Course Title: Earth Science

Course Description: Earth Science Lecture and Laboratory

2nd Quarter Modular Learning Guide Set # 1

Expected Time Completion: 20 hours

Topics: WATER RESOURCES; SOIL and MAN; HUMAN ACTIVITIES and ENVIRONMENT
A. Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, the learner is expected to:
1. Recognize how water is distributed on Earth
2. Identify the various water resources on Earth
3. Explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human use
4. Suggest ways of conserving and protecting water resources
5. Recognize what soil is and why it is an important resource
6. Identify human activities that affect the quality and quantity of soil
7. Give ways of conserving and protecting the soil for future generations
8. Describe how people generate different types of waste as they use various materials and
resources
9. Explain how different types of waste affect people’s health and the environment
10. Cite ways of reducing the production of waste at home, in school, and around the
community

B. Learning Contents
Just For Fun !!! LOL

CONSERVE WATER!! PROTECT THE BEACH! CONSERVE and PROTECT the SOIL

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Lesson 1: Water Resources
Earth is the only planet where water in its liquid form exists. In other planets, water occurs
in the form of ice or vapor. As seen from space, Earth looks mostly blue and white because of
water, snow, ice, and clouds on its surface. The part of Earth's subsystem containing the
oceans, lakes, streams, underground water, and snow and ice, is the hydrosphere. It makes
up about 71% of Earth's surface. However, water is also present in the other subsystems. It
occurs as water vapor in the atmosphere, as an important constituent of minerals in the
geosphere, and a fundamental component of living organisms in the biosphere. The existence
of water in the different subsystems is part of the hydrologic cycle.

The Hydrologic Cycle

-water cycle
-It is the movement of water around Earth's surface and its subsystems. The cycle consists of
interconnected pathways and reservoirs.
Reservoirs- the places where water resides for varying amount of time
Pathways- the processes that allow water to move between each reservoirs and
subsystems
-There is a mass balance in the cycle, maintaining the total amount of water. Fluctuations may
occur on a local scale, such as the occurrence of flood and drought, but these are balanced
out on a global scale.
-Heat coming from the sun provides energy for the movement of water. It causes evaporation
or the process in which liquid water changes into vapor. It occurs in the ocean, surface water
bodies, vegetation, and soil. About 80% of water vapor in the atmosphere evaporates from
the ocean.
Transpiration- the
evaporation of water from
the leaves and stems of
plants, which contributes
about 10% of the water
vapor in the atmosphere.
In high altitudes, ice
can directly transform into
water vapor in a process
called sublimation.
The water vapor enters
the atmosphere and moves
with the flowing air. As the air
rises, it cools and slows down
the movement of water
molecules. This allows
condensation, the change
from vapor into liquid or solid,
to occur. Water droplets
group together and form
clouds. When water droplets or ice crystals in the clouds become large and heavy,

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precipitation occurs. Precipitation transfers water from the atmosphere to Earth's surface in
liquid or solid form as rain, snow, or hail.
Rain that falls into the land surface penetrates the soil in a process called infiltration.
When the soil becomes saturated, rainwater may flow over land as surface runoff and will join
other bodies of water such as in streams, lakes, and oceans. Part of the water that infiltrates
the ground will be stored as groundwater while some will be absorbed by plants or directly
evaporate. Snow usually remains on the ground for one or more seasons and eventually melts
and contributes to the water in streams. Water is locked up as ice in glaciers for a long time.
Given the right conditions, the glaciers will eventually melt, evaporate, and return to the
oceans.

Earth’s Waters
The total amount of water in the planet, also
known as Earth's water budget, generally remains
constant through time. Water moves and changes in
form, but is neither created nor destroyed. Only a
very small percentage is added to the hydrologic
system by volcanic eruptions and meteors from
space. Most of the water on Earth today have been
cycling through the hydrologic system for billions of
years.
The United Nations World Water Development
2005 Report characterized the amount of water in
the different reservoirs. The largest reservoir is the
ocean that contains about 97.5% of Earth's total
water, which is mostly saline water. This has a major
implication in humans since humans depend on
freshwater for drinking, agriculture, and industrial use.
Freshwater, which is only 2.5% of Earth's total water, is
found in glaciers (68.7%), groundwater (30.1%),
permafrost (0.8%), surface water, and atmospheric
water. The surface water in rivers, lakes, swamps, soil
moisture, living things, atmospheric water vapor,
ground ice, and permafrost, constitute only about
0.4% of the total freshwater supply or less than 0.02%
of the total water on Earth. Global distribution of world’s water

Residence time- the average length of time spent by water molecule in a reservoir.
In large reservoir, the residence time Reservoir Residence time
of water is longer. Although the total Ocean and ice sheets Thousands of years
amount of water in the planet remains Groundwater Tens to hundreds of years
constant, the volume of water present in Streams and rivers Few weeks
each reservoir varies and their volumes Atmosphere Few days
affect other reservoirs. For instance, the
Organisms Few hours
melting of glaciers and ice caps in the
Polar Region reduces the amount of water in these reservoirs. It also leads to the increase in

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the volume of water in the ocean. This is manifested as sea level rise, which could cause
coastal flooding in low lying coastal areas.

Saltwater Reservoir
Ocean- vast body of saline water
-There is only one global or world ocean and it covers 71% of Earth. It is geographically
divided into five distinct regions and into numerous seas, gulfs, bays, and straits.
Four recognized oceans historically are: Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean
and Arctic ocean
In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization proposed the Southern Ocean. It
is the body of water surrounding Antarctica and is connected to the Pacific, Atlantic and
Indian Oceans. The total volume of water in the world's oceans is about 1340 million km3.

Salinity- saltiness of water

The major chemical elements present in seawater are sodium and chloride ions. Other
natural elements are also present in seawater in very low concentrations. The salinity of
seawater varies from 33 to 37 parts per thousand. When it is evaporated, three quarters of the
dissolved material is comprised of NaCl (common salt). The principal sources of the elements
dissolved in seawater are weathering and volcanic eruptions. Weathering, or the in situ
disintegration of geologic materials releases soluble materials such as sodium, potassium, and
sulfur. These materials are carried by streams into the sea.

The salinity of seawater is maintained within a narrow range by the processes in the
hydrologic cycle. Evaporation removes water, making the remaining solution saltier.
Precipitation adds water, causing dilution. Inflow from river and groundwater also makes the
sea less salty. As sea water freezes, salt is excluded because of its structure, making the
unfrozen seawater saltier.

Three major zones in the ocean

a. surface layer
- consists of relatively warm, low-
density water
-This layer is only about 2% of the
water in the ocean but it is the
home of most marine plants and
animals.

b. Thermocline- second layer,

where the temperature of water
decreases rapidly with depth. At
high latitudes, the thermocline reaches the surface.
c. deep zone- where the temperature is uniformly low. Eighty percent of the water in the
ocean is in the deep zone.

The ocean is one of the most valuable resources on the planet. Aside from providing
the voluminous marine food sources, it is also used in transportation and recreation. More
importantly, it plays a vital role in regulating the climate through its interaction with the
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atmosphere. It absorbs and circulates heat, water, and carbon dioxide, which are vital in the
many chemical cycles on Earth.

Freshwater Reservoirs
Most of the freshwater on Earth is stored in glaciers situated in inaccessible areas such
as the Polar Regions and high mountains. The readily available freshwater sources are the
surface water reservoir and groundwater reservoir.

Glaciers and Ice Sheets

Glacier- a permanent body of ice, which consists largely of recrystallized snow
In Polar Regions and high-altitude regions, not all of the snow that fall melts because of
very cold temperature even during summer. The unmelted snow is covered by another layer
the following winter. The snow gradually accumulates and becomes compacted, turning into
a mass of ice.
Ice sheet- a mass of glacial land ice extending more than 50 000 km2. There are currently ice
sheets covering most of Greenland and Antarctica. During the last ice age, ice sheets also
extended to North America and Scandinavia.

The freshwater stored in glaciers and ice sheets are estimated to exceed 24 million km3.
Almost 90% is concentrated in Antarctica while the rest is found in Greenland and in mountain
glaciers. If the ice sheet in Greenland were to melt, it would cause the global sea level to rise
by 6 meters. If the Antarctic ice sheet melted, the sea level would be about 60 meters. Glaciers
and ice sheets influence global climate and the hydrologic cycle. During glaciation, large
amount of water becomes locked up as snow, resulting to a decrease in the volume of runoff,
lower sea level, and exposure of more land in the coastal areas. When deglaciation occurs,
the reverse happens—river flow increases, and the volume of the world ocean increases,
resulting to a rise in sea level and reduced land area.

Permafrost
-A soil, rock, or sediment that is frozen for more than two consecutive years
The frozen ground varies in thickness from a few meters to about 150 meters. The upper
30 cm to 100 cm of soil thaws during summer and refreezes during winter. Most of the
permafrost is found in Polar Regions, although they may exist in high-altitude regions. The total
water stored as underground ice in a permafrost is estimated to be 300 000 km 3. It comprises
about 0.8% of the total freshwater resource.

Surface Water Reservoirs

Surface waters include the streams, lakes, and wetlands where water from rainfall,
melting snow and ice, and groundwater flows. This resource is harnessed for irrigation,
recreation, transport; fishing, drinking, and hydropower.

Stream
-a moving body of surface water that flows downslope toward sea level because of
gravity
It has clearly-defined passageway called channels where particles and dissolved
substances are transported.
River- a stream with a considerable volume and a well-defined channel.
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 Streams are interconnected and form a tree-shaped network of small streams, making
up the branches and joined to a large main stream or river, which comprise the trunk.
Tributaries- the smaller streams
The land area in which the water
flow into a particular stream is called a
drainage basin or watershed. The line
that separates individual drainage
basin is called drainage divide. It is a
topographically high landform usually
represented by mountain ridges or hills
in smaller basins. The narrow, elongated
landform separating individual streams
within a basin is called interfluve.

During heavy rain, water moves

downhill in a process called overland flow. After a short distance, the water enters the
channels and becomes streamflow. Overland flow and streamflow contribute to surface
runoff. These processes initiate the transport of sediments along their courses, carving complex
patterns in the landscape.
In the Philippines, the largest drainage basin is the Cagayan River Basin, which comprises
a total area of 27 280 km 2. This drainage basin is bounded by the Cordillera, Caraballo, and
Sierra Madre mountain ranges. The total length of Cagayan River, from Nueva Vizcaya to
Aparri is 505 km.

Lakes
- large inland bodies of fresh or saline water. Its upper surface is exposed to the
atmosphere and is essentially flat
It forms in places where water collects in a low area (depression) and behind natural
or human-made dams.
Ponds- small and shallow lakes.
Dams- barriers constructed along streams to contain the flow of water
Water in the lakes came from streams. overland flow, and groundwater. Water exits
from lakes through outlet streams or by evaporation and infiltration into the ground.

Geological processes form natural lakes. For example, a landslide or lava flow could
block a stream and create a natural barrier. Water will accumulate behind the barrier and will
form a lake. Collapse of volcanic craters also creates depression that is eventually filled with
water like the crater lake of Mt. Pinatubo and Taal volcano.

Lakes store 67% of the total surface and atmospheric water. This a tiny percentage of
Earth s total water but it is an extremely important water resource. It provides freshwater for
irrigation, industrial, municipal, residential, and recreational purposes.

Wetlands
-Land areas where water covers the surface for significant periods

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 Wetlands are biologically diverse environment filled with species that rely on both the
land and water for survival. The largest wetland In the Philippines is Ligawasan Marsh found In
the provinces of Maguindanao, North Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat.

Types of wetlands:
1. Marsh- a shallow wetland around lakes, streams, and oceans where grasses and reeds are
the dominant vegetation. The wetland in Candaba, Pampanga is an example of a marsh
ecosystem.

2. Swamp- a wetland with lush trees and vegetation found in low-lying areas beside slow-
moving rivers; oxygen in the water is typically low and swamp plants and animals are adapted
to these low-oxygen conditions. Mangrove forests are unique example of swamp ecosystem
that tolerates salty conditions.

3. Estuary- a partly enclosed coastal body of water where freshwater from stream meets the
saltwater from the sea. It is home to many organisms that can tolerate the sharp changes in
salinity due to the constant change of salt content. The mouth of large rivers such as
Pampanga River in Manila Bay is an estuary.

Wetlands harbor great biological diversity. It is an important breeding ground for fish
and invertebrates. Its ability to trap water serves as a sponge that slows down stream flow and
minimizes floods, erosion, and sedimentation. Water trapped in the wetlands are also able to
seep into the ground and replenish the groundwater. As a sponge, it also traps pollutants that
could otherwise flow to other bodies of water.

Floods
Flood- a natural event wherein an area that is usually dry is submerged under water
It usually occurs when the rate of precipitation is higher than the rate in which it
could be absorbed by the ground or carried by streams. It can also occur even during
dry periods when natural or human-made reservoirs collapse. Some floods occur
suddenly and recede quickly, while others lasts for few days to several weeks. It occurs
at irregular intervals and varies in size, duration, and extent of affected area.

Fluvial or riverine flood - occurs when a stream's discharge is greater than the capacity
of the channel, causing the stream to overflow.

Flashfloods- characterized by intense, high-velocity torrent of water that occurs in an

existing river channel with little to no notice. Coastal flooding occurs when water
overwhelms in low-lying areas along the coasts, usually due to severe weather
conditions.

Pluvial or surface water flood occurs when heavy rainfall creates a flood event
independent of an overflowing stream. This is common in urban areas when the
drainage systems are clogged.

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 Groundwater
-fresh water found in the rock and soil layers beneath the surface
The groundwater is the largest reservoir of liquid fresh water on Earth. It constitutes about
30.1% of the total freshwater on the planet.
Water-bearing rock layers are called aquifers, akin to a "sponge" that holds
groundwater in tiny cracks, cavities, and pores between mineral grains.

Porosity - the total amount of empty pore

spaces in the rock
- determines the amount of
groundwater that an aquifer can
hold; Loose materials such as sand
and gravel have high porosity and
can hold large amount of water.
Crystalline rocks such as basalt and
diorite have low porosity.
The movement of groundwater within the aquifer is also controlled by the permeability
of the material.
Permeability- the ability of the rock or sediments to allow water to pass through it
- In permeable materials, the pore spaces are interconnected throughout the
rock, allowing the free flow of groundwater. Porous materials do not
necessarily have high permeability. Clay and mud are porous materials but
have low permeability. Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, loose sand, and
highly fractured rocks are examples of materials with moderate to high
permeability and make good aquifers.

Groundwater Profile
When a well is excavated in the ground, the
first layer encountered is the moist soil layer on the
surface. Beneath, this is a zone in which the spaces
between the particles are filled mainly with air. This is
called the zone of aeration or unsaturated zone. The
layer beneath the zone of aeration is the zone of
saturation. In this layer, the spaces between the
particles are filled with water.

The boundary between the zone of aeration

and the zone of saturation is the water table. Directly
above the water table is a layer called capillary
fringe, wherein groundwater seeps up to fill the pore
spaces in the zone of aeration by capillary action.
The shape of the water table resembles the
topography—it is high beneath hills and low beneath
valleys. Its location also fluctuates depending on the season. During wet season, the water

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table is found at shallow depths. It migrates deeper below the ground during the dry season,
resulting to drying of shallow wells.

Aquifers, Artesian Wells, and Springs

A reliable groundwater supply can be obtained from aquifers with good porosity and
permeability such as coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rocks.
unconfined aquifer - An aquifer in which the groundwater is free to rise to its natural level

Water is open to the

atmosphere through pores in the soil
and rock above the aquifer.
In a confined aquifer, the
water is trapped and held down by
pressure between impermeable
rocks called aquiclude. The pressure
in confined aquifer will cause water
to rise in wells drilled through it. Water
could rise in this well without
pumping if the well is located at an
elevation, which is below the
recharge zone of the confined
aquifer. This is called artesian well. A
perched water table or aquifer
occurs when there is a localized
aquiclude above the main water table. It stores a relatively small amount of groundwater. The
land area where water enters the ground and replenish the groundwater is called the
recharge zone. For unconfined aquifers, this is basically the whole drainage basin or
watershed. In confined aquifers, the recharge zone is limited only in areas where the aquifer is
exposed to the surface. The discharge zone is the area where the groundwater flows out of
the aquifer and onto land surface or even in submarine environment. A well in which
groundwater is pumped out is also a discharge zone.
When groundwater emerges to the ground surface, it creates a spring. Spring occurs
usually in places where there is a decrease in permeability of the underlying material, such as
presence of an aquiclude below an aquifer.

Groundwater-Stream Relationship
There is an interaction between groundwater flow and stream flow. There are streams
that lose water downstream and dry up. In this type of stream, the water flows underground
and contributes to the groundwater. This type of stream is called losing or influent stream
In contrast, there are streams that are fed by groundwater. This stream is referred to as
gaining or effluent stream. A stream or segments of large streams could either be gaining or
losing depending on the amount of available water. For example, during dry seasons, the
lower part of the stream could dry up, turning it into a losing stream but when there is abundant
water in the wet season, it will flow again as a gaining stream.

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Human Activities That Affect Water Resources
Environmental problems arising from human activities pose serious threats to water
resources. These concerns include pollution, climate change, population growth, and
changes in the landscape caused by deforestation. Each of them has a direct impact on the
ecosystem and in turn, on water resources.
a. Activities like farming, forest clearing, road building, and mining, if improperly
managed, can bring too much soil and suspended particles in rivers. These practices
can damage the ecosystem, contaminate the water, and obstruct boats plying along
the river.
b. Pollution can damage water resources and aquatic ecosystems. Major water
pollutants are organic matter and disease-causing organisms resulting from improper
waste disposal, fertilizers, and pesticides washed off from agricultural lands, acid rain
caused by pollution, and heavy metals from mining and industrial plants.
c. Extracting large amounts of water from surface water and ground water is a serious
problem. This is due in part to poor water management and deforestation. In the past,
much water has been extracted from under the ground that caused the surface to
collapse—a condition known as ground subsidence. Withdrawing great amounts of
water from underground removes the support of the overlying rock layers causing
them to sink. If large amount of water is withdrawn from groundwater in coastal areas,
salt water intrusion occurs. Too much withdrawal decreases the pressure of water
underground causing seawater to contaminate the groundwater.
d. Climate change, which is a likely effect of human activities, makes water scarce in
some parts of the planet.

Water Resource Management and Conservation

The ever-increasing pressure in the water resources calls for an effective water resources
management. It involves planning, developing, distributing, and managing the optimum use
of water resources. Successful management requires accurate knowledge of the available
resources and demands and mechanisms necessary to translate policies into actions. In
response to growing water demands, various countries and regions have become determined
in addressing the natural viability of water resources. These include rainwater harvesting for
direct consumption and for replenishment of groundwater. Surface water is also diverted into
basins in recharge zones to increase infiltration, reduce evaporation, and improve water
quality. Dams and reservoirs are built to provide additional water storage. Interbasin transfer
of water also augments the water supply in heavily stressed systems. For example, the Ipo
transbasin tunnel transfers water from Angat River to La Mesa Dam, augmenting the water
supply required for Metro Manila.
Current technological advances make the wastewater reusable after extensive
treatment to remove biodegradable materials, nutrients, and pathogens. Nonpotable water
can be used for irrigation, in industry, to maintain stream flows, and to replenish aquifers. In the
Middle East, countries in coastal areas also practice desalination. Desalination involves the
reduction of the mineral content by taking salt out of seawater and brackish water to produce
freshwater. Recent advances in technology have made process more accessible and cost-
efficient, which have allowed many countries to adapt the method.

In the Philippines, several laws and regulations have been enacted for the protection,
conservation, and management of freshwater resources.
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l. Presidential Decree (PD) No. 424 of 1974 created the National Water Resources Council
(NWRC) to coordinate and integrate water resources development.

2. PD No. 1067 (1976) instituted the Water Code which consolidated the laws governing the
ownership, appropriation, utilization, exploitation, development, conservation, and protection
of the water resources subject to regulation by the NWRC.

3. Executive Order (EO) No. 222 of 1995 established the Presidential Committee on Water
Conservation and Demand Management which was tasked to prepare a nationwide Water
Conservation Plan.

4. Republic Act (RA) No. 8041 or the National Water Crisis Act of 1995 addressed the country's
water problems through an integrated water management program and development of
new water resources and conservation of identified watersheds, among other provisions.

5. The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 also provided a comprehensive water quality
management.

Aside from these various laws, local city and municipal ordinances are also created for
the specific water resources conservation and protection. The full implementation of these
laws by concerned authorities is crucial in the proper management and conservation of the
dwindling water resources.

Lesson 2: Soil and Man

The Pedosphere
Soil is an essential component of
Earth that enabled life to exist on the
planet and continues to support it. It
forms the pedosphere, which is the
foundation of terrestrial life on this
planet. The term "pedosphere" is derived
from the Greek words pedon which
means "soil" and sfaira which means
"sphere".
Pedosphere- the living skin of Earth
which is a result of the dynamic
interaction among the atmosphere,
biosphere, geosphere, and the
hydrosphere.

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The Components of Soil
Soil- made from portions of the geosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere
-It is generally composed of 45% mineral (gravel, sand, silt, and clay), 25% air, 25%
water, and 5% organic matter (humus roots, and dead and decaying organisms).

Soil Formation
Soil forms when rock weathers. Weathering, or the breakdown of rocks, may result from
a physical or chemical change. Soil formation may be a slow or a rapid process, depending
on the factors at play.

Five factors that affect soil formation:

1. Composition of the parent material — The parent or source material is important in soil
formation because its chemistry and type will determine the kind of soil that will be formed
along with the effects of the other factors.
Residual soils- Soils formed on site through the weathering of the underlying rock.
However, most soils are transported from their source to another area by agents of
erosion and transportation such as water, wind, and ice.

2. Climate — Temperature, rainfall, and moisture affects the pattern and intensity of soil-
forming processes such as weathering, leaching, transportation, and distribution. Climate also
affects the type of organisms, biological activity, and rates of chemical reactions. Thus, soil
types vary depending on climate.

3. Topography — The gradient of the slope affects water flow and erosion. Soils that form in
steep slopes tend to be thinner because of the higher rates of erosion. Slope aspect, which is
the direction of the slope face, affects temperature and moisture as slopes facing the sun are
warmer. As a result, different types of soil form in different landforms.

4. Biological factors — Organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans affect
soil formation. Animals and microorganisms mix the soil through burrowing, while plant roots
aid in the weathering process as they grow. Microorganisms also affect nutrient and chemical
exchanges between roots and soil. Human activities such as agriculture and urbanization
have positive and negative effects on the quantity and quality of soil.

5. Time — The formation of soil is a long and continuous process which may take hundreds to
thousands of years depending on the climate and environment. In moderate climates, it takes
200 to 400 years to develop 1 cm of soil. The rate is faster in tropical climates and much longer
in dry and cold climates.

Soil Texture
-defined as the relative proportion of the particle sizes in the soil—sand, silt, and clay
Soil is naturally composed of a mixture of these particles and proportion of which affects
other soil properties such as soil porosity and water retention. The smallest of these particles is

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clay (<0.002 mm), followed by silt (0.002—0.05 mm),
and sand of varying sizes (0.05—2.00 mm). Particles
larger than coarse-grained sand are called gravel
and rock if they are > 75.00 mm.

The proportions of clay, silt, and sand are

plotted in the soil textural triangle to determine its soil
type based on particle size. The ideal soil for
agricultural use is loam. Loam provides good
aeration and drainage properties of large particles
with nutrient-retention and water-holding abilities of
clay articles.

The texture of soil depends on the percentage of clay, silt and sand that it has.

Soil Profile
Soil formation is a gradual process which involves the development of a succession of
zones or soil horizons. Each horizon has a distinct set of physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics. The sequence of soil horizons form the surface down to the underlying bedrock
is called a soil profile. Soil profiles vary depending on climate, topography, rock type or parent
materials, biological activity, and time.
Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to identify the soil horizons. Most soils
have three major horizons: A, B, and C horizons.
Surface horizon(A)- composed of mineral matter mixed with some dark organic humus
Subsoil (B)- the accumulated clay and other nutrients from the layers above it
Substratum (C)- composed of partially altered parent material
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 Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface, composed of loose or partly
decayed organic matter. Some have horizon (E) that is characterized by a significant
loss of minerals (eluviation) and leaching. The hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the
letter (R) while the layer of loose, heterogeneous, superficial material covering the
bedrock is collectively called regolith.

Soil and Soil Quality

Soil is not dirt—it is a resource. It is a
main component of land resources,
agriculture, and ecological sustainability. It
also provides food and foundation for shelter.
Soil is important in sustaining man’s existence
and provides humans with the following
services:
I. Arable land for agriculture — The word
"arable" comes from comes from the Latin
arabilis, which means "able to be “plowed."
Thus arable lands are plowable lands which
could be used to grow crops.

2. Regulating water and filtering potential

pollutants — In the water cycle, soil plays an
important part in absorbing water and storing
it as groundwater. Water and dissolved
solutes also flow over the land or into and
through the soil. The minerals and microbes in
soil are also responsible for filtering,
degrading, immobilizing, and detoxifying organic and inorganic materials.

3. Nutrient cycling — Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other essential nutrients are stored,
transformed, and cycled in the soil. Nitrogen in the atmosphere, for example, cannot be
readily used by organisms. It must first be converted into ammonium by nitrogen-fixing
bacteria and then into nitrates by nitrifying bacteria before it can be assimilated by plants and
transferred into the food chain. All of these processes occur within the soil.

4. Foundation and support — Soil structure provides a base for plant roots. Soils along the
bedrock also provide foundation and support for human shelter and structures such as houses
and roads.

5. Mineral deposits — Soils are mined for their mineral content—whether it be iron, nickel, or
aluminum. These soils are called laterites. They are commonly formed in hot and wet tropical
areas. Laterites are mostly rusty-red in color because of its high iron oxide content.

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How Human Activities Degrade Soil Quality
Soil is a nonrenewable, finite resource which is generally not recoverable within a human
lifespan.
soil degradation- defined as a change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished
capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries
Degraded soils cannot provide the goods and services required by its ecosystem.

l. Soil erosion- refers to absolute soil losses in terms of topsoil and nutrients
- It is indeed the most visible effect of soil degradation.
-Soil erosion is a natural process but is often made much worse by poor management
practices.

2. Soil compaction reduces the amount of air, water, and space available to roots and soil
organisms.
-An example of compaction is caused by repeated traffic or traveling on wet soil.

3. Desertification is the irreversible change of the land to such a state where it can no longer
be recovered for its original use. It is characterized by droughts and arid conditions as a result
of human activities and exploitation.

4. Intensive agriculture has been increasing since the 1960s in an effort to feed the world
population more efficiently. However, this intensification of agriculture has led to the use of
more and heavier machinery, deforestation, and clearing of land for use in cultivation. As a
consequence, these activities led to the loss of organic matter, soil compaction, and damage
to soil physical properties. The over-application of nutrients with fertilizers and pesticides led to
contaminated soil and water supplies leading to the further loss of soil fauna and flora which
are an essential parts of a healthy soil.

5. Urbanization or the increasing population has led to the conversion of land to urban centers
which are generally characterized by concrete structures, roads, and pavements. These
concrete structures represent a significant loss of soil, particularly because this loss becomes
more or less permanent as soil is sealed with concrete. Such sealing hinders the soil's interaction
with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere which affects nutrient cycling and other soil
services.

Conservation of Soil Resource

The effects of human activities on soil can be mitigated through sustainable soil
management:
a. Increasing soil organic matter — The addition of new organic matter is important in
improving and maintaining soil quality. It also improves soil structure and enhances
water and nutrient-holding capacity.
b. Keeping the soil covered and vegetated— Ground cover and vegetation protects the
soil. It also provides habitats for larger soil organisms and can improve water availability.
The soil can be covered by leaving crop residue on the surface or by planting cover
crops.

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 c. Avoiding excessive tillage — Tillage is done to loosen surface soil and break up soil
structure. Reducing it minimizes the loss of organic matter and protects the soil surface
from further erosion.
d. Manage pests and nutrient efficiently — Efficient pest and nutrient management
requires regular testing and monitoring soil conditions and pests, along with the
application of only the necessary chemicals at the right time and place.
e. Promoting crop rotation — Changing vegetation across the landscape over time allows
the soil to recover, as different plants contribute in a unique way to soil structure and
composition. It also increases the diversity of plants as well as other organisms in the
area.
f. Reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction — Erosion can be prevented by
keeping the ground covered and vegetated and by channeling excess surface water
runoff. Soil compaction can be prevented by restricting human activities to designated
areas and pathways.

Lesson 3: Human Activities and Environment

Ecosystem Services

Environment- refers to everything that surrounds a living organism, which includes physical
factors such as air, water, and soil, and biological factors such as living organisms, flora, and
fauna
Ecosystem- a community of organisms interacting with each other and with the abiotic or
nonliving components of the environment.
As a result of the dynamic interaction, energy is exchanged and the cycling of
important nutrients is facilitated.
A healthy ecosystem is essential in sustaining life on Earth because it provides services.
Ecosystem services refer to the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human
survival and quality of life.

I. Support services include the cycling of vital nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus—
minerals that are essential for survival and can only be derived in their usable forms through
the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles, respectively. Support services may also include the
decomposition o organic matter, cycling of water, and production of primary materials.

2. Provisioning services provide the basic needs for survival—air, water, shelter, food, and
energy. The photosynthesis in plants, the water cycle, the food web, and the presence of
different natural ecosystems, such as forests, rivers, and seas, provide these basic necessities.

3. Regulating services are benefits obtained by regulating the climate, hazards, and diseases
through processes such as carbon sequestration—removal of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere and storage in plants.

4. Cultural services include nonmaterial benefits such as spiritual enrichment, cultural heritage,
recreation, tourism, and the aesthetic experience that nature provides for humans.

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Human Activities, Waste and Waste Management
One of the ways humans affect the environment is the generation of waste. If not
managed properly, these wastes will pollute and affect the environment. Solid waste is
generally made up of objects or particles that accumulate on the site where they are
produced.

1. Municipal waste includes materials that people in a community no longer want

because they are broken, spoiled, or no longer useful. This type of waste comes from
households, commercial establishments, institutions, and some industrial sources.

2. Agricultural waste is a common form of waste derived from farming and poultry. Most
agricultural waste is organic and is used for soil-enhancing activities. Other materials are
burned as a source of energy. Too much agricultural waste in the form of fertilizers is
deposited into bodies of water, which can cause eutrophication.

3. Industrial solid waste comes from industrial sources other than mining. It includes a
variety of materials such as demolition waste, scraps from manufacturing processes,
and ash from combustion. If they are classified as hazardous, disposal requires special
landfills for their isolation and treatment.

4. Mining waste is generated in three ways. In most mining operations, large amounts of
rock and soil are removed to extract the valuable ores and the waste materials are left
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 outside the mining site. In milling operations, the grinding and sorting of materials
produce solid waste called tailings, which are dumped and stored in ponds near the
milling site. Lastly, water that is pumped from mines flows from piles of waste rock or
tailings that contain hazardous materials.

Methods of Waste Disposal

1. Landfill is the cheapest and the most convenient method. A typical solid waste landfill
is constructed above an impermeable clay layer that is lined with an impermeable
membrane. The every deposit of fresh garbage is covered with a layer of soil to prevent
it from blowing around. However, the threat of groundwater contamination reduces the
use of this practice.

2. Incineration involves burning in a controlled manner using an incinerator. Incineration

coupled with high-temperature waste treatments are recognized as thermal
treatments. During incineration, the waste material being treated is converted into gas,
particles, and heat. These products are later used to generate electricity. These gases
must be treated again to eradicate pollutants before mixing in to the atmosphere.

3. Mulch and compost method- one of the simplest methods to dispose water at homes.
Composting is the method of allowing the natural process of decomposition to
transform organic materials into humus-like material called compost.

4. Source reduction- refers to the method of designing, manufacturing, purchasing, using

and reusing materials so that the amount of waste or its toxicity is reduced.

5. Recycling- the method of collecting throwaway materials and turning them into useful
products.

The Resource Cycle

Resource cycle- the process involving the
transformation of a raw material into a
usable or consumable product and its
disposal.
It starts with extraction of resources
and raw materials through mining,
cultivating, and/or harvesting. The
extracted materials are then processed,
transported, and manufactured into new
products to be delivered to or purchased
by consumers. During these stages, waste
can be generated. These wastes affect
Earth's subsystems—geosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
biosphere—which provide the resources

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 and raw materials. Reducing the demand of resources, minimizing waste, and recycling and
reusing of materials may help balance the production of resources and disposal of waste.

Waste Management
Waste management in homes, schools,
communities, and industries can be done using
the waste management hierarchy of options. The
most effective way to reduce waste is to reduce
the waste at the source. It involves buying
durable products that can be used for a long
time and refraining from buying disposable
products that lead to more waste. The second
option is to reuse and recycle solid waste to serve
another purpose. This includes reusing plastic
bags, empty bottles, and other disposable
materials. Organic waste such as leftover food
and vegetable peelings can also be converted
into compost for planting through different
techniques of biocomposting. The third option is
the treatment of waste to minimize its effects on the environment. Only until all these options
are exhausted and done should solid waste be disposed to properly designed and operated
waste disposal facilities.

C. Learning Activity

Please refer to the MLO.

D. Resources
https://climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/216/coloring-page-the-water-cycle/
https://moodle.digital-campus.org/mod/page/view.php?id=32243
https://timescavengers.blog/climate-change/ocean-layers-mixing/
https://www.deq.louisiana.gov/assets/docs/Water/DWPP_forkidsandeducators/PorosityandP
ermeability.pdf
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-components-of-
groundwater/
https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/I.-Soils-as-Components-of-Ecosystems-II.-Soils-as-
Coleman/385ec9f8b85f3d903cf74e3e20c045fba2915a77/figure/2
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/USDA-Soil-Texture-Triangle_fig2_279631053

E. Assessment
(Please refer to the MLO.)
References:
(Copied mostly from)OLIVAR II, J. T., et al., 2016. Earth Science. Phoenix Publishing House.

FELICERTA, C. N. 2017. Breaking Through Earth Science. C& E Publishing, Inc.

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