco lands. This would require a considerable amount of lime to raise the pH to the
desired level of around 5.0 - 6.0. It would be necessary for intercropping as well. Organic matter build up is slow and
encouraged using cover crops and mulch around the trees. Controlling erosion is important, this is facilitated in
Australia by limiting cultivation and incorporation of lime to the tree row. Individual tree holes are usually just large
enough to accommodate the tree. The use of mechanical augers has been discouraged due to compression and
`glazing' of planting holes which can restrict root growth. A new auger has been developed which breaks up the
sides of planting holes to overcome these problems.
Large planting holes are generally prepared well in advance in Malawi. These are usually back-filled with a
soil/compost mix and sometimes fertilizers. Good land preparation and soil conditions may allow one to use smaller
planting holes providing there is no risk of water logging. Care should be taken to mix fertilizers in particular,
phosphates and lime, in the planting hole. Hue and Nakamura (1988) reported two problems with high P levels one
being that high plant concentrations of P inhibit the uptake and movement of iron, leading to chlorosis; and
secondly, high P concentration in the soil, rather than low iron concentrations was the main soil problem with
resultant P/Fe interactions causing uptake problems. Excess phosphate/iron chlorosis has been observed in young
and old trees in Malawi. An excess of lime can also induce chlorosis, usually at higher rates than P. Avoid heavy
fertilizing at planting.
6.13 Orchard Layout

Layout and plant spacings have been variable (Newton, pers com 1989). Early plantings were based on close
spacings of tung which proved to be far too close. Some plantings were along the contour which makes it difficult to
maintain a uniform spacing. Some clones are upright (e.g. 660, 344) while some are spreading (e.g. 246, 508) hence
plant spacings could vary between clones.
Steepness and aspect of land are important as the distance between rows measured along the ground surface on a
steep slope (measured up and down with rows running across the slope) is less on slopes than on flat land.
Interplanting can affect the spacing as the requirements of the intercrop may dictate a minimum row spacing for
efficient working.
Plant spacings vary around the world depending on the production system being used, clones being grown and
personal preferences. Stephenson (1988) gave interrow tree spacing of 7-10 m with an interrow spacing of 4 to 5 m.
Close spacing assumes a pruning regime and planting distance should be final. A 10 x 5 m spacing gives 200 trees
per hectare. Trochoulias et al (1984) felt a 10 x 5 m spacing adequate for most clones with the removal of each second
tree at about year 12 to give a final spacing of 10 x 10 m.
Some research has been conducted on high density planting in Australia. Newett (1988) reported on densities of up
to 895 trees per hectare. At 683 and 895 trees/hectare he found all clones (344, 660, 741 and 800) were crowded at year
5 which resulted in a depression of yield in year 6 for clones 800 and 741. A beneficial effect of high density was the
improvement in the microclimate which reduced high temperature chlorosis when compared with wide spaced trees.
At a density of 448 per hectare (4.9 x 4.6 m), 800 was touching within and between rows, indicating the vigour of this
clone and possibly its limitations for high density plantings. Trochoulias and Burnside (1988) reviewed a number of
high density plantings in Australia, one of the oldest being a 5 x 3 m spacing trained to a wire trellis using a modified
palmette system. This eventually became unmanageable even with mechanical pruning. Yields of 246 were
comparable at five years of age to 10 year old trees at 10 x 5 m spacing (about 3 tons/hectare), H2 (an Australian
clone) produced 6 tonnes/hectare but a lower percentage of grade 1 kernels. The payback period would be reduced
by a few years despite the extra capital for establishment (trees are a capital cost for tax purposes in Australia). A 6 x
3 m spacing (555 plants per hectare) is considered the maximum manageable plant number.
There are many management considerations in a high density planting and the references given should be consulted
prior to attempting such an approach. Cull and Thew (1988) give a detailed background coverage of the topic,
including pruning patterns, light interception, layouts and research needs. Since tree size is often a problem in
Malawi, planting density and size control by pruning merits further research. Similarly, the microclimate effects could
be beneficial in the hotter and drier areas. Hand pruning is laborious and mechanical pruning has advantages.
Dwarfing rootstocks, utilizing physiological stress (low nitrogen and soil water status) and chemicals (such as
Paclobutrazol) could also be important. Many older orchards would also benefit from pruning and research is
required on this, using existing trees.

Current practices of land preparation seem adequate although planting holes do not need to be as large as generally
prepared if land preparation is adequate. Care should be taken with fertilizer in the hole. If added, these should be well
mixed and the quantity not exceed the first year recommended levels for general fertilizers. Well composted organic
material is ideal. Ensure the sides of the plantin g hole are not compacted as this may reduce root penetration.
Conservation measures to preserve soil should be undertaken. These include demarcation of crests and natural
drainage lines for the establishment of roads and waterways and the construction of bunds at the appropriate
intervals. The establishment of ground covers such as legumes (e.g. Desmodium spp, Mimosa invisium) and erosion
barriers (such as love grass) is advisable prior to planting. Alternatively, a mulch crop or the intercrop can be
established as well. Avoid having bare soil.
Have a definite idea in mind for intercropping and a plan to allow for the macadamia to have adequate space as it
grows. This encourages maximum production of the macadamia. Be mindful of the nutritional interactions of the
intercrop and the macadamia.
Choose a planting density and orchard layout which best suits the situation and likely management strategies.
Ground cover and grass type erosion barriers are more effective at reducing erosion than contour planting of trees.
Erosion should be minimized to encourage long term productivity (ground covers and mulching helps in this regard
as well). In general, a spacing of 8 x 5 m or 10 x 5 m should be adequate with good nutritional
management and thinning when required.
Some research is required on tree pruning systems for Malawi. This is needed to get the best from existing plantings,
taking into account labour management and costs. The industry currently has a number of spacings. The older
plantings are more conservative and more recent plantings are at closer spacings. The information produced over the
next 5 to 10 years will decide which spacings are most suitable for Malawi. Further extension of current research on
alternative tree size control methods (e.g. dwarfing rootstock and paclobutrazol) should be continued.
Wind breaks should be considered in the layout, even if these are removed as the macadamia mature.
6.14 Tree Establishment and Tree Training

The macadamia is generally hardy and if a well grown, sun hardened tree is planted into the field, few problems result.
It is not uncommon to get a small percentage of losses often for inexplicable reasons which can be frustrating. The
quality of the plant is probably the most important factor followed by immediate post planting management and
weather conditions. Initial tree training (as stated earlier) should start in the nursery. Excessive field pruning and
training is not usually required or desirable.
6.15 Planting and Establishment
Selecting good trees for field planting is very important. A good tree should be at least 60 cm above the pot, have a
straight single stem, have a well developed fibrous root system and be healthy and disease free. Plant to the same
depth as the pot and ensure that the root system is covered with soil and the plastic bag removed. Check for a bent
tap root and root prune if required (i.e cut the tap root above the bend). Macadamia develop multiple smaller tap roots
so cutting the tap root is not a serious problem at this stage provided that sufficient fibrous roots have developed.
Water at planting and again at 7 to 14 days intervals until the rains set in. During the second and third seasons,
supplementary watering may be required but the intervals between watering can be incre ased up to about one month,
depending on conditions. Reduction of stress and competition are important. Mulching to conserve moisture and
control weeds is advised, wind can be a serious problem but staking is not advised (Wrigley pers com 1989) It is
better to cut a tree back to reduce the surface area than try to support it with a stake. A common problem seen in
Malawi is strangulation of the young tree by grafting tapes being left on at planting and forgotten or covered by
mulch. Ensure that all grafting tapes are removed prior to planting.
Timing of planting depends on the condition of the plant, weather conditions, available water, labour and materials.
Planting often commences in September with supplementary watering and continues into the wet season. It is
advisable not to plant too late in the wet season as a good root system may not have time to develop before the cold
dry period restricts growth.
All the above points, have referred to grafted plants. There are growers in Australia who plant seedlings and graft
these in the field (Middleton 1989 pers com). The reasoning behind this is that seedlings are vigorous and initially
develop a better root system than grafted trees. Grafting is then done in the field. Although this is quite successful in
Australia skilled grafters for this method are not readily available in Malawi.
6.16 Tree Training

As mentioned earlier, training is best done in the nursery to ensure a single stem with no rootstock shoots prior to
planting. Approach grafted tree can be poorly shaped due to a branch structure being formed prior to grafting.
Macadamia tend to form a reasonable structure of their own accord. The idea is to avoid multiple stems and weak
crotch angles, which can lead to splitting later on.
Macadamias grow in flushes, at the end of a flush an extra set of buds is produced. At each node two sets of buds
are usually seen. Branching occurs from either of these sets of buds and often does not need prompting. If prompting
is needed (e.g. if a tree is tall and whippy without any branching ) cut below the end of a growth flush to avoid the
extra sets of buds. Then select a shoot with a well spaced set of nodes and thin out the remaining buds to allow it to
develop into the central leader. First side branches should come from nodes lower down, preferably not all from the
same nodes and spaced around the tree. About three branches is a reasonable number. Branching from about 60 cm
to 100 cm is desirable, and at least 30-50 cm thereafter; sometimes removal of excess shoots may be needed. This is
often all that is required. Macadamia should not be viewed as a temperate fruit such as peach for training purposes.
Elaborate training systems such as used on high density plantings (see previous section on tree spacing) have
largely failed because of the evergreen, continuous extension nature of the tree growth habit. Clones vary in habit
with upright types such as 660 and 344 being ungainly and whippy until they mature. It is easier to reduce nitrogen
supplies and use environmental stress to limit vegetative growth.
Selection of new clones should take into account desired shapes and habits. The Ministry of Agriculture has
produced an extension circular (No 1/10) titled Training and Pruning of Macadamia Trees. This is a useful reference
although it may not be practical to utilize the branch spreading methods outlined.

Selection of good quality plants for field planting is the most important point to remember. This has been an area of
concern but is relatively easy to overcome by paying more attention to detail in the nursery or in selecting plants
from a nursery. Ensure adequate post planting care such as watering and mulching. Only train and prune those trees
that need it, treat each tree as an individual and avoid trying to control the trees excessively. Follow a central leader
approach.
For high density planting or to control tree size a regular training programme may be needed but care should be
taken. Utilize as many strategies as possible in controlling size such as nutrition and fruiting rather than rely on
pruning alone.
6.17 Nutrition and Mulching

These have been areas of concern in Malawi. Nutrition is important in tree growth, health, performance and eventual
product quality (i.e. nut in shell quality). Generally, nutrition has been neglected or accidental, often being the result
of fertilizing the intercrop such as coffee or transferring information from other crops such as tea or tung. Field trees
exhibit a wide range of symptoms including high and low nitrogen, low potassium, excess phosphate, low
magnesium, low boron, possibly low copper and zinc as well as general tree decline. Considerable erosion and
exposure of the root system is evident.
It appears that lack of information and the lack of a reliable leaf and soil analysis services have been the major
problems. Accurate information on nutrition and the leaf nutrient levels is essential in nutritional management. A
knowledge of the soil reactions is useful. Soils low in pH and organic matter need care in selecting fertilizer practices
(see section on soils). Some trials on NPK were conducted (Banda et al 1989) but these were inconclusive since they
were based on excessive nutrient levels. A programme is now under way to establish an industry data base on
nutrient level to give accurate information for decision making on nutrition.
Mulching is a recommended standard practice in Australia to improve tree health, yields and control soil degradation.
Mulching has been beneficial in overcoming tree decline. Although mulching can cause problems at harvest (such as
nuts disappearing into the mulch layer), it is felt the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. Some changes in
techniques may be required such as composting of leaves or mechanical shedding of leaves so these form a more
compacted mulch layer that keeps nuts on the surface. The development of a mulch layer colonised by fibrous and
proteoid roots is beneficial to the tree, increasing water holding and cation exchange capacity of the soil as well as
providing a buffer for fertilizers.
Standard or reference leaf nutrient levels have been established for macadamia based on averages of highly
productive trees in Hawaii and Australia. The sampling technique is as follows-:
• Growth stage; when all new leaves have hardened and no new growth is evident on a particular terminal in spring,
or when new flush leaves are no greater than 1.5 cm long.
• Plant part: mature leaf from second or third whorl of current season's growth. Collect 50-100 leaves from 10-20
trees of one cultivar spread through the planting. Leaves can be washed by lightly rubbing in deionised water
and rinsing (from Reuter and Robinson, 1988). They give the following range of leaf nutrient levels based on work
by Cull and Baigent in 1983.
NUTRIENT DEFICIENT MARGINAL ADEQUATE HIGH

N% <1.3 1.3-1.5 >1.6
P% <0.05 0.05-0.07 0.08-0.09 >0.10
K% <0.40 0.40-0.65 0.65-0.8 >0.8
S% 0.17 0.17-0.25
Ca% <0.4 0.40-0.65 0.65-0.75 >0.9
Mg% <0.06 0.06-0.08 0.09-0.11 >0.11
Cu(mg/kg) <3 3.00-5.00 5-10
Zn(mg/kg) <10 10-15 15-50 >50
Mn(mg/kg) <20 20-100 100-1000 >1500
Fe(mg/kg) 20-200
B(mg/kg) <20 20-40 40-80
The above levels are likely to be revised as more information becomes available. Stephenson et al (1986) found
considerable variations in leaf nutrient levels throughout the season in the survey area (South Eastern Queensland in
Australia). Leaf N and K followed a similar pattern - levels rose during autumn to peak in winter, declined in
association with the spring flush, flowering and nut set period, remained stable over the summer nut growth and oil
accumulation stage and declining again with major summer growth flush. Leaf P was similar but declined earlier in
winter (possibly in relation to floral initiation). Ca and B levels seemed to be dependent on leaf age and S, Na, Mg,
Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cl showed no consistent trends. Leaf levels reflected soil levels and fertilizer application in some
cases but this was not consistently so.
It appears that N, P and K accumulate unless a `sink' is available such as vegetative flushing or flowering nut set and
growth to utilize NP and K. Other nutrients are less obvious. Cultivars vary considerably in leaf nutrient levels -
Carstens (1987) found similar results in South Africa. Yields were affected most by cultivar and site rather than by
nutritional status per se.
Stephenson and Gallagher (1989 1,2 and 3) in a series of studies on the influence of N found that low N status in trees
suppressed vegetative growth and manipulated the vegetative/reproductive balance in favour of the latter. However,
these trees also displayed visual N deficiency symptoms, during the winter and spring and the authors suggest that
the levels may be too low (approx. 1.2% N). They felt that small regular applications of N are desirable to larger, less
frequent doses. With regard to stored carbohydrates, applied N did not appear to influence the amount of
carbohydrate accumulated. Carbohydrates were highest during autumn/winter and declined during summer when oil
was accumulating in the kernels. The reproductive growth draws more heavily on reserves than vegetative growth.
Since there was no apparent increase in carbohydrate accumulation in the trunks after N application, it was assumed
that nuts developing at that time were the main beneficiaries of carbohydrate production. Accumulation would occur
as the nuts matured towards the end of the summer period. The major flush would contribute to the bulk of reserves
at this time as the cooler weather approaches.
Some interesting observations were made on reproductive growth, yield and quality. Low N status tended to produce
less flowers but had good early nut set (indicating a possible saving of carbohydrate resources). They had less small
nuts and higher grade 1 percentages, also indicating a more efficient use of assimilates. The results again indicate the
importance of maintaining a good vegetative/reproductive balance and the influence N can have on this. Season had
the greatest influence on yield, year to year.
The generalized results of these studies is that N levels should be kept in check (within the range of 1.2 - 1.5% in the
leaf) and timing of application should be aimed at the later summer period. Encouraging large vegetative flushes at
other times should be avoided.
Trochoulias (1989) gives a detailed look at nitrogen nutrition of macadamia from young trees through to bearing
trees. Although this is directed at areas with a reasonably consistent rainfall pattern, the information is applicable to
Malawi. He suggests a phased approach:-
1. young trees (1-3 years) when small regular doses are needed to keep up with rapid growth of the young tree
(little nutrient recycling is taking place at this stage within the tree). About five application are suggested.
2. induction of the fruiting phase (3-4 years), reduce applications of N by half to encourage fruiting. Slow release
forms of N such as mulches are best. High N levels will delay fruiting.
3. reproductive or production phase (4-5 years onwards) apply just enough N to maximise productivity without
promoting excessive vegetative growth.
Tree vigour can be a problem in Malawi. This is complicated by intercropping where the macadamia is utilising
fertilisers applied to the intercrop. However, the vegetative patterns are probably influenced most by climate, fertiliser
practices and by the long dry season. Excess vigour can be seen in young and old trees, often regardless of obvious
fertiliser application. The use of mulches and minimum nitrogen nutrition is advised with N applications to correct
obvious deficiency symptoms rather than encourage extra growth. In older fruiting trees, the later flush is important
in building carbohydrate resources for the following seasons crop so small regular doses of nitrogen from about
January to June are advised. High rates of nitrogen are leached out and tend to lower the pH as well.
The use of mulches and leguminous intercrops/cover crops could reduce or eliminate the need for nitrogen fertilisers
to a large extent.
The role of phosphorus has been investigated, largely due to the problem of induced iron chlorosis. The effect on
yield and quality is now being investigated in Australia where slightly higher P leaf levels appear to be beneficial to
yield (Vimpany 1989 pers com) Low P has also been implicated in macadamia decline (Firth 1986) which tends to affect
older trees after bearing has commenced. Stephenson et al 1986 found P to be important at the floral stage of the
season. P is a large part of the mineral fraction of the kernel (see composition and uses) hence removal of nuts would
have an influence as the trees age.
The P/Fe complex was discussed earlier in soils.
Recent leaf analysis results from the Northern area have indicated a low P status (Clowes 1990 pers com) which could
be affecting tree performance. Other trees such as some in the upper Thyolo area are showing what appears to be
excess phosphate (Stewart 1990 pers com). Discussions with Went (1990 pers com) indicates a low phosphate status
of many cultivated soils in Malawi, generally reflecting the period under cultivation.
It appears that the use of P fertilisers is problematic but bearing trees need a higher level than juvenile trees. Decline
in Malawi is apparent and P would be a factor in this. P in the soil is not necessarily available and P in organic matter
has been found to be useful in supplying adequate P in Australia (Stephenson and Cull 1986). Fox et al (?) found a
soil solution of P of 0.1 mg/l to be the maximum level with deficiency symptoms below 0.01 mg/l. This may not be the
case in Malawi. There have been considerable problems associated with excess phosphate in young Macadamia in
Malawi but the status of older trees is generally not known. It is likely that older trees will need additional phosphate
which can be applied during the rains in split applications to ensure adequate supply for flowering, nut set and
development.
The role of potassium does not appear to have been investigated to any extent. As a result of surveys conducted by
Stephenson et al (1986), leaf levels for K have been adjusted upwards from the original Hawaiian standards. K
deficiency type symptoms have been observed in Malawi although these have not been confirmed with analysis
results. The potassium /magnesium balance in the soil and plant is important. Stephenson et al felt that further
investigation of the role of K would be useful and that the level of K in the soil solution had not been determined.
Hancock (1990) indicated that K remains a problem given the field symptoms and low oil content of nuts and the K
level in leaves being obtained from local analysis. Local analysis results have since been questioned by Went. Until
accurate results for leaf analysis are obtained it is difficult to make recommendations. However, K is the element
which constitutes the largest loss in kernel removal. Adequate K levels prior to and during flowering, nut set and
development as well as oil accumulation would be necessary for productivity.
The calcium levels in macadamia are similar to potassium, which are reasonably high. With the low pH levels reported
in Malawi, Ca supply could be a problem. Liming is a difficult area because of variable soil reactions and the need to
have finely ground liming material to be effective which is not always available in Malawi. The pH requirements of
macadamia are being investigated in Australia. Seedlings have been found to grow as well in low pH (4.0) and some
orchards have been shown with a pH of 3.5 (Trochoulias 1989). The trees seem to perform well in the range of 4.0 to
6.0 although 4.5 to 5.0 is considered ideal (Stephenson et al 1988).
Lime induced chlorosis from high pH has been reported in California (Fox et al (?)). The availability of micronutrients
is affected by pH which further complicates the issue. However, Hancock (1990) feels that many producing areas in
Malawi especially those of long cultivation or older trees would benefit from liming. Ca has a buffering effect against
other acidifying fertilisers and helps to build colloids in the mulch layer and promote biological activity.
As far as the other elements are concerned there is little information available on yield or quality aspects with the
exception of boron. Stephenson and Gallagher (1987) found positive responses to 0.02% foliar boron sprays (four
sprays applied monthly during early nut development) in yield and grade 1 percentage with clone HAES 246
responding better than clone HAES 508. Indications from independent leaf analysis results from some estates have
shown very low boron levels (Addison 1990 and Clowes 1991 pers com). These have well below the standard levels.
Some field symptoms of poor shape kernel, internal pitting with orange spotting on the kernel and malformed shells
are a possible result of Boron deficiency. Hancock has recommended foliar and soil Boron treatments but it will take
time to raise the levels in trees, especially large trees. Sillanpaa found boron to be deficient in most areas of Malawi
but the soil reactions of soil applied boron are not known. Stephenson and Gallagher (1987) found variable and
inconclusive results from soil applied boron in Australia, hence the use of foliar sprays. Since boron is relatively fixed
in plants, a spray will usually only benefit the current season's nuts. Soil applied boron will be needed to raise levels
throughout the plant. Boron can be toxic and care needs to be taken to avoid toxicity. Magnesium, zinc and sulphur
are worth investigating in Malawi given field symptoms.
A tentative set of recommendations for fertilizers has been put forward by Hancock and these are maximum amounts.
These will need to be refined according to individual site needs. Soil and leaf analysis results are important in
decision making on fertiliser application and it would pay to have independent referenced samples analysed to
compare with local results.
The following can be used as a guide with adjustments made as necessary. These are maximums per year of age, to 8-
10 years.
Element Quantity Product Quantity Needed (g/tree or kg/tree)
(g/tree)
Nitrogen 50-55 Urea (45% N) 120g
CAN (25% - 28% N) 180-200g
SOA (21% N) 240g
Phosphorus 10 SSP (18% P) 45-50g
TSP (48% P) 20-21g
Potassium 50 MOP (60% K) 80-85g
SOP (50% K) 100g
Calcium 200 Dolomitic Lime (20% Ca) 1kg to 6th year
2 kg to 10th year
Magnesium 160 Dolomitic Lime (16% Mg) Every 2nd year at above rates where Mg is low
Calcium CAN (16% Ca)
SSP (16-20% Ca)
Magnesium 1.6 MgSO4 (16% Mg) 10g 1 st year to 60g 10th year
Zinc 1.5 Zinc Sulphate (35% Zn) 5g 1st year to30g 10th year
Boron 1.0 Solubor (11% B) 10g 1 st year to 30g 10th year
Sulpur ? SOA (24%) Actual requirement not known but ammonium
sulphate and trace elements in sulphate form are
useful. Gypsum is also useful.
Copper CuOC12 (50%) May be needed as a foliar spray
Note: (i) CAN = Calcium ammonium nitrate,
SSP = Single super phosphate
TSP = Triple super phosphate
MOP = Muriate of Potash
SOP = Sulphate of potash
MgSO4 = Magnesium sulphate D
SOA = Sulphate of Ammonia
CuOCl2 = Copper Oxychloride D
(ii) Liming may be practiced as required to keep pH in the range 4.5 -5.5 and also to supply Ca, Mg (if dolomitic
and at least 60% fine ground) applied at the start of the wet season. A pre-plant of 500 g to 1 kg is useful but needs
to be well mixed into the planting hole.
Trace elements can be applied by foliar sprays, especially boron at flowering and 8-12 weeks after. Magnesium is best
applied through the soil in the long term. Sulphur requirements are not known but is known to be limiting in Malawi in
other crops such as tea and sugar.
As the trees get closer to flowering e.g. three years, a leaf analysis programme should be started to check the actual
leaf levels to correct any problems before they can affect nut quality. Apply NPK in split applications. During the wet
season use mulch as much as possible to help recycle nutrients. Avoid using ground applied trace elements,
especially boron and zinc in the first year of planting.
The N levels given are high and may not be needed or could be substantially reduced. Halve the N rates from year 3
to encourage fruiting by reducing vegetative growth. .
Table. General symptoms of nutrient deficiencies.

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________
Nutrient Symptoms
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________
Nitrogen Chlorosis of whole leaf. Older leaves usually affected first.
Phosphorus Dark green foliage, reddening or purpling of leaves or petioles (similar to cold effects)
Potassium Older leaves may show necrotic spots or marginal burn; young leaves may develop
red pigmentation or become interveinally chlorotic and show a shiny surface.
Calcium Growing points die. In fruit crops, disorders of fruit (e.g. bitter pit in pome fruit,
blossom end rot in Tomato and pepper. In leaf crops, disorders such as tip burn.
Magnesium Marginal or interveinal chlorosis often quite strongly coloured. Green area of leaf may
form an 'arrowhead' in woody plants. Strong reddening may boarder the chlorotic zone.
Usually on older tissue first.
Sulphur Chlorosis of the whole plant, often younger leaves affected first.
Copper Trees develop an unusual spreading habit with lighter coloured foliage. Young limbs
develop a marked twisting and bending in unusual manner. Some young
branches develop a creeper like growth entwining other branches. Branches show lack
of support and are willowy. Leaves develop a curling at the edges and this is
particularly noticeable in the clone HAES 246.
Zinc Little leaf, rosetting, chlorotic mottle in less severe cases, witches -broom effect on
twigs.
Manganese Interveinal chlorosis; when severe necrotic spots or streaks may form. Often occurs
first on middle leaves.
Iron Interveinal chlorosis which in severe cases may mean total bleaching of young foliage
followed by necrosis. Occurs first on young leaves.
Boron Death of growing points. Axillary buds may burst giving a witches -broom effect. Fruit
may be distorted or show woody pits or cracking of the surface.

Nutrition is one area where Malawi can make major gains in efficiency and effectiveness of fertilisers. The current leaf
analysis surveys are aimed at clearly defining the current state of nutrition and relating this to yield and quality where
possible.
The use of mulches and a more holistic òrganic' approach to nutrition is recommended. Improving the health of the
soil and the root system with mulches and other organic products have produced good results elsewhere regardless
of fertilizer applications.
The type of comprehensive study put forward by Cull (1988) is not possible with the resources available in Malawi.
However, the NARP contract research funding does provide for outside referenced leaf analysis to be done and this
should provide a base for decision making and also provide pointers for future research needs in relation to nutrition.
The range of tree health, vigour and symptoms of nutrient disorder exhibited is very large, so recommendations are
tentative. Nutrition and mulching practices should be aimed at improving tree health, controlling excess vigour to
promote yield and quality. A lush tree is not necessarily a good tree.
Johnson (1988), gives a very good summary of the mineral nutrition of tree crops. Stephenson (1986) has written a set
of factsheets on macadamia nutrition for the Australian Macadamia Society (nos. 13- 17) and these are very useful
reading.
6.18 Weed Control
Weeding in Malawi is done mostly by hand, either by hoeing or slashing. Continual hoeing has led to considerable
erosion and often root damage and exposure. Hoeing is time consuming and considerable planning in labour
organisation is needed (Clowes; Newton 1990 pers com) to complete rounds of the orchard in time to control rapid
wet season growth. Slashing by hand is similar but ground cover is preferable to bare soil for erosion control.
Herbicides are not widely used but offer an alternative or an extra option to be considered. Herbicides can be
dangerous especially to young trees or exposed roots and bark of older trees. Training of operators is required to
avoid problems. Glyphosate and Paraquat can be used with care.
Vock (1989) recommends no cultivation within at least one metre of the tree. Mulching young trees will help in this
regard. Older trees with dense canopies tend to smother weeds close to the trunk and out towards the drip line. Some
problems could exist with mulching this area - nuts can be `lost` in the mulch, rats or squirrels may be encouraged
and a possible increase in fungal problems post-harvest. However, the frequent harvest rounds used in Malawi
coupled with the easy to see green husks of the nuts against a brownish background should reduce the nut losses.
The interrow is best with a permanent sod - preferably planted. Davies (1988 pers com) has had considerable success
using Desmodium spp in the lower Thyolo/Luchenza area. These legumes provide a good ground cover and build a
considerable mulch layer. The use of Guatemala grass is popular as a mulch crop and for erosion control. However,
care needs to taken with Guatemala because it is highly competitive. Cultivation for intercropping can complicate
erosion control measures.
Mechanical weed control has led to soil compaction problems in Australia and South Africa (also mechanical
harvesting) but it seems unlikely this practice will become widespread in Malawi at this stage. The use of inorganic
mulch seems impractical and expensive.

Avoid hoeing as much as possible, use organic mulch around trees and slashing between trees. Maintain a ground
cover to control erosion. Use herbicides carefully and make sure the operators are well trained and aware of the
dangers to the trees and themselves.
6.19 Irrigation
This is an area where some controversy exists. Malawi has a long dry season (about 5 months) and variable rainfall
patterns. The major macadamia growing areas can vary considerably within the areas as well as between seasons in
rainfall. The dry season culminates in the highest temperatures of the year and much of the flowering, nut set and
nut development takes place in the dry season. Moisture stress at this time could reasonably be assumed to have a
detrimental effect on the crop. This has yet to be proven in Malawi or elsewhere. Banda (1989); Phiri and Barak
(1987) conducted a four year study on drip irrigation on a Thyolo Estate. The results were variable - yield response
was measured in 2 out of 4 years, a vegetative response to irrigation was also recorded, nut retention was greater in
irrigated plots but a lot of small nuts were observed. No quality data as to grades percentages was done. There was
no significant response to nitrogen applied through the irrigation system (fertigation).
Despite the long hot dry season tree survival has been good in Malawi. The exceptions have been in lower, hotter
areas such as the lower Ntchisi where the tree is probably at the limit of its environmental range. It is assumed that
areas of less than 1,000 mm of rainfall will need supplementary irrigation, 1,000 to 1,200 mm are marginal for irrigation
and over 1,200 mm should not need irrigation provided soils are good and the dry season is not excessively long or
hot.
In an effort to clarify the likely shortfall of water during the dry season Hancock and Banda (1990) conducted a
survey of climatic and soil data from the main growing areas. A root system of a mature tree was exposed and a
quadrant of the root system was dug out to a depth of about 2 metres. This showed the effective rooting depth to be
in excess of 1.5 metres and the spread to be well beyond the drip line, giving a very large exploitable soil volume.
Newett (1988) found the effective rooting depth of 15 year old trees in a deep sandy soil to be up to 1.6 m for medium
size trees in clay loam. Since most soils in Malawi are quite well structured for root penetration, a 1.5 m effective
rooting depth for the study was used. Soil water holding capacities were determined at BARS Soils Laboratory and
the Blaney Criddle equation used with climatic data to compute evapo-transpiration levels a crop factor of 0.65 used
which is lower than many horticultural crops. A 50% depletion rate was used to calculate the available water. Using
this data, a table of likely supplementary irrigation requirements was calculated.
The results from this indicated a small window for irrigation in most areas given the magnitude of the shortfall in
water and the length of time this has to be endured. Some of the more extreme areas such as lower Thyolo and
Mzenga could benefit from supplementary irrigation.
Although some growers felt unhappy with these conclusion, field observation of the 1990 dry season tend to
support the findings. The 1989/90 wet season was poor (over 300 mm below the average at most sites) and the
November period very hot, windy and dry, the field trees did not show signs of water stress on young growth.
Sunburn was serious and wind damage was apparent on the young flush and on nuts. Nut drop did not appear to be
accelerated as nuts were now well past the major nut drop phase.
Yields may have been affected or quality may also be affected but this is not known at this stage.
In a ten year irrigation study in Australia at a reasonably favourable site, Trochoulias (1988) found no significant
yield or quality response to irrigation. Yields varied with seasons regardless of treatments, some years being drier
others wet. In the discussions which followed this paper (discussions Session 4 1988) a number of points were put.
These included that areas in Hawaii over 1,200 mm did not receive supplementary irrigation; earlier work in Hawaii by
Awada (from Trochoulias 1988) found no yield response to irrigation despite leaf drop and twig dieback on controls;
that unfavourable sites such as Rockhampton (in Australia) need irrigation to grow the trees; and that it would be
very difficult to get an economic response if a scientific response could not be readily demonstrated. More recent
work by Lloyd et al (1990 in summary form and unpublished papers) concluded that macadamia has an extremely
efficient water uptake and a transport system which allows the tree to tolerate extended periods of soil water deficit.
The tree has very good stomatal control over water loss and carbon gains. They suggest that irrigation will be of little
benefit unless the dry season exceeds 1-2 months. In terms of stomatal conductance there was only a 20% difference
between irrigation and non irrigated trees after a 3 month dry period. Considering the data from Hancock and Banda
the" effective" dry season in Malawi is about 1- 3 months in the main growing areas - hence the value of irrigation is
questioned. There will always be droughts when irrigation would be advantageous but irrigation might not be
profitable.

It is desirable to quantify the actual stress levels of field trees during the flowering, nut set, nut development and
shell hardening stages of the crop cycle. Also, the stress levels at the very end of the dry season. The use of
mulches and windbreaks will have benefits and mulching should be commenced at planting. There is a need to give
adequate water to young trees, especially those planted during the dry or during breaks in the rain during the wet
season. This may need to be continued for a second or third season. Adverse sites will need regular irrigation.
If irrigation is practiced during the dry season on better sites, it appears that one to three substantial waterings at
four to six week intervals would be sufficient for large trees, commencing around August/September. Until more
information is known, there is little point in conducting irrigation trials on large trees at most sites. The current
programme of Whitehouse (1990 pers com) at a lower Thyolo Estate should give some pointers for the hotter and
drier situations.
6.20 Pruning
This has been an area generally neglected in research and literature is scarce for that reason. Controlling tree size
and/or increasing planting densities has not received much attention in Hawaii where tree size has been less of a
problem.
In Australia, some work has been conducted on higher densities but actual pruning strategies have not been well
defined. Generalized methods such as mechanical pruning or hedging and the creation of hedge rows are not readily
transferable to the production systems employed in Malawi. Pruning would be a labour intensive, slow operation
and the area covered during the preferred pruning period (believed to be in the cool dormant period before flowering)
would be small. Newton and Addison (1990 pers com) indicated that large scale pruning is slow and requires much
supervision. Clones vary in habit, which is also affected by spacing. The removal of prunings is an often difficult,
logistics and safety of workers a problem, and generally, the are a covered per man day is small. As mentioned earlier
(see land preparation and orchard layout) Cull and Thew (1988) provide a very good paper on the research needs and
theoretical background to spacing and canopy shapes. For Malawi the picture is complicated by existing tree size, the
availability of hand labour, variable spacings and the need to improve efficiency of spraying by reducing tree height.
Overall tree response for the best time to prune or the best shape to prune for has not been defined for Malawi.
In general terms pruning in Malawi would be aimed at reducing tree size in particular height and increasing
productivity through improved pest control and greater light interception by the fruiting structure of the tree. Some
sites would benefit from pruning or thinning to increase light penetration. Many of the more recent close plantings
will need some form of pruning, thinning or shaping in the future to reduce crowding.

Pruning should be aimed at reducing tree height and improving photosynthetic area where the resultant crop can be
protected satisfactorily by the spray equipment used. The timing of pruning would probably be best between the
major summer flush when the weather is cooling and the main flowering (by July/August at the latest). This is a small
window. A major pruning would probably reduce crop initially but the long term aim is to reduce the amount of
unproductive wood in favour of leaves and the fruit.
This is an area where field trials should be conducted in relation to yield, quality and physiological effects of pruning
strategies. Significant improvements in productivity from existing trees should be possible as a result of this work. At
present higher density plantings in Malawi have no strategy in place for the future.
6.21 References
1. Addison S. (1990 pers com) Macadamia Manager KECL, Malawi.
2. Banda W.R.G. (1989) Yield and Quality Response of Macadamia (M. integrifolia) to Drip Irrigation and Nitrogen
Fertiliser Regimes, BARS 1988/89 Annual Report.
3. Bell, H.D.F (pers com) Hidden Valley Plantations. Beerwah, Australia.
4. Braunworth W.Jr. (1989) MARE Horticulturist BARS, Assistant Professor, OSU.
5. Camacho, V E (1973). Trials on Panopsis suavealens and Roupala glaberrima as Rootstocks for M. integrifolia.
Proceedings of Tropical Region, American Society for Horticultural Science 17, 98- 103.
6. Carstens L. (1987) Differences in Leaf Composition Between Macadamia Cultivars. Information Bulletin Citrus
and Subtropical Research Institute No. 179; Nelspruit, RSA.
7. Clowes M St J (1990 pers com) Senior Agriculturist CDC Lilongwe, Malawi.
8. Clowes R. (1990 pers com) Manager, Nchima Estates, Luchenza, Malawi.
9. Cull B.W. (1988) Review of Mineral Status of Macadamia in Australia, Section 5, Paper 4, Proceedings of Second
Australian Macadamia Research Workshop, Bangalow, NSW, Australia.
10. Cull, B.W. and Thew, R. (1989). Research Needs to Establish Pruning and Tree Spacing Configurations in
Macadamia Orchard. Session 7 Paper 2 Proceedings: Second Australian Macadamia Research Workshop.
Bangalow, N.S.W. Australia.
11. Davies, R.J.(1989, 1990 pers com) Manager, Mafisi/Lelembwe Estates, Mafisi, Malawi.
12. Firth D.J. (1986) Macadamia Decline AGDEX 246/633, TFRS Alstonville, NSW, Australia.
13. Fox R.L. Mc Call W.W. and Hue N.V. (?) Macadamia Nutrition Studies with Special Reference to Chlorosis
Induced by Lime Phosphate Manganese and Aluminium, Department of Soil Science and Agronomy, Univ. of
Hawaii.
14. Hancock W.M. (1990) Basic Nursery and Propagation Manual. Min. of Agric. BARS P.O. Box 5748, Limbe.
15. Hancock W.M. (1990) Presentation to Tree Nut Growers Association Seminar, Thyolo.
16. Hancock W.M. and Banda W.R.G. (1990) Supplementary Irrigation Requirements for Macadamia; April 1990 Field
Day TNGA Nasonia Estate Thyolo, Malawi.
17. Hue, N.V.; Nakamura, E.T. (1988). Iron Chlorosis in Macadamia as Affected by Phosphate-Iron Interactions.
Journal on Plant Nutrition, 11/12) 1635-1648. College of Tropical Agr. and Human Resources. Univ. of Hawaii,
Honolulu, U.S.A. (Abstract only).
18. Lloyd J. (1990) Unpublished papers Senior Research Scientist Alstonville Tropical Fruit Research Station NSW
Australia
19. Lloyd J. Trochoulias T. Enseby R. (1990) Environmental Effects on Gas Exchange of Macadamia. Paper No. 4277.
International Horticultural Congress 1990 Rome Italy.
20. Middleton J. (1989 pers com) Macadamia and Fruit Grower Dorroughby, NSW Australia.
21. Newett, S.D.E. (1988) Variety and Density Trial at Rockhampton Session 7, Paper No. 5. Proceedings of Second
Australian Macadamia Research Workshop. Bangalow, NSW. Australia.
22. Newett S.D.E. (1988) Using a Neutron probe for Scheduling Irrigation in Macadamia Orchards, Session 4, Paper
No. 2 Proceedings of Second Australian Macadamia Research Workshop, Bangalow, NSW, Australia.
23. Newton, E.D. (1988 pers com) Macadamia Manager, Namingomba Tea Estates. P.O. Box 2, Thyolo, Malawi.
24. Phiri I.M.G. and Barak E. (1987) Yield and Quality Response to Macadamia (M. integrifolia) to Drip Irrigation and
Fertiliser Regimes.
25. Reuter D.J. and Robinson J.B. (1988) Plant Analysis: An Interpretation Manual. Inkata Press Australia.
26. Robbinson J.B. (1986) Tree mineral nutrition, ACTA Hort. 175
27. Sillanpaa M. (1990) Micro Nutrient Assessment at the Country Level, an International Study. FAO/FINNIDA
Soils Bulletin 63.
28. Spurling A. (1972). Propagation Trials with the Macadamia Nut Pecan and Macadamia Symposium. Nelspruit
RSA. Report on Research Commencing 1968 into Macadamia.
29. Stephenson, R.A. (1988) unpublished, Review on Macadamia DPI, MHRS Nambour QLD, Australia.
30. Stephenson R.A. and Gallagher E.C. (1989) Timing of Nitrogen Application to Macadamia (1) Tree Nitrogen
Status and Vegetative Growth (2) Storage Carbohydrates (3) Reproductive Growth Yield and Quality. Australian
Journal of Agricultural Sciences: 29:569-574, 575-579, 581-585.
31. Stephenson R.A., Cull B.W., Mayer D.G. Price G. and Stock J. (1986) Seasonal Patterns of Macadamia Leaf
Nutrient Levels in South East Queensland. Scientia Hort. 30:63-70.
32. Stephenson R.A. and Aitken R.L. and Gallagher E.C. (1988) Effects of Soil Chemical Properties on Macadamia
Tree Growth. Section 5 paper 1, Proceedings of Second Australian Macadamia Research Workshop, Bangalow,
NSW, Australia.
33. Stephenson R.A. and Gallagher E.C.(1986) Effects of Foliar Boron Sprays on Yield and Quality of Macadamia
Nuts. Scientia Hort. 32:97-103.
34. Stephenson R.A. Cull B.W., Price G. and Stock J. (1986) Some Observations on Nutrient Levels in Three Soils
Growing Macadamia in South East Queensland, Scientia Hort, 30:83-95.
35. Stewart A. (1990 pers com) Special Crops Manager, Mindali Estates Thyolo.
36. Training and Pruning of Macadamia Trees, Extension Circular No1/90, Ministry of Agriculture , Extension Aids
Branch Box 594, Lilongwe Malawi.
37. Trochoulias, T.; Chalker, F.C. and Loebel, M.R. (1984). Macadamia Culture. AGDEX 246/10. NSW. Dept. of
Agriculture. Australia.
38. Trochoulias, T. (1988) is it necessary to irrigate macadamias on the North Cost of NSW ? Session 4 Paper No 1
Proceedings of Second Australian Macadamia Research Workshop Bangalow NSW Australia
39. Trochoulias, T. and Burnside, A. (1988). High Density Plantings of Macadamia. Factors Which Need to be
Considered When Planting High Density Planting. Session 7, Paper No. 1. Proceedings of Second Australian
Research Workshop. Bangalow NSW. Australia.
40. Trochoulias, T; Vimpany, I; and Brockwell, P. (1988). Potting Media for Seedlings. 1986-88 Research Report.
TFRS. Alstonville. NSW. Australia.
41. Trochoulias, T. (1989). Variety Rootstock Trial at Wollongbar 1986-88 Research Report, T.F.R.S., Alstonville
NSW. Australia.
42. Trochoulias T. (1989) Nitrogen fertilising of macadamias TFRS Alstonville, NSW, Australia.
43. Vimpany I. (1989 pers com) Analytical chemist, TFRS Alstonville, Australia.
44. Vock N.T. (1989) Growing Macadamia Nuts in South Queensland, QLD DPI. AGDEX 245/11.
45. Went J. (1990 pers com) Analytical Chemist for the Rockefeller Foundation, Chitedze, Malawi.
46. Whitehouse, T. (1990 Pers com). Manager, BATE Pty. Ltd. Nasonia Estate, Thyolo, Malawi.
47. Wrigley J.W. (1989 pers com) Formerly Director of National Botanical Gardens, Canberra Australia.
Further References
1. Bittenbender H.C. and Hirae H.H. (1990). Some Common Problems of Macadamia Nuts in Hawaii. University of
Hawaii, Research Extension Series 112-05/90 (3.7m).
2. Bolt, L.C. and Joubert, A.J. (1985). Vegetative Propagation of Macadamia. Macadamia D. 2, Farming in South
Africa.
3. Cormack, D.B. and Bate, G.C. (1977). Rooting of Macadamia Stem Cutting. Rhodesia Journal of Ag Res 15.
4. Cormack, D.B. and Bate, G.C. (1977). Growth Studies on Young Macadamia Trees Developed from Stem
Cuttings. Rhodesian Journal of Ag Res. 15.
5. Cull, B.W. (1984). Chapter 22, Macadamia (Proteaceae). Tropical Tree Fruits for Australia, Compiled by P.E. Pale.
DPI, Brisbane, QLD Australia.
6. Hancock, W.M. (1990). A Basic Nursery and Propagation Manual. BARS Min. of Agr. P.O. Box 5748, Limbe,
Malawi.
7. Joubert, A.J. (1986). Buyers Guide for Macadamia Trees. Macadamia A2 Farming in South Africa.
8. Trochoulias, T.; Chalker, F.C. and Loebel, M.R. (1984). Macadamia Culture : AGFACT H3.1.6, AGDEX 246/70.
NSW. Dept of Agriculture and Fisheries, Alstonville, Australia.
9. Maurice, J. (1988). Propagation of Compact Micro Grafted Nursery Trees for Distant Locations : Vegetative
Propagation of Woody Species. Acta Horticulture 227: 93-97.
10. Trochoulias, T. and Baigent, D.R.; (1982): Summary of Chemical Data on Macadamia Potting Mixes. Macadamia
04, Seed 06. NSW. Department of Agriculture Alstonville, Australia.
7. PESTS AND DISEASES
Malawi has serious pest problems and these have received a large amount of research. Diseases have appeared to be
less serious and have not received much attention. Piercing and sucking insects which pierce the nuts and spoil the
kernel are the major problem. These account for a large proportion of losses in nuts delivered to the factory for
processing, resulting in a significant economic loss. Nut borers are also present and can be a serious problem.
Spraying efficiency and effectiveness have generally been poor due to small ground based applicators and large tree
size. Hence, the cost of spraying often outweighs the benefits. However, very important biological control agents are
present for the major pests, in particular, the nut borers. This offers considerable potential for the development of
effective bio control strategies in the long term.
An integrated pest management (IPM) approach has recently been initiated and this forms the basis for this section
of the manual. Many parts of this section will come directly from the work of Ironside and Fero who set up the IPM
program. Early work carried out by La Croix, Thindwa and Fero is also acknowledged. This section is relevant to the
training programmes introduced by Ironside and Fero.
7.01 Major Pests

A complex of nut feeding bugs (Order Hemiptera) occur on macadamia and, between them, are capable of feeding on
shoots, flowers and the nuts during all stages of development including hard shelled mature nuts. Both the adult and
immature or nymphal stages possess piercing and sucking mouth parts, through which the sap is sucked from the
plant tissue. Damage to macadamia kernel by the feeding of bugs is by far the greatest single cause of crop loss.
The species which La Croix and Fero (1984) recorded as significant pests of macadamia include the following:
Family Coreidae
Insect Name Numbers Caught Plant Part Attacked
Anaplocnemus curvipes F Few leaves
Leptocorixa sordida Blote abundant nuts
Riptortus dentipes F moderate nuts
Family Pentatomidae
Boerias rubrocincta Dist rare nuts
Nezara robusta Dist abundant nuts
Nezara viridula L abundant nuts
During the 1989 season mosquito bug (Helopeltis spp) of the Miridae family was observed attacking shoots and
young nuts. In addition the coffee pest antestia bug, (Antestiopsis orbitalis bechuana Kirkaldy) of the Pentatomidae
family was recorded attacking young macadamia fruit. Two more large pentatomids: the two-spotted bug,
(Bathycoelia rodhani) and yellow-spotted bug (Bathycoelia spp.) (Bruwer pers com, 1990) reached large numbers on
several estates and damaged up to 80 per cent of mature nuts remaining on the tree. These two very important pests
recorded by Ironside and Fero are more serious than the green stinkbug (N. viridula) hitherto regarded as the main
pest of macadamia. The identification of these two insects has yet to be confirmed. While N. viridula remains a
serious pest, much of the damage previously attributed to it was in actual fact caused by the Bathycoelia spp.
especially the two spotted bug. In earlier work by La Croix and Thindwa in Malawi Bathycoelia was not recognised
and was confused with N. viridula This is confirmed by their reference to the number of Nezara eggs per group of 13
to 14 (La Croix and Thindwa, 1986). Since Bathycoelia usually oviposits in masses 13 to 14 eggs these authors were
not observing N. viridula but Bathycoelia spp. Wide spread use of synthetic pyrethroids (e.g. cypermenthrin) may be
implicated in the increased numbers of bathycoelia spp. Entomologists at the Citrus and Sub-Tropical Research
Institute at Nelspruit reported that no parasites of Bathycoelia spp could be found in macadamia orchards following
the wide spread use of cypermethrin (De Villiers, pers com. 1990). However it also appears to be very clear that the
two Bathycoelia spp. as well as Nezara viridula have been responsible for most the damage to the nuts received at the
processing factories in the Republic of South Africa, Zimbabwe and Malawi.
Two-Spotted Bug and Yellow-Spotted Bug

The two-spotted bug and yellow-spotted bug are the most serious insect pests of macadamia in Malawi. Feeding on
the nut by these large shield bugs is the cause of most of the insect damage appearing on kernel arriving at the
factory. A most important feature of these two insects is the very long beak, a piercing and sucking mouth part about
14 mm long. This enables the bug to penetrate both the outer husk and shell and to feed on the kernel at anytime
during nut development. Bathycoelia could damage the kernels of all commercially grown clones even when the nuts
are mature and the shells fully hardened.
Host Plants and Distribution

Two-spotted and yellow-spotted bug occur throughout the growing range for macadamia in Malawi. The insects are
indigenous to Africa and probably occur throughout much of Southern and Central Africa. Terminalia spp (Family,
Combretaceae) are known to be host plants of two spotted bugs in Mauritius. A number of species in this genus
occur in Africa and should be inspected as host plants. The exotic species M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla have
proved to be favourite hosts.
Seasonal Incidence
In Malawi these two bugs are active in macadamia throughout the year particularly in the upper Shire Highland areas
in Thyolo where nuts can be found in the tree all year round. Macadamia clones 333, 508 and 660 produce flowers
from February to September in these elevated areas. Greatest numbers are found during the summer months from
October to May.
Life History and Habits

The biology and general appearance of the two bugs are somewhat similar to that of the well known green stink bug
Nezara viridula. The yellow-spotted bug adult can measure 23 mm long and 13 mm in breadth. White the two-spotted
bug when mature is 21 mm long and 11 mm in breadth. Yellow-spotted adults are characterised by two orange yellow
spots on either side of the triangular plate on the back, while the two -spotted bug has two tiny white ringed black
spots in similar positions. These insects pass through the egg and 5 nymphal stages before becoming fully winged
adults. Eggs are laid in clusters with about 14 eggs in each cluster, on the tree trunk, branches, nuts, twigs and
underneath leaves. Individual eggs are at first greyish to dull pink in colour and become darker closer to hatching.
Individual eggs are cylindrical cup shaped and much larger than those of N. viridula. Parasitism of the eggs by a
number of tiny wasps is very common. These include species of the genera Trissoleus and Telenomus in the family
Scelienidae. During the first two instars nymphs are light brown in colour and in the field can be mistaken for the
coffee pest antestia bug. As development proceeds colour changes from green to yellow, the spotted bugs can be
distinguished by the pattern of dark lines on the hood and thorax and by the orange triangular shaped markings
around the edge of the abdominal segments.
Damage
The long beak allows these insects to penetrate the outer green husk and shell of macadamia to feed deep within the
kernel. Before the inner husk turns brown the pierce or sting marks of the bug can be clearly seen on the inner white
husk. Actual symptoms on the kernel vary depending on the stage of kernel development at which feeding occurs.
When the kernel is in the early "jelly" stage it can be shrivelled beyond recognition. As the nuts mature less
malformation occurs but feeding can cause large spongy white sunken areas on the outside and inside of the kernel.
Secondary invasion of the kernel by fungus often occurs. The extensive cavities caused by Bathycoelia are distinct
from the discrete surface pitting of the kernel caused by Nezara.
Southern Green Stink Bug

Nezara viridula is polyphagous and has been recorded on many horticultural and agricultural crops. These include
avocado, citrus, custard apple, guava, litchi, mangoes, beans, cabbage, okra, potatoes, tomatoes, maize, sorghum,
tobacco, castor oil and various weeds. The bug is widely distributed.

This bug, like most pentatomids, passes through seven stages, namely the egg, five nymphal stages, and the adult.
Egg. The female lays cream coloured, small cylindrical cup shaped eggs in clusters of about 50 to 70. The eggs
are oviposited mainly on the underside of leaves, the eggs turn pinkish as the nymphs develop prior to hatching.
Nymphs. The nymphs change from one stage to another by moulting. The small newly emerged bugs are
wingless and pinkish brown to orange brown in colour. They remain near the egg shell for a few days until the first
moult without feeding and then gradually scatter over the tree, but are particularly attracted to feeding on the nuts. In
a few days young bugs become marked with black, yellow, and red colour patterns which are superseded by green in
the latter stages of development. After moulting five times they reach the adult stage.
Adult. The fully winged adults are shield shaped and measure about 15 mm long and 8 mm in breadth. They are
normally green in colour but can be dark brownish grey in winter. The female is slightly bigger then the male and can
produce up to 300 eggs in her life time.
Life Cycle
Eggs hatch in 6 to 7 days and the duration of the life cycle from egg to adult can be as short as 4 weeks in warm
weather.
Seasonal history, Nut Development and Damage

Macadamia clones such as 333 and 508 may produce flowers almost the whole year round. This means that within
most orchards there are always some nuts at a suitable stage for bugs to feed on. La Croix and Thindwa (1984)
reported that bugs feed on the developing fruit once the "jelly" stage has started to form. In practice this means that
any fruit of 14 mm diameter and over can be highly attractive for bugs to feed on. This is reached on the main crop in
September in the Southern Region and in October in the Northern Region. La Croix et al ? further noted that once the
shells harden, at 16 to 18 weeks after anthesis, the crop becomes immune to attack. However, recent work in South
Africa (Bruwer, pers com 1990) showed that husk plus shell thickness and beak length of the bug - not hardness of
shell determines whether or not the kernel can be damaged.
Nezara viridula has a beak length of about 6 mm. After 12 to 16 weeks the distance to the kernel (husk shell
thickness) in some clones exceeds 6 mm. The bug then is no longer able to damage the kernel. Husk shell thickness
varies with clones and consequently susceptibility to damage. Bruwer ranks clones in decreasing order of
susceptibility to bug damage as follows: Kakea (508), Keaau (660), Keauhou (246), Ikaika (333) and Kau (344). Bugs
feed by forcing their mouth parts through the husk and shell into the kernel. They then exude digestive enzymes
from the mouth parts. These enzymes dissolve the kernel around the penetration point and the semi digested food is
then sucked up by the proboscis. The injury is not usually recognized until the nuts have been shelled. Spotting of
the kernels is then evident. Feeding sites are mostly localised circular spots characterized by a dry discoloured
depression with a cottony white center.
Fungi may penetrate the feeding puncture and develop on the injured kernel. This may cause blackening and the
development of rancidity. There are, of course, no insect droppings present as occurs on kernels that have been
damaged by the feeding of nut borer. Very little information is available on natural enemies of N. viridula in Malawi.
The parasites La Croix refer to are of Bathycoelia spp. and not N. viridula. De Villiers (pers com 1990) indicated
interest in the importation of stink bug parasite fly, Trichopoda pennipes var (Fabr.) there is also a minute scelionid
wasp Trissolchus basalis (Woll) that attacks eggs (Mitchell 1972). Ways should be sought to improve existing
biological control of this insect by the importation and release of parasites.
Other Nut Feeding Bugs

Coreids
The two coreids, Leptodorixa sordida and Riptortes dentipes occur more sporadically and usually in lower numbers
than the pentatomid bugs. However serious damage can occur if they are not controlled. Feeding is accompanied by
extensive collapse of the cell tissue of the inner husk, shell and the kernel. These feeding sites can appear as brown
sunken lesions when the damaged nut is dissected. Appearance of the damage can vary depending on the stage of
bug and nut development at the time of feeding. The extensive sunken lesions and collapse of the cell tissue around
the feeding point is in contrast to the tiny marks left on the husk and shell by the pentatomid feeders.
Mosquito Bug
Helopeltis spp which is a very serious pest of cashew also attacks the young shoots and nuts of macadamia.
Damage to the young growth can be quite severe on young trees particularly on estates in lower Thyolo and
Mulanje. Feeding on young nuts within 12 weeks of nutset can result in destruction of the nuts. Feeding sites
develop as reddish brown necrotic areas up to 3 mm in diameter on the green husk.
Green Macadamia Moth

The green macadamia moth, Chloroclystis spp Family Geometridae is a minor or occasional pest of small macadamia
fruit. La Croix and Thindwa (1983) report it to be active in October and November when eggs are laid on the young
nuts. The emerging caterpillars (loopers) live in woven silk tunnels and feed on the nuts from the outside and
sometimes tunnel into the "jelly" in the centre of small fruit. Nuts fed on when small usually turn black and die but
remain in the cluster, older nuts usually have a scarred husk, but this does not affect the kernel.
Macadamia Nut Borer and False Codling Moth

The larval stages of two moths - macadamia nut borer, Crytophlebia batracopha (Meyr) and false codling moth,
Cryptophlebia leucotreta (Meyr) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) tunnel into nuts of macadamia and may cause reductions
in yield.

Cryptophlebia batracopha and C. leucotreta occur throughout the main macadamia growing areas of Malawi (La Croix
and Fero, 1984). The two species are present on macadamia in roughly equal numbers (La Croix and Thindwa 1984).
Distribution in macadamia is patchy and there is some evidence that they spread from many foci. C. batracopha is
known to occur in Malawi, Zimbabwe, RSA and some other parts of Africa (La Croix and Thindwa, 1986). It is known
as a pest of citrus in RSA and is found on macadamia in Zimbabwe. In Malawi C. batracopha has been reared in the
following fruits: Musa paradisica, Musaceae; Caesalpinia decapatala, Leguminosae; Azanza garekeana, Malvaceae;
Feijoa sellowiana, Myrtaceae; Litchi chinensis, Sapindaceae. C leucotreta is found on a much wider range of host
fruits. These include the following: Courbonia glauca, Capparidaceae; Thylaceum africanum, Capparidaceae; Musa
paradisica, Musaceae; Caesalinia pulcherrima, Leguminosae; Cassia petersiana, Leguminosae; Terminalia sambessica,
Combretaceae; Xeroderris stahlmannii, Leguminosae; Azanza garekiana, Malvaceae; Ziziphus mucronata,
Rhamnaceae, Citrus sinensis, Rutaceae, Litchi chinensis, Sapindaceae.
Seasonal Occurrence
The seasonal pattern of Cryptophlebia activity in an orchard varies with the availability of food and the effectiveness
of regulation by natural enemies. The phenology (growth, flower and fruiting characteristics) of macadamia clones
varies with the clone and the altitude at which they are grown. Macadamia is lower Thyolo, such as Kumadzi and
Lelembwe Estates at altitudes of 500 to 600 m, tend to have less out of season flowering than those in middle and
upper Thyolo from 750 to 150 m. In addition the spread of flowering becomes greater as macadamias mature and can
be more pronounced on certain clones such as 508 and 333. In upper Thyolo flowers can be present in significant
numbers for 8 months of the year - from January to September. This means that suitable food for Cryptophlebia is
available throughout the year on macadamia.
During 1989 - 91 suppression of Cryptophlebia by natural enemies, especially a tiny egg parasite, resulted in a rapid
decline in pest activity from October to December. Then egg parasite numbers also crashed. Cryptophlebia numbers
can then be expected to increase rapidly on the new seasons nuts because of the lag time before parasite numbers
can again become sufficient to effectively suppress the host. The actual timing of this sequence of events may vary
from season to season.

Adult. The greyish nocturnal moths of the adults are 6 to 7 mm long with a wing span of about 20 mm. The inner
wing of the C leucotreta male has a silver spot that distinguishes it from C batracopha.
Egg. The eggs of C batracopha are flat ovoid and have a pitted chorion ( egg shell). They measure about 0.7 x
0.6 mm, the height being about 0.2 mm. Eggs are laid individually on young fruits, nearly always above 10 mm in
diameter. The majority are laid on the upper half of the fruit, most being in the narrow space between adjacent fruits.
When laid the egg is an off white to a light greenish colour. The brown head of the developing larva becomes visible
2 to 3 days before hatching.
Larva. The newly hatched larva usually exits the egg via a crescent shaped hole which it makes in the chorion.
The young larva may tunnel directly into the green husk or move a few millimetres over the surface of the husk before
entering the nut. The larva passes through five stages (or instars) during its development in the nut. It develops in
the kernel but once the shell hardens and resists entry by the larva, feeding becomes confined to the inner husk.
Infested nuts can often be detected by the frass cone constructed over the entry hole. Early in the season most of
the infested nuts have only one larva per nut, but as the season progresses 40% of infested nuts may have two or
more larvae. Full grown larvae may be 15 to 18 mm long and vary in colour from greyish white to a pinkish hue with
discrete small dark green spots and a dark brown head capsule.
Pupa. The mature larva leaves the nut to pupate, either dropping by a thread or crawling down the boughs and
trunk. Pupation can be in the soil, in the crotches of the branches, or in fruit dropped from the tree. Most pupae in
the soil are found at depths of 2 to 5 cm.
Life Cycle
The duration from egg to adult increases with decreasing temperature. For C batracopha La Croix and Thindwa (1986)
recorded the following development times at 27 Degrees Celsius:
Stage Duration in days

Egg 8.4 (SD + 1.4)
Larva 24.4 (SD + 3.5)
Pupa 50 to 80% in 9-14 days, remaining 20% spread over 4
months
Note: SD = Standard Deviation
The complete life cycle from egg to adult may be completed in 5 to 6 weeks or it can take 4 to 5 months if the pupa
enters a diapause phase.
Damage
In small nuts the entire kernel is usually eaten, in larger nuts part of the kernel may be left, but is still unsuitable for
processing. When the nuts are small the caterpillars feed precociously by moving from one fruit to another. Up to
40% of the fruit set can be destroyed at this stage. When the macadamia shells become fully hardened fully
Cryptophlebia larvae cannot usually penetrate them, but larvae are able to complete development by feeding on the
husk alone. Even though the kernel is not eaten loss of the crop can still occur through premature drop of damaged
nuts, if the kernel is not mature enough to be saleable.
Natural Enemies
In Malawi 8 insects have been recorded to be enemies of macadamia nut borer. There are parasitic wasps of the larval
stage that include 3 Broconidae, 3 Ichneunonidae and 1 Chaloidae, 6 of which feed only within the larva and one that
feeds externally on larvae. In addition there is a tiny wasp, Trichogrammatoidea cryptophlebia (Family
Trichogrammatidae) which oviposits in the egg of cryptophlebia. Up to 2 or 3 of these wasps may then emerge from
each parasitised egg.
During the 1989 season it was found that once parasitism of the egg reached levels of 60 to 70%, nut borer caused
very little further damage. The egg parasite has the advantage that the pest is destroyed before it can enter the nut
as the damaging larval stage.
7.02 Minor Pests

The following are pests of varying importance depending on the season (from W.K. Fero).
Black citrus aphids (Toxoptera citricidus (Kirkaldly)

Ggenerally feed on young growth flushes causing the leaves to curl and on flowers, opened and unopened rendering
them infertile.

Apart from being a pest of macadamia, the insect also attacks garden roses, citrus, coffee and tea. The aphids are
found in all macadamia growing areas. Heavy infestations can occur from April to August.
Life History
Aphids typically winter as fertilized eggs on some perennial plants. Eggs are small, oval blackish objects glued
generally to stems of plants. Small nymphs hatch when the weather becomes warm enough. These aphids are called
stem mothers since each of these is the start of a great colony of aphids that may be produced during the season.
They are all females which have the ability to reproduce young without mating. The young are born ovoviviparously,
that is already from the egg: and differ from their stem mothers in having only one parent and they do not pass
through an exposed egg stage. They are also wingless and produce young ovoviviparously. They can start
reproducing when they are only a week or so old and produce about a dozen to 50 or 100 active nymphs within the
next week or two . In this way a succession of generations are produced, the young clustering about their mothers
until patches on the plant are overcrowded with them. At some time, either all or a part of a certain generation of
these females may develop wings and fly to some other host plant(s) to form new colonies.
As shortening days forecast the end of the season and before the summer host plant dies a generation is usually
produced that is all winged, but is often of two kinds. Some are males and some of them females which are called fall
migrants. These fall migrants give birth to nymphs in the normal manner but the nymphs are wingless true females,
that cannot reproduce unless they mate with the males which are of the preceding generation. After mating, the true
females lay one to four or more large fertilized eggs in a sheltered place on the plant, and then dies. From these eggs
arise the stem mothers of the next season.
Damage
Aphids feed by thrusting sharp hollow stylets from their beaks in among cells of the plant and sucking out the sap.
They feed on young growth flushes and flower buds and severe infestations may cause distortion of the young
growth and death of infested flower buds. On newly established trees feeding by aphids can retard and stunt new
growth.
Natural Enemies
Predation by lacewing and ladybird beetles is at times important in regulating black citrus aphid populations.
Long Tailed Mealybug

Long tailed mealybugs Psedococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tossetti) are soft oval flat distinctly segmented and
covered with a white mealy wax which extends into spines along the body margin and the posterior end. Long tailed
mealybug may become a serious pest in orchards where use of broad spectrum pesticide has eliminated its natural
enemies. Otherwise natural enemies generally keep the populations below damaging levels.

Long tailed mealybug has been observed in some orchards in the Southern Region. Some orchards in the Central and
Northern Regions need to be visited to confirm their presence. Long tailed mealybugs occur on a wide variety of field
crops, fruit trees and ornamentals.
Life History
The females lay several hundred eggs within 10 to 20 days in cottony egg sacs attached to leaves, fruit or twigs. The
newly hatched nymphs are light yellow and free of wax but soon start to excrete a waxy cover. Mealybugs produce
two or three overlapping generations a year. They pass the winter mainly in the egg stage, although other stages
may be seen on the trees.
Damage
Mealybugs extract plant sap, reducing tree vigour. Feeding on the stems of fruit results in fruit drop when
infestations are severe. Young growth flushes curl, wilt and die when population are large.
Natural Enemies
Since natural enemies are effective in keeping mealybug populations below economically damaging levels, pesticide
treatment is rarely required. Parasites and predators provide good control of mealybugs in minimally treated orchards.
Native predatory lacewing ladybird beetles have been recorded feeding on long tailed mealybugs.
Broad Mite
Broad mite (Polyphagotassonemus latus) is so small that you need a hand lens to see it, but they cause distinct
symptoms. They feed on young tissue at the growing points, on flower buds and fruit. Growth is stunted; leaves and
fruit may be distorted and rosetted. In extreme cases extensive necrosis of flower buds can develop which leads to a
complete cessation of growth and failure to set nuts. Broad mite is widely distributed in macadamia growing areas.
However in some of the drier orchards in lower Thyolo it was not observed. It occurs mainly from April through to
September which is the flowering period of macadamia.
Natural Enemies
A related mite, Tarsonemus cryptocephalus has been recorded as a predator of broad mite. A record has not yet
been made in Malawi of natural enemies.
Looper Larvae
Looper larvae (Gymnoscelis sp) is one of the most common looper caterpillars which feed on macadamia flowers.
Another species, Anomis flava may also cause serious damage. The adult moth lays its eggs singly on the flower
buds. The newly hatched larva is white and as it grows older it becomes light green to brown in colour. Its larvae
have no pro-legs in the middle of the body and therefore moves in a characteristic looping or measuring fashion. The
larva usually pupate in the soil. With ideal temperatures the adult moth emerges in 7 or 10 days. The populations of
Looper larvae are more prevalent in lower altitude macadamia growing areas.
Blue Butterfly
Blue butterfly Leptotes pirithous Linnaeus, (Lycaenidae) is a pest of macadamia flowers and was recorded by
Ironside upon his arrival. High populations were found in lower altitude macadamia growing areas. The eggs are laid
singly on flower buds and are a bluish-white colour. The slug-like larvae are 10 to 11 mm long when fully grown and
vary in colour from light green to pinkish brown. The larvae feed on the buds leaving a neat, round hole in the
bulbous end. No natural enemies have yet been recorded for this pest.
7.03 Diseases
There are few diseases of macadamia at the moment in Malawi, that can cause yield losses if not controlled. This
subsection will discuss the important diseases present, their spread, symptoms or the damage they cause and
possible control measures.
1. Macadamia Root Rot

As the name implies the infection starts from the root system and extends upwards. Causative organisms: This
disease is caused by a soil- borne fungus namely, Armillariella mellea.
Symptoms: causes complete death of plants, sometimes in patches. When the plant is dug up, the roots are seen
covered with a white mycelial growth with a mushroom odour and finally roots become rotten.
Spread: Armillariella mellea is a soil borne fungus which lives as a saprophyte on dead wood. It is spread from tree
to tree by root contact from centres of infection. Spread to host is also through soil by growth from inoculum of
rhizomorphia (thick strands of mycelia). Moist soils containing a high proportion of woody debris facilitates rapid
spread of this fungus as do temperatures ranging from 8 degrees Celsius to 22 degrees Celsius.
Control: It is important to ring bark trees prior to felling when clearing land and ensure soils are well drained. When
digging holes for planting, all woody roots should be removed and burnt. The holes should remain open for a few
months and then treated with methyl bromide if Armellia is suspected. It is advisable to trench to one metre depth
around centres of infection to isolate the disease and prevent its spread.
Blossom Blight (Botrytis cinerea)

This fungus disease has just been recorded in Malawi in Thyolo and at Bvumbwe.
Symptoms: The disease usually establishes itself only on senescent floral tissues of macadamia. The affected flowers
have a grey to brownish powdery mass growing on them which easily falls off when shaken. The affected flowers
look blighted and do not develop into mature fruits. This disease is especially prevalent during the winter months
and becomes a problem after prolonged rain as high humidity and temperatures (16 degrees Celsius - 22 degrees
Celsius) favours the development of this disease. Mature orchards and close spacings are most susceptible as
canopies are dense and there is reduced air circulation and canopies dry out slowly.
Control: Work has not yet been done on this disease in Malawi but Daconil and Benomyl should be effective
against Botrytis.
Anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata)

This disease is caused by the fungal pathogen Glomerella cingulata (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) which infects
the leaves, twigs and\or branches and the nut. The affected parts are dotted with small grey spots which eventually
coalesce. In the advanced stages, the leaves drop off and the twigs die back.
Spread: This disease is spread by wind and infected leaves, twigs etc. which fall of the plant act as a source of
inoculum in the following season.
Control: All dead twigs, branches and leaves which have fallen off the plant need to be removed and be burnt.
Mancozeb (Dithane M45) sprays commencing at flowering checks the disease.
Inflorescence or/Shoot Blight (Pestalotiopsis disseminate)

Symptoms: The affected parts are blighted and eventually fall of the stem.
Control: Application of fungicides such as Mancozeb where necessary helps reduce the problem and crop hygiene
is important.
Canker or Stem Die Back

This disease is caused by any of the following fungal pathogens:-
(i) Botryodiplodia theobroma
(ii) Phoma glomerata
(iii) Pestalotiopsis disseminate
Symptoms: The affected stems or twigs die from the tip extending backwards (hence, the name die back) and some of
the affected stems may have grooves or wounds in them (canker). In the advanced stages, many stems get affected
and the whole plant can die.
Spread: Inoculum is produced on infected dry twigs which remain on the plant and all dead branches and twigs lying
on the ground.
Control: Proper pruning techniques which includes removing all the dead twigs and branches for burning. Where
necessary Mancozeb sprays may be used to control the disease.
7.04 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Techniques

IPM has been defined as the use of all available pest control tactics in the design of a programme to manage but not
eradicate pest populations, so that economic damage and harmful side effects are avoided (Mitchell 1982). The
cornerstone of an IPM programme is the use of economic injury levels and pest monitoring as a basis for the
judicious application of pesticides or other control tactics. This is in contrast to the prophylactic or calendar spray
approach where pesticides are applied routinely (or haphazardly), irrespective of pest levels.
IPM is a programme that does not eliminate the use of pesticides but reduces sole reliance on pesticides. IPM is a
decision making process to determine if, when, where and what strategy and mix of tactics should be used. IPM must
be flexible and offer a variety of options since pest problems, control technologies and economics are all continually
changing.
The basic requirements for developing IPM include an understanding of the biology and ecology of the key pests,
economic information about the crop, pest damage and control measures, and the availability of environmentally
acceptable control strategies. Harris (1983) noted that the practice of pecan IPM is deceptively simple consisting
primarily of suppression of key pests at key times and reliance on the conservation of natural enemies the remainder
of the time. This requires the inspection of each orchard or field on a regular basis (usually weekly) year in and year
out.
Components of the IPM System

Definition of the management unit. Its limits are characterised by the local cropping system and the patterns of
movement of the key pests. e.g. individual clones can vary in susceptibility and each should be managed separately.
Pest intensity can vary with aspect and proximity to alternative hosts; certain pest infestations spread out from a
focal point; intensive management can enable hot spots of pest activity to be treated selectively avoiding the high
cost of blanket applications. In macadamia a management unit for scouting and spraying should be about 5 hectares
but not greater than 10 hectares. Sampling intensity should be from 1.5 to 3% of the tree population.
Identify Pest Species and Beneficial Organisms. It is important to differentiate pests according to their damage
potential and to understand the relationship of the pest infestation and crop phenology. A crop may be susceptible
at a certain stage but not at others. In Malawi nut borers tend to be overrated in importance because the role of its
natural enemies, particularly the tung wasps egg parasite, in regulating pest numbers has not been understood.
`Key' pests, usually only one or two, are pests that occur regularly and cause economic losses if not controlled. Key
pest are the focal point of IPM e.g. pentatomid bugs in macadamia.
Occasional or `secondary pests' are injurious only irregularly - sporadic e.g loopers and broad mite on macadamia
flowers.
`Potential' pests are potentially harmful species that remain at subeconomic levels unless aggravated by human
intervention e.g. introduction of a susceptible variety. Occasional or secondary pests often have effective natural
enemies which, if not disrupted by insecticides or other environmental modifications, will keep these organisms from
inflicting economic losses.
Migratory pests are species that do not reside in the crop but occasionally enter it causing severe damage, e.g.
armyworms or locust.
Identification of beneficial organisms that effectively suppress pests is often essential for implementing IPM e.g. the
egg parasite of Cryptophlebia spp on macadamia in Malawi and the various wasps parasites that suppress the native
Bathycoelia spp.
Develop Reliable Monitoring Systems for `Key' Pests
An effective monitoring system must be sensitive enough to detect changes in pest densities BEFORE economic
thresholds are reached. A monitoring system must also be:
1. reliable, statistically sound, to give a sound basis for management decisions.
2. inexpensive, simple and easy to use.
3. able to provide meaningful data that can be interpreted by managers.
4. accepted by the grower. On-farm demonstration is the most effective way to implement monitoring
technology.
Define Economic Thresholds or Action Levels

Economic threshold is defined as the density of the pest population below which the TOTAL cost of applying the
control measures exceeds the losses caused by the pest (Stern 1973). Economic Injury Level (EIL) is the point at
which a pest population begins to cause economic loss. This must take into account the TOTAL cost of applying a
treatment. Each pest or disease has a population below which there is no economic injury. The economic injury level
is slightly greater than the economic threshold or action level. This difference in population density provides a
margin of safety for the time that elapses between when the threatening infestation is detected and when the pest
control treatment is applied (Stern et al 1959).
Monitor Natural Control Factors

These include beneficial parasites and predators and disease organisms that suppress pests as well as weather
conditions. Flower blights, for example, are not a serious problem during fine weather, and low humidity. High
humidity as experienced during a Chiperoni (light drizzle) that can last a few days caused by influx of cool moist air
from the south east during winter favours the development of fungus disease on macadamia flowers.
Judicious Use of Pesticides

Choice of pesticide, where possible, should be selective, ideally the chosen chemical must be effective against the
pest but have no adverse effects on non-target organisms. Examples:
1. The use of a bacterial insecticide, Bacillus thuringiensis which is effective only against Lepidoptera caterpillars.
2. By applying pesticides for nut borers and bug (Bathycoelia spp.) only when needed, as determined by
monitoring and action levels, more advantage can be taken of natural enemies.
Integrated Pest Control Technologies

This involves the best use of all available pest control tactics. It can include:
1. Use of pesticides.
2. Use of resistant or less susceptible clones.
3. (iii) Environmental manipulation e.g. plant spacing to improve orchard ventilation.
4. Reliance on existing natural enemies is a very important component of macadamia in Malawi.
5. Augmentative releases of natural enemies-promising species can be mass reared in an insectary and released at
critical times during the development of the crop.
6. Cultural controls e.g. time of harvesting.
7. Sanitation e.g. frequent removal and destruction of borer damaged nuts.
Prediction of Loss and Risk

This aspect takes into account pest population trends, natural controls, the likelihood of weather conditions that
could prevent timely pesticide application and the damage potential of the pest or disease and the time required to
apply the control measures.
Make an Action Decision

This must take into account the relationship of the pest to the crop phenology, the stage of plant development, the
prevailing weather conditions and the time needed to apply the control treatment.
Evaluation and Follow up

Evaluation and follow up after applying or not applying a control treatment or whatever mix of tactics is decided on is
essential for continued development and improvement of the management programme.
Potential Benefits of Implementing IPM

Large variability in pest density occurs both between seasons and between locations. By monitoring and applying
pesticides to individual orchards on a needs basis, considerable savings are possible for example using monitoring
and action levels at Mzenga estate in 1990-91 an average of 2.25 sprays were applied across more than 300 hectares
of macadamia. The number of sprays needed for borer and bug on individual fields varied from 0 to 6. This compares
with a required total of 8 sprays if a calendar spray programme had been followed.
Pest control is often much improved because of the accurate timing of pesticide treatments. In addition, improved
calibration of spray equipment often results. The application of an effective pesticide dose improves the control
achieved as a result of:-
1. Reduced pesticide usage because sprays are applied only when needed.
2. Reduced environmental pollution.
3. Reduced operator exposure to pesticides.
4. (iv) Increased reliance on pest regulation by existing parasites and predators.
5. Conservation of available chemicals by delaying the development of insect resistance.
The use of monitoring and action levels replaces reliance on pesticide application as a form of crop insurance and a
basis for peace of mind for growers and managers.
Trained Personnel Essential

A major limitation to the expansion of IPM is the lack of personnel with the expertise and confidence to do the
monitoring and make decisions. To meet this need people with an aptitude and sense of responsibility for these
tasks must be trained.
7.05 Monitoring Guidelines (Ironside and Fero)

Monitoring Frequency
It is advisable to monitor WEEKLY during flowering and fruiting regardless of the crop. On some estates such as in
upper Thyolo this can mean weekly monitoring all the year round. It is often necessary to monitor for both flower
and nut pests simultaneously.
Decide on the Management Units and the Monitoring Intensity

Management must divide the macadamia orchard into logical management units using clones, natural boundaries,
road ways, aspects (e.g. northern slope) topographical or other features to set the limits of each identifiable
management unit or block of trees. Ideally a management unit should not be more than 5 to 10 hectares. The sample
for scouting should comprise 1.5 to 3 per cent of trees on smaller blocks or 15 randomly selected trees scattered
across the management unit on larger blocks. It is not necessary to sample from the same trees every week, in fact, it
is preferable to vary the path of movement from week to week.
Separate Charts for Different Clones and Blocks

Record the pest counts and other relevant data on the sampling charts. Use separate charts for the different clones
and management units.
Monitoring for Flower Pests

The following procedure should be used to monitor flower pests:
1. On approaching a tree visually estimate and score on the sampling chart (a) the intensity of flowering, and (b)
the stage of flowering on each tree. Use the following rating system:
a. Intensity of flowering: 1 = Trace: 2 = Light: 4 = Moderate and 8 = Heavy.
b. Stage of flowering: 1 = <12%; 2 = 12-25%; 4 = 25-75% and 8 = >75% of the flowers are at or past the
anthesis or fully open stage.
2. From each tree randomly take 1 raceme in the advanced bud stage (AB) and 1 raceme at the anthesis (A) to petal
fall or spent stage.
3. On the advanced bud raceme look for black citrus aphid (BCA), broad mite (BM),Flower thrip (FT), blue ,
butterfly (BB) mealybug (MB), looper (L) and for any natural enemies such as ladybird beetles, hoverfly and
lacewing larvae.
4. In the anthesis to spent stage look for looper larva and evidence of Botrytis and Cladosporium infection.
5. If a pest or disease is present estimate the severity of the infestation or infection by giving it a rating. Use the
following rating system: 1 = <1/8 of the raceme; 2 = 1/8 to 1/4; 4 = 1/4 to 3/4; and 8 = >3/4 of the raceme infested
or damaged.
Note: It often happens that a pest such as aphid has been present but the colony has been controlled by
natural enemies. Aphid should not then be scored as present.
6. Other pests. If pests other than those specified are observed these can be recorded using the space provided in
the spare column e.g. miscellaneous caterpillars (MC).
7. After inspecting each raceme score on the chart as follows:

a. If a pest is present score `1' or add `1' to previous total in the `R' or running total column. If the past is
not present you enter the previous total again unchanged. In this way you score the cumulative total
of infested racemes.
b. If a pest is present score the infestation or damage rating for that pest in the `r' column to the right of
the running total column.
Repeat 7a and 7b for each pest listed on the flower sampling chart.
8. After sampling 15 trees compare the levels in the `R' columns with the appropriate decision level columns. For
details about individual pest or action levels refer to the paper `Proposed Action Levels - March 1990'.
9. Determine the average rating for each pest.
10. If the decision is in doubt after sampling only 15 trees continue to sample until a clear decision is reached or until
30 trees have been inspected.
In making a decision use the information that is recorded about the amount and stage of flowering. Example: If the
amount of flower rating average only 1-2; i.e. trace to light, it is not worth spraying even though pest action levels
may be reached.
Monitoring for Nut Pests

There are five sampling methods used to monitor for borer and bugs. These are as follows:
1. Ground sampling - immature green fallen nuts for borer and bug. The ground sample is most useful early in the
season for locating foci of nut borer infestation and for detecting bug damage on the soft shelled nuts that
readily fall when damaged by bug.
2. Tree sampling - immature tree harvested nut. While the crop is immature tree sampling nuts for nut borer egg
count and bug numbers is a most useful strategy for the accurate timing of nut borer and bug treatments.
3. Cluster inspection - for bug. Cluster inspections fo r nymph or adult stages of bug should be made while
harvesting the 10 nut per tree sample. Without extra effort this provides another option for monitoring
4. bug.
5. Inspection for bug eggs - This is another useful way to monitor bug. The sighting of live unparasitised eggs of
Bathycoelia spp on the trunk and branches, under leaves or on twigs or racemes is another monitoring option
being developed.
6. Knock down spray for bug - Once the crop is approaching maturity and while the mature crop remains on the
tree. The knock down spray using a fast acting insecticide such as Dichlorvos as a 0.1% spray, is the most
effective way to monitor for bug and for the spray decision levels refer to the `Proposed Action Levels - August
1990'.
Procedure for Ground Sampling:

1. Take a random sample of up to 10 freshly fallen immature green nuts per tree from up to 15 trees per block.
2. For each tree sample, dissect and inspect each nut for the presence of nut borer larva or damage and for bug
damage.
3. Score the numbers of damaged nuts per tree on the sampling chart.
4. Calculate the percentage of damaged nut from the 15 trees.
Procedure for Tree Sampling:

1. Harvest at random 10 immature nuts from around each tree about 14 millimetres or more in diameter.
2. Inspect each nut for the presence of nut borer eggs and count the number of live unhatched (L), hatched (H),
parasitised (P) and dead (D) eggs that are present on the 10 nuts. For monitoring purposes an egg is counted as
parasitised regardless of whether the wasps have emerged or not.
3. Score the numbers of eggs on each of the 10 nuts in the appropriate column on the sampling chart.
4. Then dissect each nut and inspect if for the presence of bug or borer damage, usually the developing shell and
kernel must be removed from each half of the d issected nut to check for bug pierce marks.
5. Score the numbers of borer and bug damaged nuts in the appropriate column on the chart. Note whether bug
damage is considered old (occurred before the previous spray) or new, (occurred since the previous spray).
6. If other pests or natural enemies are present these can be noted in the spare column provided.
7. As the crop is approaching maturity it can be useful to score the number of nuts that are mature in the `M'
column. A uniform dark brown colour on the inside of the husk indicates that a nut is mature. Note that in
clone 660 the inner husk of the mature nut tends to be a lighter brown than in other clones and 25% brown can
be regarded as mature. For clone 333 and 508 at least 50% brown is needed for a nut to be classified as mature
and full brown for 246 to be mature.
Repeat the above steps until all 10-15 sample trees are inspected.
For nut borer calculate the following:

1. Numbers of live eggs (L) per 100 nuts
L/100 nuts = No. of live eggs x 100 / No. of nuts inspected
1. % of eggs that are parasitised (% P)
% P = No. of parasitised x 100 / Total ie (L + H + P + D)
For bugs calculate percentage of nuts showing new damage symptoms. Refer to `Proposed Action Levels, August
1990' for a description of the decision making system for nut
borer and bug.
Note: Early in the season if the amount of young nuts on the tree is only a trace to light (average rating <2.5) high
levels of live nut borer eggs should be ignored until a more significant flowering takes place.
Procedure for Cluster Inspections:

This is simply a visual inspection of nut clusters while the tree sampled nuts are being sampled from the tree.
Score the number of clusters, nymphs or adult bug sighted. The sighting of any adults or nymphs of the damaging
species indicates the need for an insecticide application.
Procedure for Knock Down Spray:

1. Before spraying it is desirable to clear the area under the tree or to lay a sheet under the tree so that the insects
`knocked' out of the tree with the spray can be readily seen and counted.
2. Spray a minimum of 5 and a maximum of 15 randomly selected trees across the field. Preferably apply sprays
before 8.00 am in the morning. Take care to thoroughly spray each tree that is being sampled.
3. After spraying each tree collect, count and score the fallen bugs under the trees.
4. If 8 or more of a damaging species is sighted after spraying 5 trees, stop the knock down spray. This level
clearly indicates the need to apply a bug spray immediately.
5. If less than 8 bugs are sighted on 5 trees continue the knock down spray until a decision can be made.
6. Do not make a NO SPRAY decision until a minimum of 10 trees per management unit have been sprayed, if the
average catch is less than 1.5 bugs per tree DO NOT SPRAY this week.
7.06 Action Levels (Ironside and Fero)

Economic thresholds or the action levels at which pesticides should be applied to protect macadamia flowers and
nuts are presented in this section. Unnecessary pesticide use, waste, and severe insect damage result from failure to
correctly time the application. Excessive pesticide use, whether overdosing or underdosing can accelerate the
development of insect resistance and lead to pest repercussion, by destroying natural enemies. The decision making
systems that are outlined are designed to minimise such adverse effects.
Flower Pests
Pest Species Do not Spray % Spray %
1 Black citrus aphid 45 60
2 Mealybug 45 60
3 Flower thrip 45 60
4 Broadmite 15 30
5 Looper larva (Anomis sp etc) 15 30
6 Blue butterfly larva 15 30
7 Flower blight (Botrytis) 15 30
8 Flower blight (Cladosporium) 45 60
After inspecting a minimum of 15 racemes in the advanced bud stage and 15 racemes that are at anthesis to petal fall
stage, compare the running totals (RT) of infested or damaged racemes with the appropriate decision level numbers in
the same row. The DO NOT SPRAY decision levels are in the column on the left hand side of the chart and the spray
decision levels are in the column towards the right hand side of the chart.
1. If the RT equals or is less than the DO NOT SPRAY level number to the left in the same row, stop sampling the
decision is not to spray this week.
2. If the RT equals or is greater than the SPRAY level number to the right in the same row stop sampling the
decision is to spray immediately.
3. If the RT is in the area of indecision, that is greater than the DO NOT SPRAY level but less than the spray level,
continue to sample until a decision can be made or refer to the damage /infestation rating(s) to make the decision.
4. If the bottom of the chart is reached without reaching a decision refer to the damage/infestation rating(s) to the
right and adjacent to the running total column.
Damage and or Infestation Rating Decision Levels

After inspecting a minimum of 15 racemes at the advanced bud stage and 15 racemes at the commencement of the
petal fall stage calculate the mean rating for each pest and the sum of these means for all pests. The decision is to
spray immediately if the mean rating for any pest is 2.5 or more or if the sum of the mean damage ratings for all pests
is 4 or more.
Other Factors to Consider in Making the Decision

These include the amount of flower present, the stage of flower development, weather conditions, the level of
parasite or predator activity and the length of time needed to apply the spray.
Examples
1. There may not be enough flowers present to justify a spray, or most of the flowering may already have passed
the susceptible stage for flower blight.
2. Chiperoni weather may be highly probable and this may influence a decision to spray to protect the flowers at
anthesis. (Chiperoni is a 3 to 5 day wet spell)
3. High levels of lacewing or ladybird activity on black citrus aphid may indicate a DO NOT SPRAY decis ion.
4. Some days may be needed to apply the spray and it can be important to act immediately a spray decision is
reached if damage is to be prevented.
Nut Pests
1. Bugs
Spray if: 1. Nymph or adults are sighted while sampling nuts from the tree; or
2. There is 4% new damage in immature green fallen nuts; or
3. There is 2% new damage in immature green fallen nuts in consecutive weeks; or
4. There is 0.75 to 1% new damage in immature green nuts sampled from the tree; or
5. An average of 1 to 2 bugs per tree are found after a knock down spray on a random sample of
5-15 trees. Spray a minimum of 10 trees before making a NO spray decision.
The sampling strategy will vary as the season progresses. As the crop approaches maturity and the inner husk has
began to turn brown weekly knockdown sprays are needed to monitor for bug. Spray for bug when action levels are
reached even after the crop is mature. Alternatively harvest the mature crop from the trees
2. Nut Borers
Control of nut borer with insecticide depends on killing the egg, or the young larva before it tunnels into the nut.
Eggs can hatch in 6 to 7 days. Therefore once the spray decision level is reached the insecticide must be applied
without delay. For clones 246 and 508 spray immediately: if on any we ek 3 or more live eggs per 100 nuts are sighted
and when %P/L=3.8. For clones 333 and 660 spray immediately: if on any week 5 or more live eggs per 100 nuts are
righted and when %P/L=2.4
Examples showing how to use the above action level equations:-

1. In mo nitoring clone 246, 4 live nutborer eggs per 100 nuts were sighted and 16% of all eggs, including hatched,
had been parasitised. By using the action level equation %P/L=3.8 it is found that %P/L(16/4)=4 which is greater
than 3.8. clearly a "do not spray this week" decision because of the level of parasite activity.
2. In monitoring clone 246 a week later, 9 live nutborer eggs per 100 nuts were sighted and 22% of all eggs,
including hatched, had been parasitised. By using the action level equation %P/L=3.8 it is found that
%P/L(22/10)=2.4 This is less than 3.8 within the action level range therefore the decision is to spray immediately.
3. In monitoring clone 333, 10 live eggs per 100 nuts were sighted and 34% of all eggs including hatched, had been
parasitised. By using the action level equation %P/L=2.4 it is found that %P/L (34/10)=3.4. This is greater than
2.4 and outside the action level range, therefore the decision is do not spray this week. Thresholds proposed as
follows for clones 246 and 508 are lower than those for 333 and 606 as the latter are less susceptible to nut borer
damage.
Interval Between Sprays

Do not spray for any pest within 2 weeks of a previous spray unless for some reason, such as rain after application,
the spray was ineffective.
Review Action Levels

The above thresholds for flower and nut pests will be kept under scrutiny by the entomologists and adjustments
made as new information is obtained.
7.07 Pesticide Quantities

Successful management of pests with chemical depends on the:
1. use of a chemical effective against the target pest.
2. application of an effective dose.
3. application to the site if infestation.
4. correct timing.
The factor under discussion is the application of an effective dose.
In high volume spraying the application of an effective dose is based, ideally, on spraying the target to a point of film
wetness just before runoff. In practice there is often considerable loss of chemical because of runoff. The actual
amount of chemical applied with a given spray dilution varies depending on the size of the tree, the planting density
and the canopy density. Savings in water, time and chemical are possible. In low volume spraying less water is
applied than is needed to achieve film wetness and volumes vary with the type of equipment and the preferences of
individual operators. Because of the savings that can be made by reduced fill up time there is a tendency for growers
to use very low water volumes.
How much pesticide should be added to the spray tank in low volume spraying is a question which cannot be simply
answered because of the number of variables involved. Extensive work in California with low volume spray
equipment showed that a 25 percent reduction of chemical per hectare was possible compared with high volume
spraying (Dibble 1985). If the spray can be selectively directed to target areas of the tree greater reductions may be
possible. Use of motorised backpack misters on macadamia allows the operator to direct much of the spray to the
flowers and nuts within the canopy. However with these machines it is very difficult to effectively spray the top
centre area of trees more than 4 to 5 m in height. While the trees are small enough to be properly sprayed savings of
up to 50% chemical may be possible with backpack mist blowers provided there is adequate spray coverage.
How to Determine the Pesticide Dose for LOW Volume Spray Application:-
1. Determine the average tree canopy volume (CV) of the field to be sprayed. See the next section for a guide to
estimating canopy volume.
2. Calibrate equipment to apply a desired volume of spray (SV) per tree. This should be within the range of 2 to 5 L
depending on tree size.
3. Calculate how much of a commercial formulation (A) must be added to the spray tank with volume (V) using the
following formula.
A = CV x R x V x F
______________
SV
where A = quantity in grams or millilitres of commercial pesticide formulation that must be added to the
spray tank.
CV = tree canopy volume in cubic metres.
R = the specified high volume rate in grams or millilitres of commercial formulation per litre of spray.
V = volume of the spray tank in litres.
SV = calibrated spray volume in litres per tree up to maximum of 350 m3 of canopy.
F = 0.06 litre for a 50% reduction* of chemical if the spray is directed to the flowers or nuts with a motorised
backpack mistblower;
OR
0.089 litre for a 25% reduction* of chemical if the spray is applied with a tractor operated air blast sprayer.
Example = Assuming a tree canopy volume CV of 120 m3, a spray volume/tree (SV) of 2.5 litres, a specified high
volume dilution of 2ml/ litres (R) of fenitrothion 500g/ litres and allowing for a 50% saving chemical compared with a
high volume spray, how much commercial fenitrothion (A) should be added to a 10 litres (VV) spray tank of a
backpack mister?
A = CV x R x V x F
______________
SV
= 120 x 2.0 x 10 x 0.06 ml
______________________________
2.5
= 57.6 ml
*These reduction factors are assuming 0.119 litres of spray volume are required to wet to a point before runoff a
cubic metre of canopy volume; 50 and 75% of 0.119 equals 0.06 and 0.089 respectively.
Estimating Tree Canopy Volume

Approximate tree canopy volumes (CV) and spray volumes for macadamia trees of varying canopy diameter are given
as a guide in Table 1. First find the average diameter of several trees in a field and then use Table 1 to estimate the
canopy volumes. The data is appropriate for healthy trees of clones, such as 246 and 508, in which canopy diameter
and tree height are about the same. Adjustments may be needed for trees that have been severely pruned and for
clones with an upright growth habit such as 660 and 741. Spray volumes required for the latter may be higher than
those indicated in Table 1 if the canopy is exceptionally dense.
Table 1: Tree Canopy Volume (m3) and Volume of Spray (litres) Required for Trees of Different Canopy Diameter
_______________________________________________________________________________________
- Tree Canopy Approximate Canopy High Volume
Diameter (metres) Volume (Cubic metres) per tree (litres)
________________________________________________________________________________________
4.5 35 4.1
4.7 50 6.0
5.5 100 11.9
6.3 150 17.9
7.1 200 23.8
7.9 250 29.7
8.6 300 35.7
9.5 350 41.7
________________________________________________________________________________________
Example: The estimated volume of a canopy whose diameter is 6.8 m is about 175 m - i.e. half way between 150
and 200 m on Table 1.
Phytotoxicity Warning
With some chemicals there is a risk of causing plant damage if low volume applications are used and particularly if
over spraying occurs on parts of the tree closest to the machine. Higher water volumes may then be required.
However, if possible avoid over spraying a mist of fine droplets. The tree should not appear wet with low volume
spraying.
How to Determine Pesticide Dose for HIGH Volume Spray Application

The amount of pesticide that should be added to the high volume spray tank is normally expressed on the pesticide
label as grams or millilitres of commercial formulation per 100 litres of water. Recommended high volume rates in
extension leaflets are often expressed as per cent active ingredient e.g. 0.05% a.i. endosulfan. The formula for
calculating the required high volume dilution in the spray tank is then as follows:
A = S x V x 1000
P
where A = quantity (in grams or millilitres) of commercial pesticide formulation that must be added to the spray tank.
S = the specified per cent active ingredient of the pesticide spray.
V = volume of the spray tank in litres.
P = the per cent active ingredient of the pesticide in the commercial formulation.
Example: The specified high volume spray concentration for applying endosulfan to macadamia is 0.05%; the active
ingredient in the commercial formulation is 47.5% and the volume of the spray tank is 80 litres. How much of the
commercial endosulfan should be added to the spray tank?
A = S x V x 1000
P
= 0.05 x 80 x 1000 ml
47.5
= 84.2 ml
7.08 Spraying Equipment
Selecting the right spray equipment for macadamia in Malawi requires careful consideration of features on the
growers property such as the topography, orchard layout and size, intercropping practices and the age and size of
the trees. The number of spray units must be sufficient to complete a spray round, ideally within one week.
Definitely, it should not take more than two weeks.
The basic types of equipment that are recommended for use in Malawi are:
1. High pressure lances
2. Back pack misters
3. Tractor operated air blast sprayers.
1. HIGH PRESSURE LANCES

Power required: 5-12 hp but can be operated from a tractor P.T.O. Maximum Tree Height: 8 to 10 m or higher if the
operator can be elevated on a portable stand.
Advantages:
1. Can spray the full range of tree sizes.
2. Operator can direct spray at the target.
3. Relatively inexpensive to set up
4. Can be used on uneven or rough terrain.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires high water volumes
2. May waste chemical because of runoff
3. Time consuming and labour intensive
4. Coverage can be uneven.
Recommendation:
Can be used in all situations and is an inexpensive first option.
2. BACK PACK MISTERS

Power required: 3 to 5 hp Maximum tree height: 4 to 5 metres.
Advantages:
1. Operator can direct spray on the target.
2. Fine uniform droplet cloud is produced.
3. Relatively inexpensive to buy.
4. Uses low volumes of water.
5. Can be used on uneven terrain.
6. Causes very little soil compaction.
Disadvantages:
1. Cannot effectively spray tall trees.
2. Labour intensive and noisy.
3. Time consuming in large orchards.
4. High maintenance
5. Increased operator hazard from small droplets.
Recommendation:
Useful in young orchards if used correctly.
3. AIR BLAST SPRAYERS

Power required: 28 to 80 hp. Maximum tree height: 8 to 15m depending on design and air capacity.
Advantage:
1. Savings in time labour and chemicals when applying low volume.
2. Flexibility to handle young trees and a mature orchard.
3. Can apply both high and low volumes.
Disadvantages:
1. High power requirements
2. Large capital outlay
3. Not readily available in Malawi
4. Cannot be used effectively on rough or uneven terrain
5. Contributes to soil compaction - a roadway down every row.
6. Cannot be used where intercropping with coffee is practiced
Recommendation:
1. Use larger air capacity machines as tree size and density increases.
2. Tower arrangements may improve coverage in the top centre area of trees.
Some Examples of Power Requirements and Air Performance of Air-

Blast Equipment Used in Australia for Macadamia
Equipment hp required Air performance
Hardi Super 3/Combi 3 28 20 000 m /hour 60 m/second
Radial Fan
Hardi Multi 25-45 40-50000 m /hour 45 m/second
Axial/flow fan
Silvan-Axial 20-55 40-6000 m /hour 45 m/second
Flow fan
Silvan-Varipitch 30-80 50-70000 m /hour 50 m/second
Orchard Trailer
Axial flow fan
Other Equipment
Observations have shown that the back pack mister fitted with a Micronair attachment is capable of very good
coverage of the macadamia with much less water than the conventional misters, (Addison 1991. pers com.).
Experience in Australia with Controlled Droplet Application (CDA) - e.g. Micronair, Turbair indicates that there is a
very high capital outlay, maintenance requirements are high and skilled operators are needed. Satisfactory control
can be achieved against some pests but not others. .
Electrostatics - Further investigation is needed to define the advantages and disadvantages of electrostatics.
Equipment that has been observed has very high air performance characteristics and good pesticide coverage can be
achieved without the electrostatic attachment.
Aerial - A large trial in California compared fixed wing, small and large helicopter and airblast ground rigs for spray
coverage of walnuts. Best spray coverage for disease control was achieved with the ground sprayers applying about
2,300 litres per hectare (Dibble et. al. 1984). Further testing of aircraft application may indicate advantages
for specific targets and situations where ground applications are impracticable.
7.09 Biological Control Agents

The work of Ironside and Fero (as well as others) has emphasised the importance of natural biocontrol agents in
controlling major pests. The levels of parasitism is often very high, giving effective control without the use of
pesticides. This is particularly true of borers. It seems possible that similar results could be achieved with bugs if
sufficient time and effort was put towards such a cause. This is a complex subject, involving appropriate field
practices (e.g. using chemicals which are least toxic to the biocontrol agents), considerable laboratory and field work
on basic biology, life cycles, and rearing and releasing when necessary of the desired agents. Given the natural
occurrence of existing biocontrol agents, Malawi has a considerable advantage over for example Australia and
should aim to make use of this advantage. Co -operation with South Africa especially for the large bugs could bring
considerable benefits.
There is need to direct resources and effort into the biological area, to supplement the IPM programme and reduce
dependence on chemical control measures. Bug and borer account for most of the chemical usage as well as the
damage so these pests are the obvious target. It is most important that managers are aware of the existing biocontrol
agents which must be encouraged by using appropriate field practices. Some measures (e.g. the level of parasitism
on borer eggs) is built in to the IPM programme and this approach could be extended as more information becomes
available.
7.10 Scouting and Training

Effective scouting is the basis for decision making in an IPM programme. It is essential that scouts have a good
understanding of what is required of them and of the task in hand. Some people have an aptitude for this type of
work - it is skilled and takes time to build confidence and competence. Regular checks on scouts are useful to check
the accuracy of monitoring results. Training programmes have been conducted to help get the IPM programme
established and much in field training has taken place as part of the entomology work of Ironside and Fero.
Once trained and experienced, scouts are a valuable asset, so treat them accordingly. They can save large sums of
money in chemicals and crop. The following is a list of requirements and qualities for scouts:-
Macadamia Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Qualifications of the Scout

. Education - preferably standard 8
. Must have keen eyesight
. Able to receive and obey instructions
. Honest and dependable
. Aptitude for the task
. Interest in pest monitoring
. Sense of responsibility
. Must be a trained observer
. Must be motivated and given incentive
. Must be able to count and score accurately
Monitoring Equipment and Materials

. Field table - portable with 3 legs
. Pocket knife or small cutting knife
. Hand magnifying lens
. Pinboard or clipboard
. Monitoring charts - for flowers
- for nuts
. Ball point pen
Other
. Monitoring time table - weekly routine
. Summary forms
. Monitoring report forms (optional)
. Graph or computer summary (optional).
7.11 References
1. Addison S. (1991 pers com) at grower field day Thyolo, Feb 1991. Macadamia Manager, KECL, Mzenga, Malawi.
2. Harris, M.K. (1983) Integrated Pest Management of Pecans. Annual Review of Entomology 28: 291-318.
3. Ironside, D.A. and Fero, W.K. (1990) Monitoring Guide Lines. BARS P.O. Box 5748, Limbe, Malawi.
4. Ironside, D.A. and Fero, W.K. (1990) Action Levels. BARS P.O. 5748, Limbe, Malawi.
5. La Croix, E.A.S. and Fero, W.K. (1984) Macadamia Pests in Malawi. Part 1, A survey of the Insects Associated
with the Crop. J. Sci. Tech. Malawi. 5 (1), 1-11.
6. La Croix, E.A.S. and Thindwa, H.Z. (1986) Macadamia Pests in Malawi. Part 2, The Major Pests. The Biology of
Bugs and Borers. Tropical Pest Management; 32 (1) 11-20.
7. Mitchell, W.C. (1983) Sub-Regional Training Course on methods of controlling diseases, insects and other pests
of plants in the south pacific. Course proceedings. 381, Government Experimentation Farm, Vaini, Tonga.
NB. Some references cited in text were not available in full at the time of writing but should be available from Mr D
Ironside or staff of Tree Nut Entomology, BARS PO Box 5748, Limbe, Malawi.
8. YIELDS AND QUALITY
Overall yield on a nut in shell basis is only part of the equation which determines returns to a macadamia producer as
a number of quality aspects must als o be considered. The end product is saleable kernel and this is the commodity a
grower gets paid for. However, quality extends beyond that into shelf life and eating quality for consumers.
Ultimately it is the consumer who funds the purchase of saleable kernel. In Malawi yield and kernel recovery and nut
quality of nuts delivered to the factory is the basis for returns. There are many factors which affect the yield and
quality.
8.01 Yields
Yields in Malawi have been very variable. Newton (1990 pers com) has recorded yields of around 5 tons nut in shell
(NIS) at 10% moisture content. Others have indicated much lower levels. Hancock (1990) found a wide variation in
actual tree performance from virtually nil to 1.2 kilograms of NIS per metre square of ground area covered. One estate
achieved a higher level of yield and uniformity across trees than all others sites assessed. Trochoulias (1988)
indicated that a yield of 0.8 kg/m2 was reasonable for 246 at the Dunoon site in northern N.S.W., Australia. Only a
few trees in Malawi reached this level. However the high yielding trees indicate that better performance is possible.
The need is to find the factors which lead to higher performance and uniformity of performance.
The basic determinants of yield are genotype, environment and management. Genotype determines the potential for
maximum yield and responses to stimuli such as environment and management. The environment consists primarily
of climate, soils and water. These affect the expression of the genetic characters and interact to produce an end
result. Management aims at influencing various aspects of the environment to produce the desired expression of the
genotype i.e. some desirable products.
Yield then becomes a function of the overall production system used. Since managements ability to influence
genotype and environment is limited, yields vary in a gross sense in relation to interactions of the these which occur
naturally. Hence 'season' is generally attributed as being the greatest influence year to year, with clones varying
between each other.
In an earlier section, the influences of climate and physiology were discussed. The role of management is then in
manipulation of whatever factors are easily influenced. In Malawi, these are primarily nutrition, tree balance ( i.e.
vegetative/floral balance and tree size/yield) and protection of the desired product (i.e. the fruiting parts of the tree
from flowers through to nuts). Nutrition and tree manipulation can have a large influence from initiation to final yield.
The production and allocation of carbohydrates is important as discussed earlier. There are many aspects of
nutrition, carbohydrate allocation, tree balance and manipulation which are not understood for conditions in Malawi.
The protection of fruiting parts to maturity is of prime importance to ensure the potential is realized. The tree has
considerable ability to compensate for losses up to the shell hardening stage so that final crop is not affected to any
significant extent. Also, there has to be sufficient crop to warrant costs involved with protection.
Recent studies by Ironside (1990 pers com) have indicated the limited cost effectiveness of trying to protect a small
crop for borer control during the nut hardening stage of development. He felt that yields were not significantly
affected by borer, especially where the borer parasite was active. Hancock (1990) found many trees which fitted the
category of not having enough yield to justify the cost of protection.
In looking at the production systems employed in Malawi for macadamia, Hancock (1990) felt they were fairly
simplistic and managers lacked the time and information to really understand many of the intricacies involved. For
Malawi, many of the relationships have not been studied, and therefore are not understood. Research effort must be
directed towards giving a greater understanding of the influences that management practices have on yield.
Management practices can then be refined in relation to the production system used to enhance yield. Research of
this type is complex and involves monitoring nutrition, carbohydrate production and allocation, phenology and
final yield and quality.
However, the above approach will basically get more from the existing production system. This is important because
macadamia is a long lived perennial tree and improving yield from existing plantings is of great economic value. There
is a limit to exploiting existing potential- the major constraints of genetics and environment that managers have little
influence upon. This requires a different approach in research and could lead to major changes in the production
systems used. Breaking constraints is generally more difficult than exploiting existing potential which presents a
challenge to research and managers alike. The first process is often to select clones which do well under the
prevailing management practices or where management input is minimal. It usually takes many years to select clones
but is not necessarily complex. The second stage is to study the eco- physiology of the crop (i.e. the study of
environmental /ecological influences on physiology). In its simplistic form, this is the phenology (phenotypic
expression of genotypes in the environment) which is a useful management tool but does not really address the
physiology behind the phenology. Much more complex work is needed to address the latter. However, it is very
important that such work be conducted with the realities of the production system being used in mind. An example of
this would be studying water relations in depth when most estates have little capacity to influence water relations
with irrigation- what is the practical value of such work?
In summary, yields in Malawi are very variable but good yields can be attained with attention to detail in
management. Many of the limiting factors are not known or understood but on most estates, there is considerable
room for exploiting existing potential before major constraints such as genetic limitations are reached. Basic eco-
physiological studies such as phenology, carbohydrate production and allocation and nutrient levels related to yield
and quality would provide the basis for manipulation of the existing production system in terms of gross yields.
Similarly, advances in pest and disease management strategies will ensure the maintenance of crop to maturity.
Genetic limitations are only overcome by selecting clones in the local environment under existing production
systems. This can also influence broader areas such as tree size/planting densities which can lead to major changes
in the production systems. In order to compete with other producing countries, Malawi will have to get the best from
existing plantings and aim to break constraints in the longer term.
8.02 Nut Quality

The measurement of nut quality involves objective and subjective criteria, such as oil content, colour, general
appearance, size of kernel, wholeness of kernel and general eating quality. These are all measured at the end of the
grower's direct involvement - in the processin g plant. However, the nut in shell quality is determined before this. The
same basic factors of genotype, environment and management, influence quality as they do yield.
Quality could be described as another determinant of yield since to produce poor quality kernels reduces final
saleable kernels (the primary product). However, quality is more subtle than yield per se because it involves
subjective assessments by people of parameters such as 'taste' or 'eating quality' which are difficult to define. There
can be many influences upon aspects of quality from the growing side but it is often very difficult to pinpoint these
to the specific factors on the growing side. Since macadamia clones used in Malawi were selected to be of acceptable
quality (although ones like 246 are questionable), the environment and management have the main influence on
quality. Studies on nut quality at the factory have shown serious quality problems (Hancock et al 1989/1990).
Examples are:- low percentages of high oil content kernels; unexplained physiological disorders; insect and fungal
damage. Some of these quality defects occur before harvest, some after harvest. It is the preharvest problems that are
the primary concern of this section. (post harvest will be considered in section 9). Quality from the growers point of
view is at it's maximum at harvest (either from the ground or from the tree). The kernel does not get better once
removed from the tree.
There are some unexplainable quality problems especially "physiological disorders" occurring across the range of
estates and management practices which makes isolating any particular factor difficult. Kernel malformations and
discolouration are visible at harvest which may also be associated with shell disorders. In general terms, these would
be associated with nutrient problems (especially micronutrient deficiency) or environmental extremes such as
excessive temperatures.
As mentioned earlier, evidence of micronutrient disorders is emerging from leaf analysis results. These include boron,
zinc, copper and possibly sulphur. Further clarification is needed before any definitive statements can be made but
any deficiencies or toxicities should be corrected. Environmental influences are more difficult to pinpoint, and can
interact with the above such as low nutrient uptake during dry weather at a critical stage in nut development. High
extreme temperatures reduce the rate of photosynthesis which may limit nut development and oil accumulation or at
high temperatures could cause premature shell hardening of an underdeveloped shell, hence distortion could occur.
There is insufficient information about disorders at present.
The main objective criteria of quality is oil content and the different grades are based on this. Grade 1 is deemed as
the best eating and storing nut and has an oil content of over 72% or a specific gravity (S.G) of <1.0 which means the
kernels will float in fresh clean water. Grade 2 has a S.G. of 1.0 to 1.025 and is suitable for lower grade products.
Grade 3 has a S.G. of >1.025 and is considered to be commercially unacceptable (Mason and Wills 1983) Van Blarcom
and Mason (1984) also found the best organoleptic qualities corresponded to higher oil contents (i.e. the best eating
quality).
Malawi has not been producing enough Grade 1 kernel. Overall tree performance is implicated since oil accumulation
is a factor of carbohydrate available for conversion to oil, either from storage or direct production. Tree balance is
therefore important. Stephenson (1986) found high nitrogen levels to be detrimental for a high Grade 1 percentage
and low boron also reducing Grade 1 percentages. Hancock (1990) at a Growers Seminar felt that both nutrient
excesses and disorders could be affecting tree performance and resultant nut yield as well as quality. These would
also have an effect on the eating and storage quality of nuts. Insufficient is known about the causes of low Grade 1
percentages.
Another aspect of quality causing concern is insect damaged nuts. The causes are bugs which pierce the shell and
feed on the kernel. Ironside has confirmed the existence of bugs which are capable of piercing hardened shells,
meaning that no nut is safe until harvested. This is a major cause of kernel loss from disfigured and contaminated
kernel. Since the cause of this is known, it is easier to improve the situation. It is a pest control problem which the
managers must deal with.
In summary, Malawi has quality problems stemming from inherent quality related to such factors as nutrition,
environment and clonal adaptation plus induced quality problems from insect damage (further quality problems from
post harvest treatment will be covered in section 9.0). Not enough is known about the inherent problems and these
should receive research attention. It is only with more information these will be overcome. The type of research
outlined for yield will give indications for quality as well because they are closely related.
8.03 Kernel Recovery

Some confusion exists as to what kernel recovery actually is because it may carry a number pre-fixes such as `sound'
or `total' or `saleable'. Kernel recovery refers to the amount of kernel actually recovered from nut in shell after
cracking. There is a maximum for a clone which assumes all kernel will be recovered in `perfect' condition. This
relationship is represented mathematically by the equation x = a/y x 100 where x = quantity of nut in shell; a = kernel
recovery in kilograms; y = % kernel recovery (Hancock 1990). The line thus formed is the maximum amount of kernel
attainable at any given point.
The basic determinants of maximum kernel recovery are largely genetic and consist of nut size, thickness of shell and
size and weight of kernel and shell. Larger nuts of a given shell thickness will have more kernel than a small nut of
the same shell thickness. Clones vary in maximum kernel recoveries. The older type of clones in Malawi have lower
kernel recoveries than the newer clones used elsewhere. Generally, maximum kernel recoveries should not vary from
site to site but in practice, kernel recoveries vary considerably for clones due to local factors. It should be noted that
maximum or close to maximum kernel recoveries are not impossible for any given clone. The clone 660 produced more
kernel on less yield in many cases in the tree size/yield relationship. This was because its potential or maximum kernel
recovery was high compared to other clones.
The term `total kernel recovery' (TKR) generally means all of the kernel recovered usually at 1.5% moisture content
(including useable and clearly unusable kernel) from a given sample and is usually expressed as a percentage as
follows:
TKR% = Total Kernel wt(1.5%m.c.) x 100/ Total wt NIS
This figure represents the maximum kernel recovery for that clone at that site under the prevailing conditions. The
term `sound kernel recovery' (SKR), is used by Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station staff to refer to sound kernel
(i.e. free of blemish or damage) of Grade 1 standard over the total nut in shell wt. Hence :
SKR% = Grade 1 Clean, Sound Kernel x 100/ Total wt NIS
This figure is often substantially less than TKR because the reject kernels are removed (the rejects include all kernels
of oil content less than the Grade 1 standard of 72%, and any kernel with damage, discolouration, blemishes etc.
which make it unusable). However, in Malawi at present, Grade 2 kernel is included as part `saleable' kernel and
`saleable kernel recovery' (SaKR) is different from sound kernel recovery at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station.
Hence:
SaKR = Grade 1 and 2 Clean Sound Kernel x 100/ Total wt NIS
The issue can be further confused by what is termed `sound kernel' or `good kernel' which is given to mean kernel of
any grade which is free from blemish, damage or features making if unsaleable. This figure is useful in delineating the
percentage of grades of each category obtained. Hence sound kernel/good kernel is not a measure of either SKR or
SaKR.
The following summaries the breakdown:-

Maximum Kernel Recovery (MKR) is the potential obtainable and is usually over 30% to as high as 50%.
Total Kernel Recovery (TKR) is the kernel actually obtained whether useable or not.
Sound kernel is good kernel free from blemish or damage but not graded.
Sound Kernel Recovery is Grade 1, sound kernel only. Saleable Kernel Recovery is sound kernel of Grade 1 and 2 in
Malawi.
(MKR) (TKR) (SKR)

CLONE INSECT GRADE 1 =(SKR)
ENVIRONMENT POSTHARVEST (SK) MANAGEMENT PHYSIOLOGICAL OR INFLUENCES
LOSSES (GRADE 1 & 2 SaKR)
From the factors, payment is

(SaKR) - FACTORY = RETURNS
LOSSES
AND COSTS
The sound saleable kernel figure is subject to factory losses as a result of processing (thought to be around 10%
Emmott 1990 pers com.) which reduces the actual quantity of kernel for sale. As can be seen, Macadamia is not a
bulky crop. It is at the very end of the production line as far as plant products are concerned. It is subject to losses
at all steps through the production system and is not a simple crop. At present, the best yielding estates are
averaging about 25% SaKR which is about 1000 kg per hectare of kernel. Most estates get less than this. However, it
is possible to increase kernel recoveries by improvements in most stages of the production system.
8.04 Factors Affecting Yield and Nut Quality

As mentioned above, there are many factors which can affect yields and quality. This is a mix of environment,
genetics and management. Because there are many stages in the production system there are plenty of occasions
that losses can occur. The yield and quality loss factors were presented at the post harvest field day, February 1991.
More attention to detail at all stages of the production system is needed to minimize losses. A comprehensive
research effort is needed to clarify tree performance and current limitations on current performance, based on
phenology, carbohydrate production and utilization, nutrition and stress levels related to yield and quality for each
clone. In the longer term, constraint breaking research such as improved genetic adaptation is needed. Macadamia
requires a high level of management input for results.
8.04 References
1. Emmott, S (1990 pers com) Speaking at meeting between NTE and growers, NTE, P.O. Box 2, Thyolo, Malawi.
2. Hancock, W.M. (1990) Tree Size/Yield Relationships for Macadamia in Malawi. Presented to Tree Nut Authority,
Limbe, Malawi.
3. Hancock, W.M. (1990) Towards a Farming Systems Approach to Treenut Research in Malawi. Presented to the
Technical Liaison Committee of the Tree Nut Growers Association.
4. Hancock, W.M. (1990). Presentation to Treenut Growers Association Seminar Thyolo Club, Thyolo, Malawi.
5. Hancock, W.M.; Banda, W.R.G. and Ching'ani, J.W. (1990). Preliminary Investigation of Nut Quality Problem in
Nuts Delivered to NTE Processing Facility 1988/89 Season. Growers Seminar.
6. Hancock, W.M., Banda, W.R.G. and Mpasa, A.E. (1990). Investigation of Nut Quality Problem in Nuts Delivered
to the Naming'omba Processing facility 1989/90 Season. TNA and TNGA Research Reports.
8. Ironside, D.A. (1990 pers com) Macadamia Entomologist Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Box
5748, Limbe, Malawi.
9. Mason, R.L. and Wills, R.B.H. (1983). Evaluation of the Use of Specific Gravity as an Objective Index of the
Quality of Australia Macadamia Nuts. Food Technology Australia 35(5): 245-248.
10. Newton, E.D. (1990 pers com). Macadamia Manager NTE, P.O. Box 2, Thyolo, Malawi.
11. Stephenson (1986) Macadamia Nutrition - Part V Factors influencing yield. Fact Sheet No 17 Australian
Macadamia Society.
12. Trochoulias, T. (1988). Discussion on Irrigation Papers. Proceedings: Second Australia Macadamia Research
Workshop Bangalow N.S.W., Australia.
13. Van Blarcom, A, and Mason (1984). Proceedings: First Australian Macadamia Research Workshop, QLD,
Australia.
9. HARVESTING, HANDLING AND STORAGE
The aim of harvesting, handling and storage is to preserve the inherent preharvest quality of the nut. The nut does
not get any better as such but we can maintain the existing quality. Despite the hard shell, the kernel is easily
damaged or affected by incorrect procedures. On the other hand, the nut has a long storage life if properly treated.
The nut must be seen as a living organism at harvest. Although some nuts fall in an immature state the majority are
mature. Hence the nut will germinate once given the right conditions and the kernel is capable of rapid physiological
and biochemical changes in order to facilitate the germination process (e.g. high moisture content, rapid mobilization
of stored energy as sugars, rapid respiration rates and growth of the embryo). A major objective of post harvest
handling is to stabilize the kernel and hold the kernel in a state where minimal internal change can take place. This
also ensures that germination will not take place.
The two factors to control germination are moisture content and temperature. Controlling these is also the most
important part of post harvest handling from a physiological/biochemical view point. The aim is to gradually reduce
the moisture content to a point where internal changes will not take place using temperature regimes which will not
stimulate biochemical changes or physical damage to the shell and kernel. A relatively stable state is then reached.
There are other factors involved, such as care in handling the nuts. Both the shell and the kernel are subject to
physical damage such as cracking of shells, bruising of shell and kernel, discolouration of kernel, chipping and
cracking of the kernel. Secondary damage can result from these such as insect, water and fungal contamination,
rancidity, discolouration of the kernels.
Many of these are not obvious until processing is underway. Malawi has experienced poor post harvest management
in the past.
9.01 Assessment of Maturity

Macadamia clones vary considerably in time of maturity between clones, sites. Some confusion exists with maturity
because an objective measurement is needed to assess maturity which may or may not correspond to a
physiologically mature state as determined by the plant. For example, a physiologically mature lettuce is one which
has produced seed but mature lettuce at harvest is one in the heart stage. With macadamia, a physiologically mature
nut is one capable of germination. However, quality standards dictate that at maturity, the kernel should have an oil
content of over 72% or specific gravity of <1.0. Not all nuts usually reach this although clones are selected on their
ability to produce a high % of Grade 1 kernel.
Immature nuts are commonly those falling early in the season which often shrivel during drying and may have off
flavours. Nuts which fail to meet Grade 1 standard later are simply poor quality and not necessarily immature. High oil
content and physiological maturity correspond well in macadamia and oil content is the basis for objective
assessment of maturity (Mason 1983). Hancock and Banda (1990 unpublished data) found that peak maturity (by oil
content) was reached from around February/March onwards in Malawi. Earlier deliveries had a high proportion of
nuts with low oil content. However, Mason (1980) felt that organoleptic qualities (roughly defined as eating quality)
maximised about 6 weeks after peak maturity under Australian conditions. The above two points are important in
harvesting and management decision to be covered later.
It is relatively easy to test maturity by oil content using a flotation test and this information can be useful. Other
measures are usually based on visual assessment such as the colour of the inside of the husk changing to brown
(Ironside 1989 pers com). This type of assessment can be very variable but can also be useful in giving a feel for what
is happening.
To test oil content, the following procedure can be used:-

Collect the sample to be tested and remove husks. Dry the nuts until the kernels have reached 1.5% moisture
content. For the purpose of this test a household oven can be used to dry nuts at 90 degrees Celsius for about 24
hours but the kernels will no longer be suitable for further processing, although specific gravity is not affected. Crack
the nuts and then weigh the kernels. Place in fresh clean water and collect the nuts which float (commonly called
floaters), surface dry and weigh. The weight of floaters over the weight of all the kernel times 100 is the percentage of
Grade 1 kernels. Hence a relative measure of maturity is calculated.
(Wt Floaters) x 100 = Grade 1 % (Wt Total kernel)
This information gives the grower and the researcher an idea of how an orchard is performing. It provides a guide to
tree harvesting and gives an indication of quality of deliveries to the factory especially early deliveries or nuts from
areas in an orchard where problems are suspected. It can help in making decisions such as when to apply nitrogen. It
should be noted that Baigent (1984) found wide variation in nut maturation times and quality between clones, sites
and seasons.
9.02 Preharvest Clean-up
It is important to minimise poor quality nuts in early deliveries. Many nuts that fall early are immature or of poor
quality and may also be borer damaged or left from the previous season. A clean up of the orchard prior to the main
nut drop period is advised. Some growers may also wish to remove excess mulch to facilitate easier harvesting (only
remove that which is an obvious problem, do not scrape the surface bare.
Since many of these nuts are likely to be of doubtful quality, it is worthwhile to thoroughly sort nuts prior to drying
and delivery. With an early clean up, it may be easier to discard these. It is possible to use a float/sink test after
dehusking to help sort nuts from early harvests. Such a system has become common in some areas of Australia
where adverse weather conditions and long nut drop periods make sorting worthwhile. Whitehouse (1990 pers comm)
is currently using this approach in Malawi with success with nuts at about 10% moisture content. The method is
relatively simple but not 100% accurate. Dehusked nuts of moisture content 10% or higher are placed in a shallow
tank of fresh water. Those which float are separated from those which sink and nuts are dried again to remove excess
water. Sinkers are usually sound and can be placed in the drying area.
Floaters may or may not be sound (usually due to immaturity or insect attack or rancidity) but some may simply be
sound kernel which is dry and therefore floats. Some sinkers may also be unusable. Simpson (1990) recommends
testing floaters and sinkers to check the efficiency of the system. Visual sorting of sinkers will still be necessary to
remove germinating or damaged nuts.
Observations made in Australia indicate the value of this system for the preharvest clean up or early harvest period.
For the main harvest, it should not be necessary unless a specific problem occurs. Care needs to be taken to ensure
proper drying after the test as moisture will be added which will have to be removed quickly.
9.03 Ground Harvesting

Ground harvesting involves collecting fallen nuts from under the tree. This is the usual method used in Malawi and
elsewhere as in most clones the nuts in the husk or alone fall naturally. 'Stick tights' is the term used for nuts which
are held on the tree in the husk. The problem tends to be related to variety (eg H2 and Own Choice in Australia) and
ethephon sprays have been used to induce nut drop (Gallagher and Stephenson 1985) although the results can be
variable using 200 mg/litre of Ethephon with a wetting agent. Ground harvesting is usually done by hand in Malawi
using a contract system and hand collection is often practiced in Australia and Hawaii. This system has considerable
advantages in Malawi because frequent harvest rounds are possible. Weekly harvesting is not uncommon.
The harvest season corresponds to the wet season and it is important to harvest regularly to reduce the chance of
spoilage on the ground (such as germination). Simpson (1990) and Mason (1983) give the maximum harvest
frequency of once every four weeks with less being desirable in Australia.
One factor which is important in Malawi is theft of nuts from the tree or from the ground. People and squirrels, with
monkeys and pigs to a lesser extent, are the main culprits. Increasing harvesting frequency may reduce losses from
theft. The control of macro-pests and people present special problems. For macro-pests such as squirrels, habitat is
important, for people, policing of some sort is required.
Mechanical harvesting is common world wide on large orchards. It has advantages and disadvantages but is not
likely to be used in Malawi because of the labour situation. Spooner (1988) gives a good account of harvesting
methods including tree shakers and mechanical harvesting versus hand harvesting and also bulk handling of nuts.
More recent developments in harvesting technology may have application. For example, small tractor mounted
machines with fingers which do not move the mulch and causes little soil compaction could be of use in newer
plantings where mechanization is possible.
9.04 Tree Harvesting

This technique is not common but it has uses provided some precautions are taken. Tree harvesting involves the
removal of all the nuts from the tree at one time. It assumes that the nuts will have reached maturity and be of
satisfactory quality.
A mechanical device such as a tree shaker can be used in conjunction with ground nets or sheets. Early work in tree
harvesting was conducted in Hawaii where the mechanics and implications for nut quality were investigated. More
recent quality work has been conducted by Baigent (1984) and Mason (1983). No deleterious effects of tree
harvesting were found on nut quality or eating quality provided quality assessment had indicated that nut in husk on
the tree was mature. Timing is very important and clones and sites will vary considerably. Early nut drop is not a
good indicator as many of the nuts may or may not be mature. Using the assessment procedures outlined earlier (with
the samples taken from the tree) will provide a guide to possible tree harvesting time. Once the level of Grade 1 has
reached a reasonable level and stabilized at that, tree harvesting is viable.
Tree harvesting in Malawi is conducted on a limited bas is by hand using sticks with hooks. Hancock (1990) has
observed considerable damage to trees during this process and care needs to be taken to avoid damage. Tree height
is a problem which makes hand harvesting difficult. However, tree harvesting could have a number of benefits in
Malawi including:
1. Timeliness of operation and making best use of facilities. Macadamia can be in competition with tea and coffee for
drying and storage facilities and labour, so reducing competition by having more control over the harvest period
and intensity would be an advantage.
2. Reducing losses through bugs and theft. The Bathycoelia spp, bugs which can pierce hard shell to feed on kernel
are the major nut pests after shell hardening. The tree is beyond the compensating stage so any loss is of
economic importance. Tree harvesting could reduce these losses and the cost of spraying to control the pest.
Similarly, tree harvesting would eliminate further loss of nuts through theft. Estimates of losses from theft vary
but have been put as high as 20-30% by Emmott (1989 pers com). Losses from bug have been higher than 50% in
studies by Ironside (1990 pers com). Tree harvesting should receive some attention by management as a way of
improving efficiency and increasing returns.
9.05 Dehusking
Dehusking technology is a major concern in Malawi. Methods used range from a person with two stones to recently
imported Australian machines. The aim of dehusking is to remove the husk without damaging the shell or kernel.
Hancock has observed considerable shell damage as a result of dehusking which reduces kernel quality later.
Cracking and bruising of the shell and bruising of the kernel lead to entry of pathogens and contaminants, rancidity,
discolouration of kernel and general loss of kernel quality.
Dehusking should be as gentle as possible. It should remove the husk with minimum pressure and should not result
in cracked or bruised shells, (drying will accentuate the problems). Properly adjusted machines should return less
than 5% of throughput for a second run. Simpson (1990) indicates that excess pressure results in brown rings on the
kernel after roasting. Less than 1% cracking is acceptable. Whitehouse (1990 pers com) has found problems with
imported dehuskers in terms of stated performances. Observations indicated that the very 'wet' nature of husks in
Malawi seemed to be a problem. Since nuts are harvested at short intervals, the husk still fully encloses the nut in
most cases and is thick and juicy. By comparison, Australian husks tend to be open and
much dryer.
This presented a problem because it is generally agreed that nuts must be dehusked within 24 hours of harvest. This
is to prevent the build up of heat from respiration which would cause enzymic activity in the ke rnel and reduce
quality. Nuts in their husks must not be left in a heap for that reason - they must be spread thinly and turned
regularly to minimise heat buildup. Whitehouse has tried drying nuts in husk on tea troughs with ambient air (a thin
layer of nuts in husk is used and ambient air passed through the profile) and nuts turned regularly. This reduces the
husk moisture content and facilitates easier dehusking. The technique would also help stabilise the shell.
Whitehouse indicated that the approach worked well. Provided the nut in husk did not overheat there should be no
loss in quality. Addison (1990 pers com) has also imported a dehusking machine and it will be useful to make some
comparison in performance under local conditions.
Dehusking capacity needs to be sufficient to keep pace with harvesting. Co-ordination of dehusking and harvesting,
drying and delivery is important to ensure a smooth flow of nuts through the system. Dehusking is currently a
bottleneck on many estates. Some size grading may be an advantage in improving efficiency. Regular checking of
dehusked nuts and dehusking equipment is necessary to ensure correct adjustment, maximise efficiency and minimise
damage.
9.06 Drying and Storage

The drying and storage of macadamia are extremely important in maintaining kernel quality. As crop volume
increases, so does the complexity of drying and storage. Similarly the length of time in storage increases complexity
and greater attention to detail is required.
Nuts after dehusking can have a moisture content as high as 20%. These will continue to respire quickly and proceed
to germinate if conditions are right. The kernel fills the shell and is a milky white soft mass. The whole nut must be
stabilized and then dried until enzymic activity (which leads to chemical changes) is virtually eliminated. The kernel is
sensitive to temperature as well as moisture and strict control of the temperature regime is required.
Malawi has had a further problem and this has been the interaction of wet shell (often damaged during dehusking)
and dry air (usually forced warm or ambient air) leading to cracking of shells. This has been evident at some Thyolo
estates (Stewart and Gomani 1989, 1990 pers com) and has led to problems at the factory. The cause is probably the
high moisture content of the shells which makes them susceptible to cracking, especially after dehusking, when
forced air reduces the moisture content rapidly. To overcome this problem, Hancock and Banda have proposed that
freshly dehusked nuts should be left on drying troughs (such as tea bays) in a thin layer (no more than 150 mm deep)
and turned regularly for at least three days before air is applied. Use ambient air at least for the first few days
following this period. This practice seemed to have the effect of stabilizing the shell and reduced cracking. Nuts must
not be sun dried as this can also cause kernel deterioration.
The drying of macadamia was studied as far back as 1939, Moltzau and Ripperton. The use of artificial drying
equipment was investigated to produce a uniform product and improve timeliness of operations. They found that
artificial drying produced excellent quality kernels starting from low temperatures and proceeding to high
temperatures later in the drying processes. Air drying may be sufficient for small quantities of nuts or where the nuts
do not have to be held for long periods before delivery to the factory. Mason (1983) states that air drying in racks in
a well ventilated position out of direct sunlight will reduce nuts to around 10% moisture content with regular raking.
However it may take up to 6 weeks depending on the weather conditions. Simpson (1990) indicates this approach will
lead to an equilibrium moisture content varying from 7% to 13% moisture content depending on the prevailing
humidity. However, the nut in shell at this moisture content will not keep for long and should be delivered to the
factory within one month.
Artificial drying and storage is required on large estates in Malawi in order to meet delivery schedules to the factory
whilst keeping pace with harvesting. Tea troughs, coffee bins and grain type silos are being used. Tea troughs are
useful for stabilization and initial drying but are not sufficient for longer term storage. Whitehouse has used coffee
bins successfully and the current factory uses converted coffee driers. Estates lack more sophisticated control
equipment. Hence air flows and temperature regimes may be difficult to monitor. Mason gives the following
temperature cycle for macadamia drying:-
5 to 7 days at 32 degrees Celsius
Finish at 50 degrees Celsius
The overall drying time will depend on :-

(a) The initial moisture content of the nuts
(b) The relative humidity of the inlet air
(c) The final moisture content required.
Simpson (1990) gives a summary of artificial drying using modified peanut dryers (similar to grain dryers) where depth
of nuts to be dried, air flow and temperature are all important. Some of this information could be applied in traditional
coffee bins in Malawi. It seems unlikely that estates will embark on large scale use of this type of dryer when cheaper
alternatives exist. Liang et al (1989) designed and tested a 'nut curing system' aimed at improved drying and a more
controlled process to reduce kernel loss through chipping during cracking. This requires special equipment and a
level of control not readily achievable in Malawi at this stage.
Longer term storage of nuts requires that they be stored as close as possible to 1.5% moisture content. Mason
states that nuts at 1 to 1.5% moisture content can be stored in sealed airtight containers in cool places for many
months with minimal deterioration. In practice, this is difficult to achieve on a large scale. it is more likely that longer
term on farm storage will involve the first few steps outlined above but the higher temperature drying may not take
place. A much slower, lower temperature regime would be employed provided the humidity of incoming air is kept
within limits. Alternatively, a bin may be progressively dried down and then closed off to prevent re-hydration. Dry
nuts may be held in hessian bags for a few weeks in a cool dry place, bulk storage is probably easier and safer for
large quantities. Controlling macro-pests such as rats is important in stored nuts (or large insect populations) which
introduce moisture and contamination to the nuts. Similarly, some nuts may break down internally (usually becoming
'oily' on the surface and having a rancid odour) which can affect nuts in close proximity. Deliver nut to the factory as
soon as possible.
9.07 Maintenance of Quality and General Handling

Maintenance of quality requires attention to detail throughout the production system but especially from harvesting
onwards. This includes grading to remove nuts less than 18 mm (which are not accepted by the factory) and sorting
for obvious damage or discoloured nuts. It goes further to ensure the correct steps in stabilizing and drying are
undertaken, that dehusking and handling are gentle and that the nuts actually delivered are in the best condition
possible for processing.
Grading and sorting are important. Small nuts will not be accepted by the factory so should be removed prior to
delivery. A metal screen or grid is effective in removing small nuts. It should be done after dehusking (as there is little
point in expending energy drying these) or immediately prior to delivery. Sorting is much the same although a final
sort prior to delivery is essential. Remove any nuts which are suspect for whatever reason.
Handling of nuts has received some attention recently and is a topic of discussion in Malawi. Cavaletto et al (1990)
found that all cultivars of macadamia in the nut in shell form are subject to bruising by impact. Moisture content is
important with most bruising occurring in the 7 to 17% moisture content range and less outside of this range.
Bruising results in brown areas in the kernel after roasting. This emp hasises the need to be gentle in all facets of
handling despite the apparent hard shell. Bruising downgrades the kernel. The care needed extends to transport
where the nuts are also susceptible to impact, over heating and wetting.

The post harvest problems experienced by Malawi can be largely overcome with a small amount of investment,
sufficient information and attention to detail on the part of workers and management. The following is a summary of
the steps:-
a. Preharvest clean -up to ensure the removal of early nut drop and left overs from last season.
b. Regular harvesting rounds.
c. Gentle dehusking to prevent bruising and cracking.
d. Float sorting of early harvests.
e. Stabilizing shells and kernels, followed by the correct drying regime, avoiding high temperatures.
f. Adequate grading to remove small nuts and sorting to remove obviously poor quality or damaged nuts.
g. Gentle handling at all stages to prevent kernel bruising from impacts, and this includes transport to factory.
h. Forward planning to cope with crop volume so that harvest can flow efficiently and so facilities such as
dehusking, drying and storage capacities are effectively used. Forward planning is important to cope with
the increases in crop. Facilities need to be in place before the harvest begins, not during or after. High
quality nuts should enter the factory to ensure efficient operation at low cost.
9.08 References
1. Addison, S (1990 pers com) Macadamia Manager Kawalazi Estates Pty Ltd, Mzuzu Malawi.
2. Baigent D.R. (1984) Macadamia Nut Maturation and Quality. Session 11, Paper 2, proceedings: First Australian
Macadamia Research Workshop QLD, Australia.
3. Cavaletto C.G., Kunimoto S.L and Nagai N J (1990 in Summary form) The effect of Kernel Moisture Content on
Macadamia Nut bruising. Presented to International Horticultural Congress Rome, Italy (In Australian
Macadamia Society newsletter November, 1990).
4. Emmott D. (1990 pers com) Operations Manager, Naming'omba Tea Estates, PO Box 2, Thyolo.
5. Gallagher E.C. and Stephenson R.A. (1985) The use of Ethephon to Promote Uniform Harvest Drop of Mature
Macadamia Nut in S.E. Queensland. QLD Journal as Agriculture 1985. QLD Australia.
6. Gomani M (1989, 1990 pers com) Mindali Estate Manager, Thyolo, Malawi.
7. Hancock W.M. (1989 pers com) Tree Nut Agronomist, Bvumbwe Research Station, PO Box 5748, Limbe, Malawi.
8. Hancock W.M. and Banda W.R.G. (1990) Unpublished Data on Quality Analysis of Monthly Deliveries to the
Processing Facility in 1988/89 and 1989/90. Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station, PO Box 5748, Limbe,
Malawi.
9. Ironside D.A. (1990 pers com) Macadamia Entomologist Bvumbwe Research Station, PO Box 5748, Limbe,
Malawi.
10. Liang T, Mehra S and Khan M.A. (1989) A Macadamia Nut Curing System for Improving Kernel Recovery. I
Agric Engineering Research, London, U.K. 43,103-111. .
11. Mason R.L. (1983) Macadamias - Post Harvesting Handling. AGDEX 246/56 Old DPI, PO Box 46, Brisbane 4001,
Australia.
12. Mason R.L. (1980) Macadamias - Harvesting and Maturity Testing. AGDEX 246/56 QLD DPI, PO Box 46,
Brisbane 4001, Australia.
14. Mason R.L. (1980) what affects quality in macadamia nut. Australia Macadamia Society News Bulletin 6 (7) 10-17.
15. Moltzau R.H. 7 Ripperton J.C. (1939) Processing of the Macadamia. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station,
Bulletin No. 83.
16. Simpson J. (1990) On Farm Drying of Macadamia Nuts in Shell. Australia Macadamia Society Newsletter,
September 1990.
17. Simpson J. (1990) Back to basics; Maximising Kernel Recovery and Kernel Quality. Australia Macadamia Society
Newsletter, September 1990.
18. Spooner B.D. (1988) Macadamia Harvesting Methods. Session 10, Paper 2 Proceedings. Second Australian
Macadamia Research Workshop Bangalow, NSW, Australia.
19. Stewart A. (1989, 1990 pers com) Special Crops Supervisor, Mindali Estate Ltd, Thyolo, Malawi.
20. Whitehouse T. (1990 pers com) Manager, Nasonia Estate, PO Box 30, Thyolo, Malawi.
10. ECONOMICS
The economics of macadamia in Malawi have not received much attention to date. Simpkins (1990) produced a gross
margins/development budget for the growers newsletter. Young (1990 pers com) has a long term development budget
which includes land and capital purchase costs.
Since most estates are well established and macadamia tends to be a diversification crop, the cost and returns vary
considerably as considerable cross substitution of costs for equipment and labour on hand exists. However, if the
land, capital and overhead, such as management are budgeted for, the picture is considerably different. Macadamia
is considered a long term crop with a long payback period due to the low returns in the first 5-10 years. Intercropping
is commonly practiced in Malawi but not in Australia. A paying intercrop can reduce the payback period
considerably but is difficult to fit into a simple budget.
There is little point in using information from overseas on the economics in Malawi since the production systems and
cost structures are different. Hence this work will be based on local experience and prevailing conditions. Even then
considerable scope exists for variation.
10.01 Development budget and gross margins

Markham and Malcolm (1986) present development budgeting as "a series of annual cash flow budgets, generally
drawn up until the development is complete and the annual results are stable i.e. have reached a steady state.
Development budgets are designed to show the expected future costs and returns associated with a development
programme. They are a basis for deciding whether or not to undertake a project, for obtaining finance, and for
maintaining it once it gets underway."
Preparation of a development budget is a very site and operator specific task. Wide variations can exist depending on
local factors such as land clearing required, machinery and buildings available, borrowings and interest rates and the
amount of subsidy and substitution available. It is necessary to qualify any budget with the assumptions made
which take into account the above factors.
The following budget has been prepared after discussions with Messrs Newton, Simpkins and Harrold, all of whom
are involved in developing and or running macadamia plantings in the Southern/Central region of Malawi. The
budget is a subsidized type i.e. where most of the overhead costs such as management supervision and capital items
such as tractors are not directly costed to the project but are covered in the other farm activities. The reason for this
is that most existing estates seem to operate in this way with the planting of macadamia on land used previously for
other crops. It must be remembered that the overhead and capital costs are quite high. The group estimated that
these run to approximately K1,000.00 per hectare on a constant basis. They would be even higher if new equipment
such as tractors were purchased and senior managers needed. The size of planting and cost of borrowings would
then become critical and the payback period would be increased. It seems that under these circumstances, the
payback period for macadamia is long unless high density plantings or intercrops were used to get earlier cash flows.
A number of assumptions have been made in preparing this budget.

These include:-
1. Clearing costs at K1,000.00 per hectare for tung (not including any residual for sale of firewood). Tea would be
about K600, tobacco very little except for weeding and soil amendment such as liming for pH control. Forest and
Blue Gum would be much higher, at approximately K10,000.00 per hectare.
2. Grafted plants at K2.00 each will purchase most clones. It may be cheaper on larger plantings to use self grown
plants but this involves nursery costs as well.
3. Number of plants is assumed to be 200/ha at 10 m x 5 m. Various planting distances are being used in Malawi.
4. Terracing and conservation means erosion and water runoff control which involves the building of bunds and
waterways. It is assumed that roads are already in place.
5. Planting includes the preparation of holes, planting and initial mulching.
6. Labour has been costed at approximately K2.00 per man day.
7. Irrigation is only practiced in the first two seasons and it is assumed that a water source is fairly close.
8. Weeding includes the establishment of mulch crop/ground cover but this reduces after year 2 to be primarily a
weeding exercise. Mulching then becomes part of the fertilizing costs. Weeding is by slashing and hoe initially.
9. Tree training and infilling is to ensure a uniform planting of reasonably shaped trees and should be completed
by 3 years.
10. Pesticides are not a large costs at the start and as such are covered by òthers'. They increase dramatically from
bearing onwards (about year 5)
11. Tools and equipment assume that a constant replacement of hand tools is required and that from year 5 a mist
blower will be needed every five years. On a hectare basis, this is about 20% of the cost of a mist blower (1
machine per 5 hectares).
12. Harvesting, dehusking and drying increase as crop increases and some provision needs to be made for
dehusking machinery and drying facilities. Transport covers the collection of nuts and supplies initially and later
the cost of delivery of nuts to the factory. The latter is very dependent on distance and could be much higher.
13. Òther' is designed to cover incidentals and unforeseens and has been put at a nominal 10% of the subtotal.
14. Overheads and management costs would add to at least K1,000.00 per hectare depending on the size of the
planting, equipment purchased and level of management used.
15. Yield figures are in kilograms per hectare at 10% moisture content. Yields have generally been lower than those
used in the budget in Malawi.
16. However yields of 5,000 kgs per hectare have been reported by Newton (1990 pers com) for 120 trees per hectare
at about 20 years, hence 5,000 kgs from 200 trees should be achievable if tree size is controlled. Pruning costs
could come into the Òther' category.
Price for nut in shell is given as K3.00/kg by Simpkins, using a 25% kernel recovery of saleable kernel. This is arrived
at from a sale price for saleable kernel of K12.00 per kilogram. Hence the returns are subject to changes in prices and
or kernel recoveries. The price at K3.00/kg is fairly low compared to recent prices and could be considered
pessimistic. Growers have to wait for payments from the sales pool which can take over 12 months which adds a
hidden cost of servicing current production (field) costs without a quick return. Higher kernel recoveries than 25%
are achievable and can compensate for lower yields to some extent. The industry should be aiming for 30% or higher
recoveries which will improve the economics of existing as well as new plantings. To look at larger scale plantings
some adjustments will need to be made in terms of equipment and buildings. Also differences in the basic production
system to be used such as a more mechanised approach will affect cost. The economic analysis used in determining
economic parameters such as pay back periods is from the ÈVAL' programme (Moorhouse 1989). Table 2 is the
development budget/gross margins for different yield and kernel recoveries, based on the same cost per hectare in
each case. This gives a range within which most estates are currently operating. This table also assumes the
development is part of a larger area than a hectare, hence the analysis with an overhead cost of K1,000 per hectare.
Small plantings would have different costs.
The following four scenarios are presented:-

1. High yield, high kernel recovery: The most optimistic of the alternatives with gross margins at year 16 of K12,470
(excluding capital overheads). A consistent positive cash flow is reached in year 7 and a cumulative positive
cash flow is reached in year 8. Assuming a capital overhead cost of a fixed K1,000 per year, the project has an
internal rate of return (IRR) of 26.1% over 30 years. A net present value (NPV) of K228,255 at 0% interest rate or
K34,429 at 10% interest rates . Payback is 9 years at 0% interest rate or 11 years at 10% interest rate.
2. Low yield, high kernel recovery. Yield are closer to the level currently being achieved, a gross margin at year 16
of K7,950. Consistent positive cash flows are achieved from year 7 with cumulative positive cash flows from year
9. Assuming a K1,000 per hectare capital overhead cost, IRR is 20.1%, NPV at 0% interest rate is K131,326 with
NPV at 10% interest rates is K16,537. Payback period at 0% interest is 11 years and at 10% interest rate is 13
years.
3. High yields, low kernel recovery. A gross margin at 16 years of K9,470, a consistently positive cash flow from
year 7 and a cumulative positive cash flow from year 8. Assuming a K1,000 per hectare capital overhead cost IRR
of 21.8% is achieved, NPV at 0% interest rate of K163,093 or NPV of K21,959 at 10% interest rate, pay back period
at 0% interest rate is 11 year or payback at 10% interest rate is 12 years.
4. Low yield, low kernel recovery: The most pessimistic of the budgets but this reflects the current state of some
estates. A gross margin of K5,870 is achieved by year 16. Consistent positive cash flows is achieved in year 7
with cumulative positive cash flow achieved in year 10. Assuming a K1,000 per hectare capital overhead cost,
IRR of 14.4% is achieved. NPV at 0% interest rate is K84,566 or NPV at 10% interest rate is K6,827. Pay back
period at 0% interest rate is 13 years or pay back period at 10% interest rate is 18 years.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Project Gross IRR Interest NPV PayBack
Alternative Margins % Rate Period
High Yield, High K.R. 12470 26.1 0 228255 9

10 34429 11
Low Yield, High K.R. 7950 20.1 0 131326 11
10 16537 13
High Yield, Low K.R. 9470 21.8 0 163093 11
10 21959 12
Low Yield, Low K.R. 5870 14.4 0 84566 13
10 6827 18
IRR = Internal Rate of Returns. NPV = Net Present Value
Note: IRR is calculated on non simple but pure investment basis by the EVAL programme. Any number of interest
rates and alternatives can be calculated and further indices of economic performance can be used but were felt to be
beyond the scope of this work. No residual value of the project was used.
Peak funding requirements occur in year 6 in all cases. This could be altered by changing the investment in
equipment for dehusking and drying in particular.
In general the economics of macadamia growing involve long term investments and long payback periods. The gross
margins are good later in the life of the project. Obtaining good yields and kernel recoveries are very important.
Keeping overhead and capital costs down without sacrificing yield and kernel quality would also be beneficial.
Smallholders would have lower yields and much lower costs which could still give a good result. A life of 30 years for
macadamia is not unreasonable and trees often live longer than this, hence no residual value was given.
Intercropping would change the pay back period and peak funding periods.
10.02 Future Trends and World Situation

The future economics of macadamia in Malawi will be determined largely by the external price factors as Malawi is a
small producer. From the production side costs will be determined locally to a large extent, except for fuel and
pesticides. The costs of production are not high but yield and quality determine returns (in conjunction with prices
received) macadamia is a very small crop and does not really rate in volume terms against other tree nuts. This means
that it has a very small exposure in the market place and is not a well known product. A considerable promotion effort
will be needed to increase market penetration and a market share in competition with other nuts. Data on areas
planted in the world are very limited but the general feeling is that planting is increasing rapidly, especially in newer
producing areas such as Africa and South America. In 1990, O'Connell from the United States Department of
Agriculture foreign agriculture service, indicated that world supply of macadamia nut would double in five years and
triple in ten. This would lead to fierce competition on the expanding world markets. However markets such as Europe
have really not been touched as yet and scope exits in Asian markets as well. Plantings have tended to follow
favourable prices which seem to follow a buoyant world economy so the industry is generally cyclic in nature. The
long pay back period is a disincentive in low price years. Interest and planting has followed a similar pattern in
Malawi, yield shall continue to rise to 5 to 10 times current levels within 10 years in Malawi. This will place serious
strains on the existing infrastructure which will require forethought and additional investment. Postharvest handling,
processing and marketing capacities will need to be increased to cope with the volume of nuts. Investing under
conditions of uncertainty is always difficult. The future of macadamia is by no means guaranteed. Competition will
increase in world markets but new markets could open up. Increasing quality and market presence will remain vital. It
is likely that the larger producers will actively promote macadamia. This would benefit Malawi who could also
contribute towards costs.
10.03 References
1. Harrold M.A. (1991 Pers com) Development Accountant Sable Farming Co Ltd, P.O. Box 51194, Limbe , Malawi.
2. Makeham J.P. & Malcom L.R. (1986) The Economics of Tropical Farm Management. Chap. 14. Cambridge
University Press Sydney, Australia.
3. Moorhouse W. (1989) Eval: A Project Evaluation Program for Dos CMS- computers. QLD DPI GPO Box 46
Brisbane 4001, Australia.
4. O'Connors J. (1990) Radio Supply Increase Forecast, Australia Macadamia Society News Bulletin 17,1, May 1990.
5. Simpkins M. (1990) A guide to development costs and profitability of macadamia in Malawi - October 1990,
Limbuli Estate Manager, PO Box 40, Malosa, Malawi.
6. Simpkins M. (1991 pers com ) Manager, Limbuli Estate, P.O. Box 40, Malosa, Malawi.
7. Young M. (1990 pers com) Development Budget for Mapanga Macadamia planting. Managing Director Sable
Farming Co P.O. Box 51199 Limbe, Malawi.
11. RESEARCH, EXTENSION AND TRAINING
Malawi has in place the Tree Nut Commodity Unit (TNCU) which is responsible for research, some extension (in the
local area or via ADD's) and some training. The unit is based at Bvumbwe Agricultural Research Station and has
been in operation for many years, although the intensity of work has varied. Government funding and facilities are
limited which limits the effectiveness of the unit. Funding from industry is also limited. Recent initiatives by the
Ministry of Agriculture for additional funding as part of the National Agricultural Research Programme (NARP - a
loan from the World Bank to the Government of Malawi) and by growers in support of this programme will provide
short term funding commencing in 1991 for about two years. This is in the form of contract research programme
under the control of the Tree Nut Authority (TNA). The Ministry of Agriculture is providing staff and facilities and
the majority of the funding is via NARP whilst the growers are providing 20% of operating costs. This could also be
viewed as seeding funds since the contractor (TNA) can keep the capital purchased if performance of the contract is
satisfactory. Assistance from Australia in the form of staffing has been provided but this is also of a short term
nature. Both Malawian professional officers are on study programmes overseas and are due to return in 1991 but
there is no guarantee of this. There is a serious loss of senior research personnel within the government. This leaves
most of the work load to the technical staff who have very little incentive to carry the load. Lack of continuity in
senior staff remains a problem. This is not confined to Malawi, the long term nature of tree crop research often means
a higher staff turn over relative to other crops. Government staff are not paid as well as other sectors and also face
increased difficulties especially with regard to transport and backup services on a regular basis.
All this not withstanding, it is useful to have at least a conceptual research, extension and training plan for the future.
Such a plan should try to recognise the realities of the funding, staffing and estate needs in coming to grips with
problems faced. This section is not aimed at giving a detailed plan as such but hopes to point out some of the
realities faced.
11.01 Agronomy.
The main conceptual problem faced in agronomy is the balance between constraint breaking and improving the
efficiency of current plantings. Breaking constraints generally takes a long term view and may not be of much value
to existing plantings. It commonly involves genetic adaptation to limiting factors such as environment rather than
fine tuning of existing production systems such as nutrition to improve efficiency of current plantings.
Cases can be argued for either approach and both need a sound information base to build from. Considerable
advances can be made with existing production systems by applying what is known in relation to local conditions
and realities. Nutrition is a good example - once the problems such as deficiencies have been identifi ed, appropriate
action can be taken (e.g. boron applications). However, if the obvious or appropriate does not work, then a research
problem is evident which can then be tackled. Post harvest is another area where considerable advances can be made
with minimal research but much extension. Tree performance is much more complex and involves a more holistic
approach, covering the many factors which influence performance. Much of the basic information relating to this has
not been quantified for conditions in Malawi. Work of this nature tends to be the link between constraint breaking
and improving efficiency because the information generated is applicable to both areas.
Malawi desperately needs this type of work to be done. The development of a productivity matrix of factors affecting
tree performance (and other factors affecting the whole production system) will facilitate considerable improvements
in efficiency and give directions for future needs. The current research program is aimed at gaining background
information and a base for such work. The process involves quantifying current status such as performance (eg. tree
size/yield data and phenology) climate conditions (temperature, rainfall, heat units) nutrition (leaf analysis) and
management (post harvest, weeding, mulching and attitudes), all of which relate to the production system as it
operates now. This essentially identifies what is happening. The next step is to find why this is so and what is the
relative importance of knowns and unknowns. This involves matching the external features such as phenology and
yield with internal physiology such as carbohydrate production and utilization. Also, this step involves comparing
literature from elsewhere with the realities of the local situation. Appropriate changes in the production system or
areas of further research are defined. Such work is achievable in Malawi. Genetic improvement through localized
clonal selection is a must. Experience elsewhere indicates that significant improvements in yield, kernel recovery and
quality are achievable through seedling selection from known good parents under local environments. Malawi is
relying on introductions of scion material, mostly Hawaiian selections, for its selection programme. However, such
an approach basically maintains the nut quality of the clone for processing but does not necessarily lead to good
environmental adaptation. The existing seedling blocks at BARS needs to be fully evaluated (including the dwarfing
potential of the 3 selected trees). A longer term clonal selection programme based on known good parents, in the
major growing areas, is needed for environmental adoption.
11.02 Pests and diseases.

A large amount of research has been conducted into the pest problem (less on disease problems) in Malawi. The
recent confirmation of Bathycoelia spp as a major pest is very important as is the introduction of the IPM programme.
Continued development of the IPM approach should lead to effective and economic pest management. Problems exist
in effective delivery of chemicals due to tree size and equipment used, also problems of availability of chemicals and
timeliness of operation. The on-farm logistics have presented problems for the researchers in this field.
Since the equipment used is not likely to change all that much (in the short term), co-operation with agronomy on tree
size control is a useful approach to improve application efficiency. Modification to existing equipment (such as
Micronair type delivery heads and more powerful mist blowers) are also being tried. The IPM approach has a very
strong training component in the field. Labour, wage and management policies are important to ensure scouts and
spray operators are well motivated and properly supervised. IPM is in itself a broad approach, trying to encompass a
wide field view.
A logical step in the IPM program is towards biological control agents. There is considerable evidence of the value
of the natural control agents for the nut borers. Control agents for the bugs, especially Bathycoelia spp and Nezara
spp would be an economic boost to the industry. Research of this kind is being conducted in South Africa and basic
biology is being studied in Malawi. Continuation of current approaches is very important and every effort should be
made to reduce chemical inputs where possible.
Diseases have not received much attention, probably because they are not a major cause of concern. The flower
blight complex could be at times but needs further clarification. Armillaria attack is of concern but control measures
are known. Few other diseases seem to be present. Further information is needed before a long term research
approach becomes relevant.
The seriousness of the losses caused by insects, and bugs in particular, mean that both the short and the long term
approach need to run concurrently. Improving efficiency and effectiveness of pest and biological control of major
pests should be the objective. This would improve the economics and minimize damage to the environment.
Consumers are demanding such changes, a factor which cannot be ignored for long.
11.03 Farming Systems

A farming systems approach to research, extension and training is a way of trying to broaden the production system
whilst not loosing sight of specifics. It is an interdisciplinary approach which maintains a common thread throughout
the programme. Such an approach is aimed at maintaining relevance in research by also involving managers and field
works. It considers a wide range of matters which are not necessary part of a scientific trial but which may influence
the research or the utilization of outcomes. The paper titled `Towards a Farming System Approach to Tree Nut
Research in Malawi,' by W.M. Hancock (presented to the technical Liaison Committee of the Tree Nu t Growers
Association, 1990) detailed the relevance of this approach to Malawi.
The majority of the farming system type of work has been conducted on smallholders in less developed countries or
on production in more developed countries. The estate sector in Malawi seems to fit somewhere in between these.
A full scale farming systems study of macadamia is beyond the scope of the current research team and available
resources. However, the concept is useful in making research plans and maintaining relevance in research through
the involvement of the end-users.
11.04 Information Flows and Monitoring Systems

Decision making should be based on information and information comes from monitoring a system. A good example
is the factory assessment data. Malawi has not made sufficiently use of existing information flows or monitoring data.
This information provides a broad picture of nut quality as well as individual estate problems. It provides a
convenient system for monitoring the current situation and a way of monitoring the effectiveness of interventions
made in the production system (eg. post harvest losses and bug losses can be monitored). This type of information is
very useful to researchers and managers.
A number of other monitoring systems are being set up such as the leaf nutrient level data base. It should not
necessarily be the responsibility of the research team to set up and monitor all these. Managers can gain from having
a good record keeping system to record such information as yields, quality, farm operations and so on. An example is
small nuts (i.e. nuts less than 18 mm in diameter) is often said to be a problem but there is little actual data about the
problem. It is also important that information should flow freely within the industry between all groups. This leads to
openness and increased co-operation. Although individual growers may consider they are in competition with each
other, they are in fact in competition with other exporting countries. Even in that regard, Malawi benefits from
research findings from competitors.
Information of all sorts help to clarify a situation. This manual is a collection of information which is all part of trying
to improve the situation in macadamia in Malawi.
Suggestions for Malawi.

Everyone in the industry and in research must work together to come to grips with the problems faced in order to
maintain export competitiveness. This involves all aspects of the production system including processing and
marketing. Encouraging local research and extension personnel is essential in this regard. International funding will
be of great assistance but cannot be relied upon. A realistic cost effective approach is needed and the current work is
a good start.
12. INDUSTRY BODIES
Malawi is predominantly a rural economy at levels from subsistence small farmers to export orientated estates. There
are a number of organizations who deal with various sectors of the rural industries with formal roles such as statutory
bodies or informal roles such as growers' associations. Both of these have an important role within the industry. The
Tree Nut Authority (TNA) is the formal body while the Tree Nut Growers Association (TNGA) is the informal body.
12.01 Tree Nut Growers Association. (TNGA)

The TNGA is the growers association which covers tung oil, cashew nuts, and macadamia nuts. Membership is by
an annual fee or subscription. Regular meetings are held. The role of the association is broad but one of the main
benefits is that it provides a forum for debate about industry matters, information exchange and grower unity in
confronting problems. It has the ability to raise funds from growers for such activities as research or extension
publications and can develop a policy for presentation to formal bodies.
A strong growers association is a powerful tool for growers. Unity in approaching problems is very important. Any
association is only as good as the members involved. Small and large scale macadamia growers can benefit from the
association so supporting the association is supporting the industry and other members. The current TNGA is a
small but effective organization - try to keep it that way by being actively involved.
12.02 Tree Nut Authority (TNA)

The TNA is a statutory body (i.e. set up by government) to oversee the tree nut industry. It has legal powers such
as registration of growers and processors. The TNA has wider representation than just growers and the chairman
(who is appointed independently from outside) can co-opt persons to attend meetings (eg. the BARS research team
members). Growers have a voting majority on the floor and can have a large input into policy discussions for this
reason. The TNA is currently the contractor for the contract research programme. This is a new role but one which
sets an imp ortant precedent for future industry funding. If this goes well, perhaps more could be forthcoming. The
TNA is the official voice through which growers can act to influence government about matters which affect them.
Individual growers can have input via the association and or elected member to the TNA. Active participation is
necessary to keep abreast of the changes that occur within the industry.
13. COMMENTS ON THE FUTURE
The future for macadamia could be described as optimistic but with qualifications. There are a number of
assumptions to be made and problems to overcome. Historically, macadamia has been very cyclic and plantings have
followed price trends and opportunities. Prices in recent years have been good but in 1990 prices collapsed and 1991
could be a testing year with low prices on the export market. Macadamia is a luxury type of product at present and
volumes in tonnes are small but increasing. However, the nut has not received much attention in a promotion sense
and it is not at all well known nor is it available in many countries. The potential for market expansion must be large,
although the price may not be as high.
Macadamia is not a highly productive plant, possibly because it is a relatively recent crop which has not received
much research attention, and possibly because the tree produces an oil rich kernel which requires large quantities of
energy. Also, the final product is a kernel, a small proportion of the whole fruit (husk, shell and kernel) which goes
through a long production system culminating in factory based processing to produce the saleable product. Despite
the hard shell, the nut is subject to damage. Yield and quality losses can occur all through the production system,
greatly reducing the saleable product. Final processing adds a significant cost to the on farm production costs.
It is necessary to maximise yield and quality (or minimise losses) to be economic. Malawi has both yield and quality
problem which fall into two categories. - the first one is those which are largely solvable, - the second are not easy to
overcome. The first relate primarily to problems on the whole production system that management can overcome with
information and attention to detail. This include nutrition, pest control, dehusking, drying, storage and later factory
losses. Considerable effort has been put towards improving the information and techniques employed in the on-farm
production system. Some benefits are beginning to flow from this. It is the responsibility of managers to utilize the
information to gain the benefits. Attention to detail in all aspects is required, including staff training to ensure the
maintenance of yield and quality.
The second set of factors are those which management has little control over - genotype (clones) and environment
(primarily climate and soils). These two sets of factors integrate to set the limits on yield and quality. Malawi is well
north of the center of origin of the plants (eastern Australia) and of the place of selection of the main clones in use at
present (Hawaii). It is not unreasonable to assume that problems of clonal adaptation will occur. Malawi has a wide
climatic variation because of the altitude but the main growing sites also have wide variation between them and
between growing sites in other countries. Evidence is emerging that some sites are not suitable for the clones being
grown or may not be suitable at all for macadamia. This relates in particular to temperature regimes, heat units, rainfall
and soil quality. This problem can be faced in two ways - only plant in favourable sites (as tentatively outlined in the
manual) or select clonal material in the local environments which perform in the prevailing conditions. The first
option is conservative but sound. The second offers considerable potential for improving clonal material. It will take
time, although no longer than using scions selected elsewhere. It must be remembered that whilst genetic adaptation
to environment offers considerable scope, trees do have limits to their environmental range for practical purpose and
will not perform outside that range. Some areas in Malawi could be in that range. As an export crop, macadamia will
be competing with other exporting countries. Malawi must be able to meet the competition on equal terms in the
market place i.e. on quality standards, health regulation and so on. Competition is likely to increase as the planted
area increases world wide. Consumers are becoming more vocal in their demands and Malawi must be able to meet
the challenge.
Planning for the future is important in macadamia since yields increase steadily as trees age to around 20 years.
Yields in Malawi are on the increase and this will continue until the present trees reach maturity (these form the bulk
of the planting). On farm dehusking, drying and storage capacities will need to be continually upgraded to cope with
the crop. Similarly, the processing facility is not going to be able to cope with the increased yields and therefore
increased processing capacity will be needed. All this will require considerable investment and commitment from the
industry.
Smallholders have a role to play as well even though they form only a very small part of the industry, as the crop
could be economically important to them. Some incentive is needed for the development of this sector. It will need to
be brought into the formal system via processing and direct purchase of nuts. Smallholders will respond to a cash
incentive and can then put the required effort into the crop.
The long term nature of tree crops makes any investment risky. Macadamia has a long pay back period, especially if
land and overheads are considered. Intercropping can reduce this and revenue from other activities helps.
Macadamia is often seen as a diversification crop planted into land considered marginal for other crops such as tea.
However, the crop cannot be treated as a low input crop in many aspects and requires a high level of management
input for results.
In summary, it is impossible to accurately predict the future for any crop. Macadamia may fare well in the future or it
may not. However, as managers, there are many improvements which can be made in the production system to ensure
a competitive place in the market. Malawi has advantages over high cost countries such as Australia but producers
must focus on excellence and also invest for the future.
14. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Abscission: The controlled shedding of a part, such as a leaf of fruit by a plant.

Anthers: Male flower parts producing pollen.
Anthocynin: Any group of glycoside pigments formed by the addition of sugars and other residues to an
anthocyanidin precussor. Either red, blue, or yellow in colour.
Carpel: The structure that bears and encloses the ovules in flowering plants, normally comprised of the ovary, style
and stigma.
Chlorotic: A condition in which green plants become unhealthy and change colour.
Chromosome: A threadlike structure in the nuclei which carries the genetic material of the cell.
Dehiscence: Splitting often along predetermined lines of certain plant organs. Indehiscence: Remaining closed.
Ethylene: A gaseous hydrocarbon (C4H4) produced in small quantities by the plants. Has plant growth substance
properties such as influencing fruit ripening and abscission.
Follicle: A dry dehiscent fruit derived from one carpel which on ripening splits down one side only, usually the
central suture, to expose the seed.
Fusiform: Elongated at both ends.
Gibberellin: A group of plant growth substances which cause stem elongation in intact plants and may have other
effects as well.
Glabrous: A surface that is devoid of hairs or other projections.
Inflorescence: A flowering system consisting of more than one flower.
Internal Rate of Return: The interest rate at which the present value of cash inflows is equal to the present value of
cash outflows, or the rate of interest for which the net present value of the cash flow series is zero.
Lanceolate: Narrow and tapering at both ends.
Monoclonal: Consisting of only one clone.
Necrotic: Having unhealthy appearance and often dead patches of tissue.
Net Present Value: The difference between the present value of cash inflows and cash outflows all discounted at the
appropriate rate.
Payback period: The minimum number of years for project to recover costs.
Pendant: Hanging downwards.
Perianth: The structure that protects the developing parts of the flower often fused (sepals) or in singles (calyx and
corolla)
Pericarp: The wall of a fruit, derived from the maturing ovary wall. May be thin or pap ery through to thick and fleshy.
Perigynous: Flower with a flattened to concave receptacle, stamens attached above the ovary.
Petiole: The stalk which attaches the leaf lamina to the stem. Petiolate- having a petiole, Sessile-leaves without a
petiole
Phyllotaxy: The arrangement of leaves on the stem.
Phenology: The visual responses and expression of genotypes in relation to the environment.
Polyphagus: Having many hosts.
Protandrous: Maturation of male reproductive parts before the female.
Pubescent: Having short fine hairs.
Racemes: An inflorescence having flowers developed from the main axis (peduncle) each flower on its own pedicel,
flowers usually maturing from the base first.
Rachis: The main axis of an inflorescence or of a compound leaf.
Saprophytes: A plant that feeds by the external digestion of organic matter, thus bringing about decay.
Sclerophyllous: Having schlenchyma tissue, composed of lignified cells and fibres, strengthening tissue.
Sepal: An individual unit of the calyx, modified leaves and may function as petals.
Sessile: Leaves without a petiole.
Specific Gravity: The relative density of an object compared to a standard, such as water.
Spherical : Having a sphere like shape.
Stigma: The pollen receiving organ of the female reproductive parts.
Style: The stalk supporting the stigma and connecting this to the ovary.

The Macadamia Industry in Malawi

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The Macadamia Industry in Malawi

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CONTENTS

2. COMPOSITION AND USES

4. PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOLOGY

5. ECOLOGY AND CLIMATE

7. PESTS AND DISEASES

8. YIELDS AND QUALITY

9. HARVESTING, HANDLING AND STORAGE

11. RESEARCH, EXTENSION AND TRAINING

12. INDUSTRY BODIES

13. COMMENTS ON THE FUTURE

14. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

1.01 About the Manual

1.02 The Macadamia Industry In Malawi.

2. COMPOSITION AND USES

2.01 Composition and Uses

Suggestions For Malawi

3.02 Origins and Distribution

3.03 Structure and Habit

Table 1. Principal Taxonomic Characters of M. ternifolia, M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla.

Phyllotaxy 3 leaves in a 3 leaves in a 4 leaves in a

Leaf Petiolate Petiolate Sessile or

Adult Leaf Lanceolate Oblanceolate to oblanceolate

Adult Leaf Scarcely Generally entire numerous

Colour of Pink to red Pale green, Pink to red,

Flower Pink White Pink; white or

Pericarp grayish-green bright clear grayish-green

Seed Shape commonly commonly commonly

Seed smooth to generally smo oth, generally

Kernel bitter, sweet, highly sweet, highly

Suggestions for Malawi

4.01 Proteoid Roots

Suggestions for Malawi

4.02 Leaf and Stem Structure and Function

4.03 Floral Initiation

4.04 Flowering and Pollination

4.05 Fruit Development, Nut Drop and Maturation

4.06 Phenology of Macadamia

Suggestions for Malawi

The physiology in relation to climate will be covered in a later section.

He described two groups of limiting factors:-

Suggestions for Malawi

4.08 Genetics and Clonal Improvement

Suggestions for Malawi.

5. ECOLOGY AND CLIMATE

Suggestions for Malawi

Suggestions for Malawi

6.01 Nursery and Propagation

6.03 Seed Selection

6.06 Potting Media

6.07 Timing of Operations

6.08 Culling and Plant Selection

6.10 Initial Training

6.11 Field Operations

6.12 Land Preparation

6.13 Orchard Layout

Suggestions for Malawi

6.14 Tree Establishment and Tree Training

6.16 Tree Training

Suggestions for Malawi

6.17 Nutrition and Mulching

NUTRIENT DEFICIENT MARGINAL ADEQUATE HIGH

The P/Fe complex was discussed earlier in soils.

Table. General symptoms of nutrient deficiencies.