IMMUNOLOGY and SEROLOGY LEC
o Demonstrated that serum
Immunology – study of the immune system or
immunity
Immunity derived from the Latin term “immunis”
which means exempt or incurrent usage immune
HISTORY
 Discipline of immunology grew out of
observation that individuals who recovered
from infectious diseases were protected from
the same diseases.
 15th century – Chinese and Turks tried to
prevent smallpox by inhaling dried crust from
pustules or by inserting the crust into small
cuts on the skin
 1718 – Lady Montagu had the technique done
on her children
 1798 – Edward Jenner
o Noticed that milkmaids that
contracted cowpox were immune to
smallpox
o Inoculated small boy with fluid from
cowpox pustule
o He then intentionally infected the boy
with smallpox – the child did not
develop smallpox and this became the
first formal study on the
immunization or vaccination
 Vaccination – derived from Latin word “vacca”
which means cow.
o Nowadays, this is considered example
of unethical clinical research as the
subject was deliberately exposed to
possible harm without the benefit
outweighing the risks and should not
be imitated.
 1881 – Louis Pasteur
o Vaccinated sheep with heat-
attenuated anthrax and succeeded in
preventing the sheep from developing
anthrax upon exposure. This was
additional evidence that vaccination
worked.
o Then infected sheep with virulent
strain of anthrax – they did not
develop anthrax
 1883 – Metchnikoff
o Demonstrated WBC were able to
phagocytize microorganisms. These
were later discovered to be
neutrophils and macrophages.
 1901 – Von Behring and Kitasato
(noncellular component of blood)
from animals immunized to diphtheria
could transfer that immunity to non-
immunized animals
o This made possible by passive transfer
of antibodies into serum
 1977
o Last known naturally acquired case of
smallpox was recorded. This success
can be attributed to vaccination.
o Is it still a threat?
 However, this success is not
entirely without repercussion.
Certain high security
government laboratories still
keep cultures of smallpox.
Should this be unintentionally
or intentionally released? It
would have catastrophic
effects to public health as we
now lack any form of
immunity to it as no one has
been exposed to or
vaccinated smallpox for
decades.
o In industrialized nations, measles,
mumps, whooping cough, tetanus,
polio and diphtheria are extremely
rare or nonexistent
o This is due to vaccines!
o Prevent death, paralysis,
deafness, blindness, mental
retardation

Two Systems of Immunity:
Immune System
 Evolved to protect multicellular organisms
from pathogens
 Does this by two related activities
o recognition and response
Definition of Terms
 Pathogen – something that causes disease
 Antigen – any foreign substance that binds
specifically to an antibody or T cell receptor
 Immunogen – a substance capable of eliciting
an immune response
 All immunogens are antigens but not all
antigens are immunogens
o (i.e., haptens – incomplete antigen
incapable of eliciting immune
response)
 Epitope – portion of the antigen that is
recognized by an antibody or T cell receptor
 Paratope – counterpart on the antibody
molecule
 Pathogens may be group into the ff:
 All of which possess antigens and
immunogens which may illicit an immune
response in the host during infection.
 We produce vaccines by identifying these
antigens and manufacturing them artificially
so that we can induce immunity without
causing disease to individual.
 Innate immunity (Non-specific)
o Natural – present or available at birth
o Non-specific – as it mounts the same
immune response every time no
matter which pathogen is involved or
how many time the same pathogen
has been encountered
o 1st and 2nd lines of defense
 Barriers that protect host
(e.g., skin, acidity of stomach,
lysozymes in fluids for the 1 st
line of defense)
 Phagocytic cells (neutrophils
and macrophages)
 Antimicrobial peptides found
in the serum component of
 the blood (e.g., interferons,
complements)
 Elevated temperature seen
during fever are all part of 2nd
line of defense
o Molecular and cellular mechanisms
deployed before an infection
o Distinguishes between self and
pathogens but not specialized to
distinguish small differences in the
foreign particles
o Less specific
 Adaptive immunity (Acquired and Specific)
o It is called required as an animal does
not possess immunity to an antigen
which it has never encountered or to
which it has never been exposed to.
o It is called specific as the immune
response elicited, is limited or specific
to get recognized antigens
o Develops in response to infection
o Adapts to recognize, eliminate, and
remember pathogen
o Highly specific
o 3rd line of defense
 Antigenic specificity
(production and action of
antibodies by plasma cells
which are activated b cells.
The improved immune
response during re-infection
comes from the memory cells
which are another class of
activated b cells that have
been prime to immediately
transform into antibody
secreting plasma cell upon
succeeding encounters with
the initial antigen
immunogen that activated
them in the first place.
Antibodies are highly specific
and react or interact only with
the antigen that elicited their
production. In fact, they are
so specific that they can
distinguish between two
proteins that differ in only
one amino acid. However, the
specificity is not infallible as
sometimes. Cross reactivity
among different but highly
similar antigens and
antibodies does occur .)
 Diversity
 Immunologic memory
 Self-, non-self recognition
Effective adaptive immune response involves two
groups of cells: LYMPHOCYTES & ANTIGEN-
PRESENTING CELLS
 Lymphocytes
o B cells
 Mature in bone marrow
 Contain antigen binding
receptor: antibody molecules
that are glycoprotein in
nature
 Antibodies are glycoproteins
comprise of 1 pair of identical
polypeptide chains called:
 Heavy chains – 2
identical polypeptides
 Light chains – 2
shorter identical
polypeptides
 Antibodies are able to
prevent infection by binding
two antigens on the pathogen
surface resulting in 3 possible
outcomes: Neutralization,
or Opsonization and
Compliment system
activation – this is where the
innate and adaptive immune
responses overlap.
 Antibody production is part of
the adaptive immune
response but most of the
actual immune mechanisms
involved specifically
opsonization and compliment
system activation belong to
innate system.
 o Neutralization –  T cytotoxic cells
occurs when the o T cells recognize antigen
antibody binds to the presented in MHC molecule
antigen receptors  MHC – Major
used by pathogens to Histocompatibility
bind to and enters Complex
host cells. With the  MHC Class I – found
antibodies effectively on all of our
blocking these nucleated cells, as all
receptors the cells are susceptible
pathogens is to damage, age and
prevented from inection. (cytotoxic T
infecting host cells cells recognize this)
resulting in  T cytotoxic
neutralizations of cells – whose
pathogen. function is to
o Opsonization – occurs recognize
as phagocytes have damaged, old
receptors and or infected
effectively recognized cells and
antibody molecules. induced
So, if a pathogen is apoptosis
coated with among them.
antibodies,  MHC Class II – found
phagocytes will on antigen presenting
immediately engulf it. cells (B cells, dendritic
o Compliment system cell and
activation or macrophages). Helper
Compliment Proteins T cells recognize this
– series of proteins  The antigen
whose activation presenting
relies on the cells either
formation of antigen- engulf or
antibody complex on internalized
the cells or pathogen pathogens
surface. Upon and present
activation the their antigens
compliment proteins to T helper
will formed the cells in order
membrane attached to facilitate
complex which punch recognition
it holes and causes these
lysis of the cell where antigens and
the initiating antigen- subsequent
antibody complex is activation of
found. the immune
o T cells response.
o Arise in bone marrow but  T cells are
mature in thymus able to
o Two well defined recognize and
subpopulations of T cells interact with
 T helper cells MHC
molecules
 through their the antigen
own presenting to
receptors engulf the
called cluster pathogen and
of present it to T
differentiatio helper cells.
n or CD  T Cell and APC interaction
molecules. o Cytokines secreted by TH cells
 CD molecules can activate phagocytic cells
– designated o TC cells can kill altered self-
with cells
numbers.  Cells infected by
 CD8 on T viruses
cytotoxic cells  Tumor cells
bind to MHC
Class I while
CD4
molecules on
T helper cells
bind to MHC
Class II.
 If you
multiply the
MHC number
by the CD
number the
answer
should always
be the initial
encounter
with the
pathogen or
antigen
results in the
primary
immune
response.
These
response is
relatively
slow usually
taking
between 1-2
weeks since it
will take
some time for
the antigen to
be
encountered
by an
activated
correspondin
g B cell or for
 secreting plasma cells. Just like us, the
immune system is not perfect and made its
function as a result of excessive immune
response such as in the case of:
 Immune Dysfunction
o Allergies and Asthma
o Graft rejection
o AIDS
o Immunodeficiency

 Antigen presenting cells

o Macrophages, dendritic cells and b
cells themselves
o Phagocytosis of enemy cell (antigen)
o Fusion of lysosome and phagosome
o Enzymes start to degrade enemy cell
o Enemy cell broken into small
fragments
o Fragments of antigen presented on
APC surface
o Leftover fragments released by
exocytosis

Antibodies

 Antigen coated by antibody is eliminated in

several ways
o Can cross-link several antigens,
making it easier to be ingested by
phagocytic cells
o Activate complement system resulting
in lysis of microorganism

Primary VS Secondary Immune Response

 Initial encounter with antigen causes primary

response
 Later contact with antigen will result in more
rapid response – secondary response, as there
is already several memory cells present that
can be activated to transform into antibody