Complex eigenvalues

Brian Krummel
November 1, 2019

Today we want to find complex eigenvalues and eigenvectors of 2 × 2 (and 3 × 3 matrices A.

The eigenvectors will be column vectors with complex entries. Thus we define:
Definition 1. Cn is the set of all n × 1 column vectors whose entries are complex numbers.
For instance,  
1+i
 2 − 3i 
i
is a vector in C3 . Each vector z in Cn can be expressed as z = u + iv where u, v are real vectors
in Rn . We call u the real part of z and v the imaginary part of z. For instance
     
1+i 1 1
 2 − 3i  =  2  + i  −3 
i 0 1
with    
1 1
real part =  2  imaginary part =  −3  .
0 1
The complex conjugate of a z in Cn is the vector z in Cn whose entries are the complex conjugates
of the corresponding entries of z. For instance,
   
1+i 1−i
conjugate of  2 − 3i  =  2 + 3i  .
i −i
If z = u + iv in Cn , where u, v are real vectors in Rn , then
z = u − iv.
Before finding complex eigenvalues, let’s make some general remarks about the theory. Suppose
A is any n × n matrix with real number entries and suppose λ is a complex eigenvalue of A
with corresponding complex eigenvector x. If c is any complex number, then c x is a complex
eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ. Moreover, since the eigenvalues of A are the roots
of the characteristic polynomial of A, the complex eigenvalues come in conjugate pairs and λ is
an eigenvalue. Using the properties of conjugates from the previous lecture,
Ax = Ax = λx = λ x.
Therefore λ is also a complex eigenvalue of A with corresponding eigenvector x.

1
Example 1. Let A be the rotation matrix by 90 degrees clockwise:
 
0 −1
A= .
1 0

Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.

Answer. Finding eigenvalues of A. Solving the characteristic equation
 
 −λ −1 
det(A − λI) =   = λ2 + 1 = 0.
1 −λ 
√
Then λ = ±i, where i = −1. In particular, A has complex eigenvalues.
Finding eigenvectors corresponding to λ = i. To find the complex eigenvectors of A, we have to
row reduce  
−i −1
A − iI = .
1 −i
which has complex number entries, making life complicated. What we can do is swap rows so that
the real number 1 is in the first pivot position. Since A − i I is a 2 × 2 non-zero singular matrix,
it must have rank one and thus its second row must be a complex constant multiple of the first
row. In this case we add R2 + i R1 7→ R2:
     
−i −1 R1 ↔ R2 1 −i R2+i R1 7→ R2 1 −i
A − iI = −−−−−→ −−−−−−−−→ .
1 −i −i −1 0 0

Thus x2 is a free variable and x1 is a basic variable with x1 = i x2 . By setting x2 = 1 we obtain

the eigenvector corresponding to λ = i  
i
.
1
Note that as a simple trick, we could have noted that
   
−b a b
x= solves x=0
a 0 0

for all numbers a, b, where we obtained x by taking the values a, b in the matrix, swapped the
order (b, a), and then negating one of the entries to get x = (−b, a) (as a column vector). With
a = 1 and b = −i this gives us the eigenvector above.
We could do this a bit differently:
     
−i −1 R2+i R1 7→ R2 −i −1 −R1 7→ R1 i 1
A − iI = −−−−−−−−→ −−−−−−→
1 −i 0 0 0 0

so that x2 = −ix1 . Setting x1 = 1 we obtain the eigenvector corresponding to λ = i

 
1
.
−i

2
Why are we getting two eigenvectors? Well, the complex eigenvectors are well-defined up to
multiplying by a complex number scalar. In this case
   
1 i
= −i
−i 1

so we really obtained the same eigenvector up to scaling. When finding complex eigenvectors of
2 × 2 matrices, typically people find one of two possible complex eigenvectors up to scaling by a
real number. These are not wrong answers, simply the complex eigenvalues are complex number
multiples of one another.
Finding eigenvectors corresponding to λ = −i. The eigenvector corresponding to λ = −i is just
the complex conjugate of the eigenvectors corresponding to i,
 
−i
.
1

Example 2. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of

 
2 5
A= .
−2 4

Answer. Finding eigenvalues of A. Solving the characteristic equation

 
 2−λ 5 
det(A − λI) =   = (2 − λ)(4 − λ) + 10 = λ2 − 6λ + 18 = (λ − 3)2 + 9 = 0.
−2 4 − λ 

Thus λ = 3 ± 3i.
Finding eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 3 − 3i. We again know that A − (3 − 3i) I is a
rank one 2 × 2 matrix and thus its second row is a multiple of its first row. We can verify this by
noticing that  
−1 + 3i 5
A − (3 − 3i) I =
−2 1 + 3i
so that in the first row the first entry is the complex number −1 + 3i and the second entry is the
real number −2. By multiplying the first row by the conjugate of −1 + 3i, we obtain:
   
−1 + 3i 5 (−1−3i) R1 7→ R1 10 −5(1 + 3i)
A − (3 − 3i) I = −−−−−−−−−→
−2 1 + 3i −2 1 + 3i

so that R1 = −5 R2. Verifying this is not absolutely necessary; if we found the complex eigenvalue
λ correctly then A − λI is always a rank one matrix and in particular its first row is always a
multiple of its second row. However, verifying that the rows are multiples of one another is a good
sanity check to make sure we got the right eigenvalue. Since the rows of the matrices are multiples
of one another, we can subtract some multiple of the first row from the second row to get
   
−1 + 3i 5 −1 + 3i 5
A − (3 − 3i) I = −→ .
−2 1 + 3i 0 0

3
 5
Thus x2 is a free variable and x1 is a basic variable such that x1 = 1−3i
· x2 . Setting x2 = 1 − 3i,
an eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 3 − 3i is
 
5
.
1 − 3i

We could have done this a bit differently as

   
−1 + 3i 5 (−1−3i) R1 7→ R1 10 −5(1 + 3i)
A − (3 − 3i) I = −−−−−−−−−→
−2 1 + 3i −2 1 + 3i
   
R1 ↔ R2 −2 1 + 3i R2+5 R1 7→ R2 −2 1 + 3i
−−−−−→ −−−−−−−−→ .
10 −5(1 + 3i) 0 0
1+3i
Thus x2 is a free variable and x1 is a basic variable such that x1 = 2
· x2 . Setting x2 = 2, we
obtain the eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 3 − 3i
 
1 + 3i
.
2

Both eigenvectors might look like very different answers, but as we mentioned before these eigen-
vectors are complex scalar multiples of one another:
   
5 1 − 3i 1 + 3i
= .
1 − 3i 5 2

Finding eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 3 + 3i. Taking the complex conjugate of the

eigenvector corresponding to 3 − 3i:  
1 − 3i
.
2
Now suppose A is a 2 × 2 matrix with a complex eigenvalue λ = a − ib, where b 6= 0, and
corresponding eigenvector x = u + iv. That is, λ has real part a and imaginary part −b. The
reason for looking at the conjugate a − ib will come clear in a moment. x has real part u and
imaginary part v. Since x is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ,

Ax = λx.

Since
Ax = Au + iAv, λx = (a − ib) (u + iv) = (au + bv) + i (−bu + av),
Ax = λx means that
Au = au + bv Av = −bu + av.
In other words, after converting to {u, v}-coordinates, A transforms into the matrix
 
a −b
.
b a

Equivalently,  
a −b
P −1
 
A=P where P = u v
b a

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The geometric interpretation of this is as follows. Let λ = re−iθ = r cos(θ) − i r sin(θ). Then
   
−1 a −b cos(θ) − sin(θ)
A = P BP where B = =r
b a sin(θ) cos(θ)

that is, A is similar to the matrix B which scales by r and rotates by counter-clockwise by an
angle θ. In other words, geometrically B acts on vectors as follows:

xL
Bv

r\

D
e; ,v
I

xl
,
J
J

In terms of the basis {u, v}, A acts on vectors by:

xz

v
-\
A,,
I \
I

xr

Example 2 continued. Given  

2 5
A= ,
−2 4
write A = P BP −1 .
Answer. Recall that we found the eigenvectors
     
1 + 3i 1 3
λ = a − bi = 3 − 3i u + iv = = +i .
2 2 0

Thus A = P BP −1 where
     
a −b 3 −3   1 3
B= = P = u v = .
b a 3 3 2 0

5
 √
Since λ = 3 − 3i = 3 2e−iπ/4 , multiplication by A is given by:

xz

Au

,\-
xl

Example 3. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of

i-l-. Y)'1 r\;'l*3;;*'lZ+.;
I- !r**,,ii
{-r
 ) ?.
. J JI

7 −4
A=
5 −1

and write A = P BP −1 .
Answer. Finding eigenvalues of A. Solving the characteristic equation
 
 7−λ −4 
det(A − λI) =  = (7 − λ)(−1 − λ) + 20 = λ2 − 6 λ + 13 = (λ − 3)2 + 4 = 0
5 −1 − λ 

so λ = 3 ± 2i.
Finding eigenvectors corresponding to λ = 3 − 2i. We have
   
4 − 2i −4 (1/2) R2 7→ R2 4 − 2i −4
A − (3 − 2i) I = −−−−−−−−→ .
5 −4 − 2i 5 −2 − i

Let’s regard the (1, 1)-entry as 2(2 − i) and multiply the top row by the conjugate of 2 − i:
     
4 − 2i −4 (2−i) R1 7→ R1 10 −4(2 − i) R1 ↔ R1 5 −2 − i
A − (3 − 2i) I −→ −−−−−−−−→ −−−−−→
5 −2 − i 5 −2 − i 10 −4(2 − i)
 
R2−2 R1 7→ R2 5 −2 − i
−−−−−−−−→
0 0
2+i
Thus x2 is a free variable and x1 is a basic variable with x1 = 2
x2 . Thus an eigenvector
corresponding to λ = 3 − 2i is  
2+i
5
Alternatively we have
     
4 − 2i −4 4 − 2i −4 (1/2) R1 7→ R1 2 − i −2
A − (3 − 2i) I = −→ −−−−−−−−→
5 −4 − 2i 0 0 0 0

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giving us the complex eigenvalue  
2
.
2−i
Similar matrix. We found the eigenvectors
     
2+i 2 1
λ = a − bi = 3 − 2i u + iv = = +i .
5 5 0

Thus A = P BP −1 where
     
a −b 3 −2   2 1
B= = P = u v = .
b a 2 3 5 0

Note that if A is an n × n matrix with a mix of real and complex eigenvalues, we can represent
A as A = P BP −1 in a manner similar to diagonal matrices and 2 × 2 matrices with complex
eigenvalues.

Example 4. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of

 
1 0 −2
A= 1 3 1 .
2 0 1

Answer. Finding eigenvalues of A. Solving the characteristic equation

 
 1−λ 0 −2   
   1 − λ −2 
det(A − λI) =  1 3−λ 1  = (3 − λ)  
2 1−λ 
 2 0 1−λ 
= (3 − λ) ((1 − λ)2 + 4) = (3 − λ) ((λ − 1)2 + 4) = 0.

Then λ = 3, 1 + 2i, 1 − 2i.

Finding eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 3. We have
     
−2 0 −2 1 0 1 1 0 0
A − 3I =  1 0 1 −→ 1
  0 −1  −→  0 0 1 
2 0 −2 0 0 0 0 0 0

Thus x2 is a free variable and x1 , x3 are basic variables such that x1 = x3 = 0. An eigenvector of
A corresponding to λ = 3 is  
0
 1 
0
Finding eigenvector of A corresponding to λ = 1 − 2i. We have
   
2i 0 −2 i 0 −2
(1/2) R1 7→ R1
A − (1 − 2i) I =  1 2 + 2i 1  −−−−−−−−→  1 2 + 2i 1  .
(1/2) R3 7→ R3
2 0 2i 1 0 i

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Multiplying the first row by the conjugate of the first entry i:
   
i 0 −2 1 0 i
−i R1 7→ R1
A − (1 − 2i) I −→  1 2 + 2i 1  −−−−−−→  1 2 + 2i 1 
1 0 i 1 0 i
 
1 0 i
R2−R1 7→ R2
−−−−−−−→  0 2 + 2i 1 − i  .
R3−R1 7→ R3
0 0 0

Multiplying the second row by 1 − i to get (2 + 2i)(1 − i) = 2(1 + i)(1 − i) = 4 and noting that
(1 − i)2 = −2i:
   
1 0 i 1 0 i
(1−i) R1 7→ R1
A − (1 − 2i) I −→  0 2 + 2i 1 − i  −−−−−−−−→  1 4 −2i 
0 0 0 1 0 i
 
1 0 i
(1/2) R2 7→ R2
−−−−−−−−→  0 2 −i 
0 0 0

Thus x3 is a free variable and x1 , x2 are basic variables such that x1 = −i x3 and x2 = (i/2) x3 .
Setting x3 = 2 we obtain the eigenvectors of A corresponding to λ = 1 − 2i
     
−2i −2 0
 i =
  1 +i 0 
 
2 0 2

Similar matrix. Let’s write A = P BP −1 . For the real eigenvalue λ = 3, we simply have the
diagonal entry 3 in B and corresponding eigenvector in P :
   −1
0 ∗ ∗ 3 0 0 0 ∗ ∗
A =  1 ∗ ∗  0 ∗ ∗  1 ∗ ∗  .
0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ ∗ 0 ∗ ∗

For the complex eigenvalue λ = −2 + i, one has a 2 × 2 block in B as in Theorem ?? and

corresponding real and imaginary parts of the complex eigenvector in P :
   −1
∗ −2 0 ∗ 0 0 ∗ −2 0
A= ∗ 1 0   0 1 −2   ∗ 1 0  .
∗ 0 2 0 2 1 ∗ 0 2

Putting these two things together gives us:

   −1
0 −2 0 3 0 0 0 −2 0
A= 1  1 0   0 1 −2   1 1 0  .
0 0 2 0 2 1 0 0 2