VECTOR INTERPRETATION OF COMPLEX

NUIUBERS
A complex number z = fr + rv can be con-
sidered as a vector op whose initial point
is the
origin o and whose terminal poi.nt p is the
qqnt (n,al as in Fig. !-4. we sometimes call
oP = fr + ia the posiiion 1)ector of p. Two vec-
tors having the same lengilr, or rnagni,tud,e
and
direction but different initial poirits,
such as
oP and AB in Fig. L-4, are considered equal.
Hence we write Op _ AB
= fr * iA. Fig, l -4
 Addition of complex numbers corresponds
to the paral,Ielogrant laus for addition of vectors e
fsee Fig. 1-5]. Thus to aclcl the conlplex num-
bers z1 and ?zr we complete the parailelogram
oABc whose sides oA anc oC corresponcl to
frr and 22. The diagonal oB of this parallelo-
gram corresponds to zt * zz. See problem 5, Fig. I -5

SPHBRICAL REPRESENTATIOI{ OF CO1}fPLEX I{U&TBERS-

STE RE OG RAP H I C I} TTO.I E C TI oil*'.
Let Q [tris. 1-6] ir* the complex lrlane ancl consicier a unit sphere J
ta ? at z - S. The cliameter iraclius one] tangent
'\it is perpenclicular ta ry:incl we call points N and S the nortlt
and south Ttoles of J'. {Jtsrrespo}tcling to uin},
pcint A on cP we can c{}nst.r'Lrr:t line NA inter-
secting J at point A'. J'hus to each trroint of
the complex plane ::!) there corr.esponcls one
and onl}'one i;oirit of tiie sphere J', irncl we can
represent arlrv cornplex lrllrllber by a point on
the sphere. Far cornpleteness rve -qa), th:rt the
point i/ itself corresponcls to the "point at
irifinity" of tlie 1:lzrne. The set of all points
of the co:^rlplex plane inc lricling the poin t a1
irrfirrity is caliecl the i:ittirt t:{) tit pie.t. pttt.Tlr-,, t}re
eiitire z i:Irttte, {}r'the t::t.tt:rtdttti t:ont,1tle:t TsIunp. Fis. l -6

The above method f or" mappins the plane on to the sphere is callecl ster"eogra,phic
7t't'*iectioit. The splier'e is $Lllirei.inles caiieci the |tiet?La.11r1 sVtlt eye.

SOT ANS CROSS PRONUCT

Let .21

p,oduct flalso cailed the sca,rar. complex nlmbers

prod,uctJ of flt and z.z is fvectors j. The dot
by
L

definecl
ZtoEz
where 0 is the angle between
Re{ifiz} = ${u&z*zdz}
(1 2)
El and z2which lies between 0 and ri.
The c?"o.s.9 prodact of zt and Ep is defined by
ZrXZz
Im { 2&z}
Clearly, tl 8)
2122 = (zt o zz) # i(4 x 22) = lzrllz2l ete
(1 4)
If ar and zz are non-zero,
then
1' and sufficient conclition that
*":;:T:rv zt and, zz be perpendicutar is that
2. A necessary and sufficient
condition that
EB be parallel is that
nr and
zr x zz = 0.
3. The rnagnitude of the projection
of lr on zz is lr, o rzl/ lrrl.
4. The area of a parallelogram
having sides ar and zz is
zzl, lzrx
COMPLEX CONJUGATE COORDINATES \
A point in the complex plane can be located by rectangular 3
coordinates (z', d). iwany oiher possibilities coorclirrates Zl) or polar
exist. one such possibility uses tx,
the fact that
* = ir:,*.u), tt:
*O*U where z = r*i!t. The coorctinares (2,2) which Iocate & point
are called compler corLju.gate cartt'clirmtes o.briefly
Problems conjttgate coord,inates of the point
fsee 48 ancl 441.

I)OINT SETS
Any collection of points in the comyrlex plane
is cailed a (ttao-d.inze.nsional) point set,
:i:;,"il:l,i:J:,#_:"il:: ,#,1".,. .rr," ioro*ing"?u'cramentai
.",Ji,!J1JJ",o;.,.,r,'i,,i,,,"",'
1. Neighbourhoocls. A delta, or6,neigltltottrltoocl
sttch that lz * zrl ( 6 rvhere u i-'
of a point eo is the set of all points a
*itrr'
"'i of o".ttt"e number. A 4,eleted. E rteigh-
is a neighbotrrhoocl'
?,"1'nr"lorr'"'ae6
t" "i
*r'i"r' the p.int i i, omittea, i.e.
2' Limit Points' A point;o is called aliiittt
lirLint, clu.st<rt.pcthrt, or poittt of accumu-
lotion'f a point set s if every clelet'ed 6 neighbourhooa
of ee contains points of s.
since 6 can be an.v positive nunrber, it
man-v points. Note that :?rr ntir.v
follorvs that s must have infinitely
or ma_,r not belong to the set S.
;i. Cf osed Sets. A set S is saitl Io lse
tlosr:tl if. every Iimit point of S belongs
i e. if -s co'rains :rii its rimit poi'is. to S,
that :zr ..r, 1 is a closed -set. For inu set .f aii points e such
"*ampi.,
4' Rounded sets' 'A' set s is cirllerl ltrturtdtzcl
z''- trl for eYcry Point ': in s. An lLirliotLrttlldif rve can fincl a cc.nsfant M such that
sei is one rvhich is n.t bounded.
A set ivhich is both bouncred anrr crosecr
is somei.imes cailed carnpcct.
5. Interior, Exterinr and llotrndar_v lroints. A point
eo is calleci an i.rtterior point
of a sel s if we can finrl a-,5 neigirbotrrhoocl
of z6 all of whose points belong tos. If
every 6 neiglihourhood of zo contains
points il;;;; to s and also points not
belonging to
's, then zu is cailecl a bounclary poit,t. "li"a point is not an interior
or boundary point of a set S, it is an e;rtetior poirrl
of S.
6. Open Sets' An ()])crt
set is a set u,hich consists only of interior
exarnple, the set of points z such th*t jri points. For
set"
7' connected sets' An open set s is saicl to be conn.ected
set can be joined by a path consisting if any trvo points of the
patlt) all points of which are of straight rine segments (i.e. a polagonat
in S-
8. or Domains. An open connected set is called
3lilrf:rt"ns an open region or
9. Closure of a Set. If to a set s rve add all the
limit points of ,s, the nevr set is
called the closin.e of S and is a closed set.
10. Closed Regions. The closure of an open region or domain is cailed a
?'e gion. croserl

ll' Regions' If to an open regi'rn or dornain we add some,

all or none of its limit
points, we obtain a set called a region.
If all the limit points are added, the
region is closed; if none are added, the region is open.
use the wotcl rcgion without qualifying it,
In this book whenever we
we shall mean open region or domain.
+ 12' Union and rntersection of Sets. A set consisting of all points belonging to set Sr
or set sz or to both sets Sr and Sz is called the uiion of Sr and
Sr and is denoted
by Sr*Sr or SrUSz.
A set consisting of ali points belonging to both sets sr and sr is
intersection of sr and s: and is denotecl by srsz or called ihe
sr o sr.
13' Complement of a Set. A set consisting of all pjrints which do not
belong to S is
calied the complement of S and is denoted by ,S.
14' Null Sets and Subsets. It is convenient to consider a set consisting
ail' This set is callecl the null sef and is denoted bv of no points at
e. If two sets Sr and Sr
have no points in common (in u^hich case they uru""oii.Jatri"l"i""r"'nzuttnlty
erclusite sefs), we can indicate this by writini Sr o
Sz = O.
rL ny set f ornrecl b.r' choosing
some, all or none of the points of a set S is
called a s?tllset of S. If we exci*cle the ca.se where
all points of S are chosen,
Lhe set is c*lleci il pt'oper s*b sat of s.

t5' countabilitv of a Set. If the members or elements of a set can be placecl into
one .to one colrespondence a
rvith the naturar numbers 1, z, 3, . . . , the set is calred
ctttLntable ot denurnerable; otherrvise it is non-countable or
non-oenumerttble.
The following are two important theorems on point sets.
I' \tr'eiel'st rass-ll *lzalto ?'heor"ern. Every bor:ndecl infinite set has at
point. least one lirnit

2' Heine-B'rel rheorem. r,et. s"be a compact set each point

of which is contained
in one or more of the open sets Ar,Az,..-. u.u ti.n said to coret. s]. Then
[which
tliere exists a finite number of the sets .4r, A2,...
which wili cover S.