Silicon Chip August 2021

AUGUST 2021
ISSN 1030-2662
08
9 771030 266001
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Looking Through The Body

26 Second Generation
Colour Maximite 2
38 Harold S. Black & the
History of Op Amps
68 Multi-purpose
Battery Manager
46 Nano TV Pong
using an 8-pin PIC
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Contents
Vol.34, No.8 August 2021
SILICON
CHIP
www.siliconchip.com.au
Features & Reviews

12 Advanced Medical & Biometric Imaging – Part 1
The development of non-destructive ways, such as X-rays, to look inside
humans and animals has been critical for diagnosing diseases and for
performing corrective procedures – by Dr David Maddison
35 Automated PCB Assembly for Home Constructors
For a small fee, you can have your own PCBs professionally assembled with
dozens, or even hundreds, of SMD components – by Geoff Graham
38 The History of Op Amps
Harold S. Black’s discovery of negative feedback paved the way for the In part one of our two-part series
development of operational amplifiers, which are widely used in all sorts of on imaging technologies, we focus
electronic devices, especially for audio – by Roderick Wall & Nicholas Vinen on the medical uses of it along with
its history. For example: CT scans,
88 El Cheapo Modules: USB-PD Triggers MRI, ultrasound etc – Page 12
We look at a series of four different USB-PD trigger/decoy and tester modules.
These are used to adjust the voltage and current levels provided by a USB-PD
compatible charger or power source – by Jim Rowe
Constructional Projects
26 Second Generation Colour Maximite 2 – Part 1
The second generation version of the Colour Maximite 2 is a backwards-
compatible, improved version of the first. It has four times as much RAM, support
for 1920x1080 video, 24-bit colour and more – by Geoff Graham & Peter Mather
The Gen2 Colour Maximite 2 now
46 Nano Pong using an 8-pin PIC has the ability to connect a mouse,
In contrast to the authentic Arcade Pong design from June 2021, our Nano Pong along with two connectors for Wii
costs just a few dollars to make and fits on a mini PCB measuring 43 x 16.5mm. controllers. You can even add WiFi
It simply connects to a TV via an RCA cable – by Tim Blythman via an ESP-01 module – Page 26
68 Multi-Purpose Battery Manager
This Battery Manager is an update to our Battery Multi-Logger, and interface to
the High-Current Battery Balancer. It can connect or disconnect up to four loads/
chargers, and switch well over 20A at 10-60V – by Tim Blythman
92 Simple Linear MIDI Keyboard
This MIDI Keyboard provides an alternative layout to our 64-key MIDI Matrix by
letting you join a series of 8-button modules laterally – by Tim Blythman
Your Favourite Columns Op amps are used in a huge variety

61 Serviceman’s Log of different circuit configurations,
Rocking Raucous Retro Roland Repair – by Dave Thompson like the inverting amplifier shown
above. They rely on the principle
80 Circuit Notebook of negative feedback, which was
(1) Portable amplifier built from modules discovered by Harold Steven Black
(2) Frequency meter with non-contact mains reading in 1927 – Page 38
98 Vintage Radio
Bush VTR103 AM/FM radio – by Ian Batty
Everything Else
2 Editorial Viewpoint 107 Ask Silicon Chip Our version
of Pong is built
4 Mailbag – Your Feedback 111 Market Centre on a nano-sized PCB
87 Product Showcase 112 Notes and Errata (shown at actual size). It requires
just a few discrete components,
96 Silicon Chip Online Shop
siliconchip.com.au 112 Advertising
Australia’s electronicsIndex
magazine August 2021 3
a PIC12F1572, the two controllers
and an RCA cable – Page 46

SILICON
SILIC
CHIP www.siliconchip.com.au
Editorial Viewpoint
Publisher/Editor
Nicholas Vinen
Productivity Commission report on
Technical Editor the Right to Repair
T
John Clarke, B.E.(Elec.)
he Productivity Commission has released a draft
Technical Staff report on the right to repair, which you can view at
Jim Rowe, B.A., B.Sc. www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/current/repair#draft
Bao Smith, B.Sc. It is open for comments. However, by the time you
Tim Blythman, B.E., B.Sc.
read this magazine, the comment period will have ended.
Nicolas Hannekum, Dip. Elec. Tech.
While the introduction makes it clear that they under-
Technical Contributor stand the issues raised by the right to repair movement,
Duraid Madina, B.Sc, M.Sc, PhD I don’t agree with some of their conclusions.
Reader Services For example, they state that “Additional policies to combat premature product
Rhonda Blythman, BSc, LLB, GDLP obsolescence (in the form of product standards or expanded consumer protec-
Advertising Enquiries tion laws to address planned obsolescence) would be unlikely to have net ben-
Glyn Smith efits for the community.”
Phone (02) 9939 3295 I think most Silicon Chip readers will agree that this is wrong. They seem to
Mobile 0431 792 293 be conflating the concern that manufacturers purposefully create products with
glyn@siliconchip.com.au a short lifespan (which I think is generally not true, with some exceptions) with
Regular Contributors the concern that, by limiting repair options, manufacturers make repairing prod-
Dave Thompson ucts so difficult that users have little choice but to replace them when they fail.
David Maddison B.App.Sc. (Hons 1), By legislating to expand those repair options, such as ensuring that spare parts
PhD, Grad.Dip.Entr.Innov. are available beyond the warranty period, consumers could more economically
Geoff Graham keep devices functional. That would be a net benefit for the community, and I
Associate Professor Graham Parslow
have plenty of anecdotes to support this (many of them are published in our Ser-
Ian Batty
viceman’s Log column).
Cartoonist For example, I had an air conditioning unit fail after less than ten years due
Brendan Akhurst to PCB track corrosion. The serviceman who came out told me that a replace-
Founding Editor (retired) ment board was not available, so I would have to replace both the outdoor and
Leo Simpson, B.Bus., FAICD indoor units. I was able to fix it by soldering a wire link across the corroded track,
Staff (retired) which took about two minutes and cost nothing. That unit went on to function
Ross Tester for many more years.
Ann Morris Consider that the vast majority of consumers in that position would have been
Greg Swain, B. Sc. (Hons.) forced to shell out perhaps $1000 or more for new units plus the cost of remov-
ing the old units and installing the new ones. They might have also had to make
Silicon Chip is published 12 times some cosmetic repairs due to the new unit not being the same size and shape as
a year by Silicon Chip Publications
the old one. Not to mention all the extra waste generated.
Pty Ltd. ACN 626 922 870. ABN 20
880 526 923. All material is copy- All that expense and hassle for a single corroded track that was visually obvi-
right ©. No part of this publication ous. I’m not knocking the serviceman; I don’t expect air conditioning companies
may be reproduced without the written to train technicians to make component-level repairs, and he helped me make the
consent of the publisher. repair which saved me a lot of money and hassles. But that replacement board
really should have been available.
Subscription rates (Australia only): If it had been, I don’t think it would have cost all that much as it was little
12 issues (1 year): $105, post paid
more than an infrared receiver and a couple of ICs that relayed commands back
24 issues (2 years): $202, post paid
For overseas rates, see our website or to the main control board. And I had already paid for the call-out, so even with
email silicon@siliconchip.com.au the labour to come and swap the modules over, the repair probably would have
Recommended & maximum price only. cost a couple of hundred dollars total; way less than a new aircon.
I bet the same story is repeated over and over with washing machines, dish-
Editorial office:
washers, stoves and all manner of appliances still well within their useful lives.
Unit 1 (up ramp), 234 Harbord Rd,
“Sorry, we can’t get a replacement for the module that has failed. You’ll have to
Brookvale, NSW 2100.
buy a new unit.” Or something along those lines.
Postal address: PO Box 139, So, while this report seems generally supportive of the right to repair, I don’t
Collaroy Beach, NSW 2097.
think the authors truly understand the situation. While there are costs associ-
Phone (02) 9939 3295. ated with requiring manufacturers to offer spare parts for a longer period (more
ISSN 1030-2662 in line with the actual useful lives of those products), likely raising the price of
Printing and Distribution: those goods slightly, I am confident that the benefits would outweigh those costs.
I will be stating this in a submission to the Productivity Commission, and I
hope they take it into consideration.
24-26 Lilian Fowler Pl, Marrickville 2204
by Nicholas Vinen
2 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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Falls, MN 56701, USA magazine August 2021 3

MAILBAG
your feedback
Letters and emails should contain complete name, address and daytime phone number. Letters to the Editor are submitted on the condition that
Silicon Chip Publications Pty Ltd may edit and has the right to reproduce in electronic form and communicate these letters. This also applies to
submissions to “Ask Silicon Chip”, “Circuit Notebook” and “Serviceman”.
FPGA & CPLD based designs desired designed around PICs. But for balance, television regulation in Australia” at
Some months ago, your editorial I would argue for more projects using siliconchip.com.au/link/ab6d, there
spoke of the large number of requests FPGA and CPLD chips. are quite a few facts that the telcos
you receive for retrograde articles and Last year, you published an article did not mention in their submissions
projects, and your reasoning for keep- about FPGAs, but I don’t recall any to this consultation:
ing these to a minimum. But those follow-up projects with their prac- • Every eight years, the telcos
which you include seem quite arbi- tical application. I believe these are switch off their oldest technol-
trary. particularly suitable for retro projects ogies, forcing users to buy new
We have had several issues with a where the digital logic is relatively phones. The next planned switch-
series on videotape and a recent series simple (by today’s standard), but easy off is 3G in 2024.
on the ‘steam-driven internet’, also to understand. • The 3G switch off will leave its
known as “Digital Radio Modes”. And It could provide a good introduc- spectrum available for 5G.
on top of this, you have a regular col- tion to the application of these chips, • The telcos are now using the 2G
umn on Vintage Radio. while still engaging with the hobby spectrum for low-speed 5G.
So I scoffed when I saw the project interests of a large proportion of your • On 21st April 2021, the telcos
last month about a Pong game built to subscribers whom I suspect, like me, paid $647,642,100 for 2500MHz
the original design. But after reading have an interest in the new and the old, worth of the 26GHz band (check
it, I was entranced! and need to know how these technol- siliconchip.com.au/link/ab9i).
Congratulations to Dr Hugo Holden. ogies apply in the real world. In fact, This band allows for very high-
The detail in the design and the the Pong game would be an excellent speed data transfers.
description of the most obscure quirks candidate. The telcos have been pushing for an
in, and improvements to, the original Phil Butler, increase in their spectrum allocation.
was an excellent example of exactly Bentleigh East, Vic. They want 610-694MHz (TV channels
the type of retro project that really Comments: To some extent, the arti- 40-51). In 2014, the TV channels in
interests me; not that I have any inten- cles we publish reflect the interests of use were restacked into six consecu-
tion of building it! our contributors and our readers who tive channels for each transmitter site.
I previously built an Arduino-based make suggestions. As you say, some This means a channel each for ABC,
Pong game. Some people consider PIC of these articles are pretty impractical SBS, the three commercial stations and
or FPGA recreations of old computers but also interesting. a spare channel.
to be inferior to pure redesigns like That’s the main thing we look for in Channels 40-45 and 46-51 are used
Hugo’s, but this is not necessarily true. an article; you don’t need to be senti- to cover many blackspots and for some
For example, take the design behind mental about old technology, as long high-powered regional sites.
Grant Searle’s Arduino-based Pong as the article is interesting enough in The telcos want the 84MHz band
(http://searle.x10host.com/AVRPong/ its own right. above when they have just purchased
index.html). It’s often how the past designers got a 2500MHz band, and they will also
It recreates the AY-3-8500 ‘game around the limitations of contempo- be able to reuse the spectrum they are
on a chip’ which was popular in the rary technology that makes the articles currently using for 3G (at 850MHz,
1970s. Grant even went to extraordi- so fascinating. 900MHz and 2.1GHz).
nary lengths to recreate visual artifacts We will surely use a CPLD or FPGA The telcos are pushing 5G phones,
of different versions of the chip. in a project at some point. We are which will reduce the traffic on 4G
As far as I am concerned, the cre- familiar with these devices and know networks in the busiest areas, pri-
ative process in producing a design in how to work with them; it’s just a mat- marily metropolitan and surround-
hardware or software is identical. But ter of coming up with an idea of some- ing areas.
for the hardware purists, visit: www. thing useful to build that requires one. Compare the change in TV stan-
glensstuff.com/videopong/videopong. We don’t want to use such a device dards over time to mobile telephony.
htm It is an entire pong system built ‘just because’. Australia started monochrome TV
from discrete components (yes, tran- broadcasting in 1956 and backwards-
sistors!). It is beautiful, yet totally Telcos vs TV broadcasters compatible colour broadcasting in
impractical! In the document “New rules for a 1975, which was not switched off until
So many of your projects are new media landscape - modernising 2013. That’s over 50 years using much

the same technology and the same channels, compared
POWER to the eight-yearly cycle of telcos.

Currently, broadcasters do not know what proportion of
SUPPLIES the operating TVs can decode MPEG4 (H264) video and
HE-AAC V2 audio signals, demodulate DVB-T2 signals,
PTY LTD
decode HEVC (H265) video and xHE AAC sound (used
by Netflix) or handle surround sound.
In 2015, AS 4933:2015 (Digital television – Require-
ELECTRONICS SPECIALISTS TO ments for receivers for VHF/UHF DVB-T television broad-
casts including ancillary services) finally specified MPEG4
DEFENCE AVIATION MINING decoding support, despite TVs with this capability being
on the Australian market for more than five years.
MEDICAL RAIL INDUSTRIAL Had this been done earlier and the number of receivers
sold tracked, broadcasters would know when to switch to
Our Core Ser vices: the new standard, allowing all standard-definition trans-
missions to be replaced by high-definition. By compari-
son, New Zealand started transmitting all programs using
Electronic MPEG4 in 2013.
In 2018, there was a DVB-T2 trial on the Gold Coast.
DLM Workshop DVB-T2 and HEVC support could have been required
after that completed. From the specifications of cur-
Repair rently available TVs, it is difficult to determine if they
can receive DVB-T2 and HEVC. Both are needed for Ultra
High Definition TV (UHD or 4K), which is not compati-
NATA ble with older TVs.
UHD TV is now available via Foxtel using the DVB-S2
ISO17025 satellite and Netflix via NBN.
Viewer Accessed Satellite Television (VAST) receivers
Calibration are all DVB-S2 and MPEG4 capable and can handle UHD if
the receiver can decode HEVC-compressed signals. VAST
is provided to all telecasters by the government for those
37 Years outside the coverage area for terrestrial TV.
Repair
Telcos and streaming companies are always trying
to give the illusion that they are the primary method of
Specialisation program delivery by quoting percentage changes in the

number of users. But they don’t mention the numbers as
a percentage of the total audience.
Power Supply Telcos would like to convey TV programs via their net-
works, particularly mobile, for profit. The profits can be
Repair to greater if they restrict the range of programs. Broadcast-
ers need to be technically proactive to fight such threats.
50KVA I suggest that the sixth spare TV channel should be used
to transmit a UHD primary program from each network.
This will require 602 additional DVB-T2 transmitters for
Convenient national coverage.
Many would be high-powered transmitters, which
Local would also require electricity supply upgrades to trans-
mitter sites.
Support All broadcasters wish to keep their existing program
streams. Suppose they modify their existing transmitters to
DVB-T2 and use HEVC video and xHE AAC sound encod-
ers. In that case, they can transmit their primary program
in UHD and all other programs in progressive HD.
TVs that support DVB-T2 demodulation, HEVC video
and xHE AAC sound can receive the older signals; the
reverse is untrue. This means that we will need a swi-
tchover like the one from analog to digital in 2012. TV set
prices have dropped in real terms since then.
SWITCHMODE POWER SUPPLIES Pty Ltd ABN 54 003 958 030 Proactively, AS 4933:2015 needs to be upgraded to
Unit 1 /37 Leighton Place Hornsby NSW 2077 UHD now, so that new TV purchases do not become
(PO Box 606 Hornsby NSW 1630) stranded assets.
Tel: 02 9476 0300 Alan Hughes,
Email: service@switchmode.com.au Website: www.switchmode.com.au Hamersley, WA.

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Screw heads and driver bits It is a lot more difficult on Windows Windows 11 aren’t changed, we will
I found your article on this subject machines because, as happened with hold off upgrading as long as possible.
in a recent Silicon Chip magazine very the Windows 10 upgrades, they brick Having to log into a Microsoft account
interesting indeed (Right to Repair, many PCs. It would no longer run on to use a computer is simply not on. It’s
June 2021, p13; siliconchip.com.au/ older but still useful hardware. Much worth noting for others that while some
Article/14881). It was remarkable to useful software also could not run on motherboards have a hardware TPM
see so many different styles of screw that version of Windows. connector, these are not guaranteed to
heads have come out in the past few A new version of Windows (11) is work for installing Windows 11. This
decades. But I have one that wasn’t about to hit the market, and it too is is despite people trying to scalp these
mentioned. going to brick newer PCs because of TPM modules online.
The screw has a pentagonal head. the requirement of having a hardware Most newer computers have TPM
Recently, I had an electrician work TPM (trusted platform module) on the built-in to the CPU, and only require
on my solar PV system, originally system. a change to a BIOS setting to enable it.
installed around 2008. The screws My latest motherboard, a Gigabyte However, we think the recommended
used to hold the 60W Kaneka pan- GA-Z270X-UD3 with an Intel Core i7 storage and processing requirements
els down had five-sided heads. He processor, has a connector to add the for Windows 11 are currently too high,
couldn’t work out why his hexagonal TPM plugin, but it is not available. I and there are too many computers that
sockets wouldn’t undo the screws, and am sick of having to upgrade perfectly aren’t that old which won’t be able to
even borrowed some from me to try. good, working hardware because Mic- install Windows 11.
Of course, he soon discovered why rosoft does not support it.
he couldn’t undo the screws and had to If you have to buy new hardware They fix it once it fails completely
order a driver bit from interstate. The and software to run the new operat- You published my letter in the
suppliers found one in Melbourne, ing system, it becomes a very expen- March 2021 issue about the problems
and it had to come to Adelaide via sive exercise. I was having with my NBN FTTN con-
Brisbane. My other bugbear is that Microsoft nection (on page 9). The FTTN con-
The electrician left the driver bit and Adobe only want to drive sub- nection finally broke properly; I had
with me for when someone else has to scription software like Photoshop and no NBN at all. After a couple of days I
move the panels. No doubt the cost of Office 365. This is fine for companies emailed my provider, and they got the
it was added to his invoice. that use it daily and can tax-deduct NBN folks to come and fix it.
Keith Gooley, this as a business expense. For private A couple of techs came out in sep-
One Tree Hill, SA. users that use the software very infre- arate trucks, as is apparently required
Comment: talk about reinventing the quently, it is a wasted expense, espe- these days.
wheel! cially if it stops working if you stop I asked why two were sent and was
paying the subscription. told that one was a trainee. I was happy
Feedback on bugs & updates editorial Also, I have found out that Windows about this as I thought that the telcos
Your July editorial on “Software: too 11 Home version requires you to be had given up on training people.
many bugs, too many updates” was a online to use it, but not the Pro version, Anyway, they fixed it, and I think
great viewpoint, and I share your point and a Microsoft account is required to correctly. The maximum downlink
to perfection. use any version of Windows 11. speed is now 80+Mbps. Previously
I have to update my Apple devices Have you read the long EULA of I saw around 40Mbps maximum at
and also the Windows PCs. A lot of Windows 10? One needs to read the best, and towards the end, just before
time is spent doing this task, which bit about the online free storage. It it broke, less than 20Mbps.
sometimes results in bricked comput- appears your data is theirs to use if I am still on a bottom-level plan, so
ers and Apps which no longer work. they so choose, and they don’t actu- the connection remains slow, but at
On the Apple Mac it is not so bad ally have to delete all your data at least now it is very solid. I have a 4G
as with any OS upgrade/update, only your request. mobile data plan with a different pro-
the Apps are generally affected and Wolf-Dieter Kuenne, vider for backup, portability, and the
will need updating, but some will be Bayswater, Vic. rare occasions when I need to upload/
deleted if they won’t work under the Comments: The worst part about the download something large quickly.
new OS. Apple generally tells you forced Windows 10 upgrade was that Apparently, NBNco is enabling/
before that some may not work, but it worked on older hardware initially, requiring SOS/ROC (Save Our Show-
does not advise which ones. but then it got slower and slower to the time/Robust Overhead Channel) on
You also need to enable the camera point where we had to replace several FTTN (and FTTB?), which might make
before updating as I have it disabled computers that were perfectly fine pre- things better with poor lines.
under Kaspersky internet security set- viously running Windows 7. Roger Plant,
tings; the update will not work with The biggest problem was RAM Belgrave Heights, Vic.
any device blocked from access – a les- usage. These machines could not be Comment: How frustrating that telcos
son I had to learn the hard way. upgraded beyond 4GB, and Windows often won’t believe there is a problem
The new iOS and iPadOS coming 10 would allocate around 3GB at boot. with your line until it stops working.
out shortly, version 15, is slated to Load one or two programs and they We’ve repeatedly had that experience
break a few Apps, but you can keep started swapping and became use- in the past (and not just with NBNco).
using OS version 14.x on the devices lessly slow. But it’s good to hear that they eventu-
you currently use. If some of the requirements of ally fixed yours.

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Feedback on MiniHeart design
I’ve recently built a couple of the MiniHeart simula-
tors (January 2021; siliconchip.com.au/Article/14706). It’s
been a few years since I’ve built projects with such small
components, so it was a good skill test.
I was quite impressed with the quality and finish of
the circuit boards, and the projects went together with
no problems. Connectivity tests around all pins of IC2,
and the directly connected parts, showed I had a short
between two pins, and a close inspection showed it did
look suspect. Solder wick fixed that.
Both units worked straight off when complete. But I
found one ‘bug’ with its operation. If the device is left on
and it times out, the PIC micro shuts down the output
amp and then goes to sleep.
As described in the article, that leaves almost no power
being used. But even when you turn off the power from
the batteries, the 100µF capacitor stays charged up, with
virtually no load.
So the micro will stay asleep and not reboot until that
capacitor eventually discharges.
So, when it has timed out, you need to turn off the
power switch for half an hour or more while the 100μF
cap slowly discharges. You will not be able to get it to
restart till then, and if you do turn it on again too soon, it
will just recharge the cap, and you’ll have to wait longer.
A fairly easy solution would be to wire the power switch
to discharge the cap when it is switched off. The switch
would have to be connected the opposite way around,
with the common contact being the ‘power out’ to the
circuit, and the off switch contact going to ground via a
low resistance.
Then when you switch it off, it will discharge the cap,
and the micro will reboot when you turn it back on.
Noel Bachelor,
Seven Hills, NSW.
Comments: Thanks for your feedback. You are correct
that the 100μF capacitor needs to discharge before IC1
comes out of sleep when power is reapplied. The circuit
was mainly designed to help an animal pet or baby to
sleep, and in that case, the capacitor discharge period
is not critical.
Your 100μF capacitor must be a good one that it takes
so long to discharge; it has approximately 18MW equiva-
lent leakage. Perhaps use a different capacitor or a lower
capacitance such as 22μF. Your solution to use the power
switch to discharge the capacitor is also effective, but you
would need to cut tracks on the PCB.
Vintage electronics and electric blanket hazards

Thank you for the June edition of Silicon Chip. As
usual, it was well worth reading. I won’t comment on the
“right to repair” other than to say that I expect a signifi-
cant response from other readers.
My favourite article in that issue was the Better Mouse-
trap by Bruce Boardman in the Circuit Notebook section.
There is not much to the mechanics, but mechanics always
brings electronics to life, even if it is the simple releasing
of a latch. Please include more simple projects like that
one from Mr Boardman. It adds that extra bit of interest
to the magazine.
The Mini Arcade Pong reproduction by Dr Hugo Holden
is a bit of a surprise considering that it is so much easier

to use a microcontroller. But then, a layout of TTL chips
exposes the workings and complexity needed just to cre-
ate a simple game like Pong.
For those readers who like raw electronics and those
who are into retro electronics, this project must be a real
pleasure. Even for myself, it had some interest. Before I
discovered microcontrollers, I created circuits and PCBs Helping to put you in Control
like the Pong game but not with so many ICs. Quite frankly, FEMA I4E configurable signal converters
now I will always use microcontrollers unless there are These can be configured to measure voltage
compelling reasons against them. signals (AC and DC) with ranges from 0 / 50mV
up to 0 / 600V, current signals from 0 / 5mA
It is almost winter again, and I have fitted my electric up to 0 / 5A, and frequencies from power lines
blanket to the bed, and I am reminded of the two occa- (up to 100Hz). The output is a standard process
signal configurable to 4 / 20mA or 0 / 10Vdc.
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I would like to suggest another project where a tempera-
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Humidity (0 to 100% non condensing) sensor,
and I could do it myself, but it will be available to every- linear 4 to 20mA output.
one if Silicon Chip publishes it as a project. SKU: EES-010A
George Ramsay, Price: $186.95 ea
Holland Park, Qld.
Comment: a small, button-cell-powered temperature
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I was interested to see the Advanced GPS Computer VAC powered. Includes ProNem Mini PMI-P
sensor.
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Alan Ford, For Wholesale prices
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Comment: We occasionally have problems with the mag-
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SC
siliconchip.com.au Australia’s electronics magazine August 2021 11

Advanced medical
& Biometric Imaging
Part 1: By Dr David Maddison
One of the greatest advances of modern times has been the ability to
non-destructively look inside people or animals to aid in diagnosing
diseases or other conditions. This article describes the history of that
technology plus the latest innovations in medical imaging.
Image source: www.pexels.com/photo/person-holding-silver-round-coins-4226264/
M any imaging technologies have

been developed to date; too many
to cover in one article. So this article
had previously noted mysterious rays
emanating from various gas discharge
tubes such as Crookes tubes, which
Then Fernando Sanford described
“electric photography” in a letter sent
in 1893. Then in 1894, Nikola Tesla
aims to cover the most important, pop- were used to produce cathode rays observed that his photographic film
ular and interesting ones. (see Figs.1 & 2). was damaged by unknown radiation
Next month, we will have a follow It is believed that X-rays were first seemingly associated with his Crookes
up article describing similar imaging inadvertently and unknowingly pro- tube experiments (including when he
systems that look inside machines, duced by a gas discharge apparatus in photographed Mark Twain).
vehicles and other objects. 1785 by William Morgan (born 1750). X-rays were adopted for imaging
In 1888, Philipp Lenard discovered purposes soon after the first demon-
X-rays that something came out of a Crookes strations by Röntgen (Fig.3). The haz-
One of the first and most signifi- tube, causing photographic plates to ard of over-exposure to X-rays was
cant medical imaging techniques to become exposed. almost immediately recognised.
be used, still in widespread use today, In 1889, Ivan Puluj (Іва́н Пулю́й)
involved X-rays. Wilhelm Conrad published his observation that ema- How X-rays are generated
Röntgen is credited with the discov- nations from a gas discharge tube X-rays can be generated by a variety
ery of X-rays in 1895. However, others would darken photographic plates. of methods. One common approach is
Fig.2: a Crookes tube, shown

energised at the bottom. The
cathode is at the left and the anode
underneath.
Source: Wikimedia user D-Kuru.
Fig.1: early medical experiments using a Crookes tube to generate X-rays in 1896. The man at the back is examining his
hand using a fluoroscope screen while the other is taking a radiograph with a photographic plate under his hand. The
tube is powered by an induction coil in the background; its drive pulses are generated by a motor-operated interrupter
with a rheostat to vary the coil current and thus the voltage.

Fig.3: one of the first published X-ray images, by Wilhelm Röntgen, of Albert von
►
Kölliker’s hand. It was taken at a public lecture on the 23rd of January 1896.
The very first picture was of Röntgen’s wife’s hand, but is of inferior quality.
Fig.4: a typical X-ray emission spectrum with a tungsten target.

Original source: ARPANSA.
releasing high-speed electrons from a specialised Crookes tubes were devel- X-rays, although generally not enough
hot cathode and colliding them with a oped which were optimised to pro- to be of concern. Most CRTs had X-ray
target, which is also the anode; in mod- duce X-rays. They had a heavy metal absorbing glass to minimise the prob-
ern X-ray tubes, it is typically made of anode made from a metal such as plat- lem.
tungsten. The anode and cathode are inum, angled to produce a beam of With a Crookes tube, X-rays are
housed in an evacuated tube. X-rays from the side of the tube. This generated with the application of 5kV
The energy of the X-rays produced is more or less the arrangement for a or more; the higher the voltage, the
is determined by the voltage by which modern X-ray tube – see Fig.5. higher the energy of the X-rays pro-
the electrons are accelerated. X-rays Incidentally, the CRTs used in older duced, leading to greater penetration
are produced when electrons hit the TVs and oscilloscopes could produce through targets.
target by one of two processes:
1) When electrons of a high enough
energy knock electrons from the
inner orbitals of atoms, and elec-
trons fill such vacancies from
higher energy levels, X-rays of a
particular frequency are emitted.
2) By the process of Bremsstrahlung
(“braking radiation”), where elec-
trons are deflected in the vicin-
ity of charged atomic nuclei of
the target, which results in X-ray
emission with a continuous range
of frequencies.
The result of these processes is an
X-ray emission spectrum with a con- Fig.5: X-rays are produced in a tube when high-speed electrons strike the metal
tinuous range from (2) plus some peaks target. This is a more efficient method than Crookes tubes.
from (1) – see Fig.4. Table 1: X-ray sources for various applications
Crookes tubes were initially used
to investigate cathode rays, leading Application Acceleration voltage Source X-ray energy
to the development of the cathode ray Dental 60kV Tube 30keV
tube. The production of X-rays was an General medical 50-140kV Tube 40keV
unintended byproduct of this, leading
to their discovery. CT scan 80-140kV Tube 60keV
X-rays are produced when electrons Airline bag 80-160kV Tube 80keV
bypass the shadow mask and impinge screening
upon the glass, causing the glass to Shipping 450kV-20MV Tube or linear 150keV-9MeV
fluoresce and emit X-rays. X-rays are container accelerator
also produced when the high-speed
electrons hit the anode at the bottom. Structural analysis 150kV-450kV Tube 100keV
After the discovery of X-rays, X-ray therapy 10MV-25MV Linear accelerator 3MeV-10MeV

linac and are ultimately transferred
to the primary storage ring. As the
electrons go around the storage ring,
they are deflected by magnets, caus-
ing them to emit radiation at a range of
possible frequencies due to Magneto-
bremsstrahlung (“synchrotron radia-
tion”; a variation of braking radiation).
There are several “beamlines”
where different experiments are con-
ducted. One of the beamlines of the
Australian Synchotron is the Imag-
ing and Medical Beamline (IMBL). It
delivers the world’s widest synchro-
tron X-ray beam at extremely high res-
olution, greater even than MRI.
How are X-rays recorded?

Traditional, two-dimensional planar
Fig.6: a medical linac (linear accelerator) for producing X-rays for radiotherapy.
Original image by The Scientific Sentence. X-ray images were recorded on film,
and many still are.
Alternatively, flat-panel sensors
can be used. These use ‘scintillating’
materials such as gadolinium oxysul-
fide (Gd2O2S) or caesium iodide (CsI)
to convert X-ray photons into light,
which is then detected by an imag-
Fig.7: the operation of a linear accelerator. An electron is injected at the left, ing array. Photoconductive materials
accelerated to the first “drift tube” and when it gets to the end of that, the like amorphous selenium may also be
polarity changes to the alternating RF current, it is accelerated across the gap to used; these convert X-ray photons into
the next one, and so on. The electrons impinge upon a metal target to generate electric charges, which are then read
the X-rays. Original image by The Scientific Sentence. by an electrode array.
Fluoroscopy (Fig.9) can be used to
Generating X-rays by accelerating (RF) electric field. An electron is accel- produce a two-dimensional “motion
electrons onto a target is relatively erated through a series of cylindrical X-ray” where the X-rays illuminate a
inefficient, with only about 1% of the electrodes whose polarity is constantly fluorescent screen, or in modern imple-
electrical energy being converted to changing due to the RF field; as it gets mentations, an X-ray image intensifier
X-rays, and the rest into heat. to the end of one electrode, it is accel- and camera or a flat panel sensor, as
Another way to generate X-rays for erated across the gap into the next one. described above. Fluoroscopy is used
imaging purposes is using a linear par- Another method to generate X-rays for various applications, such as:
ticle accelerator or ‘linac’ (see Figs.6 is with a synchrotron (Fig.8). The Aus- • Inserting catheters or various elec-
& 7 and Table 1). A linac can also be tralian Synchrotron was first discussed trical leads, such as pacemakers
used to produced X-rays for radiother- in Silicon Chip May 2012 (siliconchip. • Investigating the gastrointestinal
apy in a medical setting. com.au/Article/671). A synchrotron is tract after a “barium meal” has
Linacs generate X-rays by accelerat- another type of particle accelerator, been swallowed (barium blocks
ing electrons in a tuned cavity wave- circular rather than linear. X-rays)
guide energised by a radio frequency Electrons start their journey in a • Biopsies which require guidance
Fig.8: the layout of a generic synchrotron showing (1) Electron gun, (2) linac,
(3) booster ring, (4) storage ring, (5) beamline (one of many) and (6)
►
end station, where experiments are performed. To give an idea of

the size, the main storage ring of the Australian Synchrotron
is 216m in circumference.
Fig.9: the insertion
of pacemaker
leads into the heart
is a procedure
typically done under
fluoroscopic guidance,
as real-time imagery
of the lead is needed.
Source: Gregory
Marcus, MD, MAS,
FACC.

• Orthopaedic surgery
• Studies of blood vessels such as
in the heart, brain and leg
• Urology
Medical computed tomogra-

phy (CT) scanning
CT scanning, originally known as
CAT scanning (computed axial tomog-
raphy), is a method based on X-rays
that can produce cross-sectional slices
or three-dimensional images. This is Fig.10: in a CT scanner, the X-ray beam and detectors are rotated about the
unlike conventional X-ray images, patient. Three different positions are shown here. The patient also moves
through the imaging plane of the beam orthogonal to the page.
which simply project an X-ray image
Original source: Elizabeth Swanson.
onto a film or digital sensor.
An X-ray beam is passed through an
object to be examined, and the inten-
sity of the beam is measured as it exits.
Different structures will absorb the
beam by different amounts; hard tissue
such as bone will absorb more and soft
tissue such as brain will absorb less.
This gives information about the
totality of what the beam has encoun-
tered on the way through but no infor-
mation as to the individual structures
encountered. Additional information
is gathered by rotating the beam and
corresponding sensor to a different
angle and repeating the measurement.
This is done thousands of times to Fig.11: an image produced by a CT Fig.12: a titanium skull and facial
build up a comprehensive amount of coronary angiogram. implant that was created based on a
information about many beamlines Source: Macquarie Medical Imaging patient CT scan, then 3D printed for
passing through the object – see Fig.10. (MMI), siliconchip.com.au/link/ab90 implantation.
This is then transformed into a two Source: Open Biomedical Initiative
dimensional ‘tomographic’ slice by in combination with 3D printing to (www.openbiomedical.org).
an appropriate mathematical trans- make bone replacement parts to repair
formation, and by further interpreta- bone defects (Fig.12).
tion of these slices, 3D images can be In a CT coronary angiogram, a high-
generated. speed CT scanner is used to image the
llator
As with any X-ray procedure, CT heart’s arteries. They are made more Scinti
scanning exposes the patient to X-rays, visible by the injection of a contrast
although the dose is kept to the mini- agent. Disease or the location and func-
mum possible. Another disadvantage tional status of stents can be detected. ray
dio de Ar
is that certain tissues are not highly The blood vessels are revealed more
Photo ut IC
visible. To get around this problem, clearly this way compared to MRI or Reado
sometimes so-called radiocontrast ultrasound.
agents are used, which strongly block
X-rays. These are injected to enhance Detection of CT X-rays trate
Subs
images of specific soft tissues which X-ray detectors in CT scanners are ector
would otherwise not be sufficiently generally based on scintillator mate- Conn
visible. rials that generate visible light when ock
ng Bl
Substances containing iodine can be struck with a charged particle or high Cooli
used for blood vessels, and substances energy photon (such as an X-ray pho-
containing barium for the gastrointes- ton). Some common materials used
tinal tract. are caesium iodide, gadolinium oxy-
sulfide and sodium metatungstate
Specialised medical uses (H2Na6O40W12). This is similar to
of CT scanners Fig.13: a typical X-ray detector
fluorescence but based on a different array in a modern CT machine.
There are several specialised uses physical principle (see Fig.13). Each element of the photodiode
and imaging modes of CT scanning. The light is coupled to a photodi- array corresponds to a pixel (picture
Two of note are CT coronary angio- ode matrix or photomultiplier tube to element).
grams (Fig.11), and the use of CT scans convert it into electrical signals (see Source: ams (https://ams.com).

The first clinical CT (a brain scan)
was performed in 1971 by a scanner
invented by Godfrey Hounsfield at
EMI Central Research Laboratories in
England (see Figs.16-18). It was pub-
licly announced in 1972. Pictures from
the original machine had a resolution
of only 80x80 pixels.
See the YouTube video titled
“Radiographer Films Inside of a CT
scanner spinning at full speed” at
https://youtu.be/pLajmU4TQuI
MRI
MRI stands for Magnetic Reso-
Fig.14: a normal CT scan of an nance Imaging. It uses the principle of
abdomen. Source: Dr Ian Bickle, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance or NMR.
radiopaedia.org The word “nuclear” was dropped
►
Fig.15: an illustration from Oldendorf’s patent for the CT scanner. when the technique was introduced
because they thought people would
Fig.14). Gamma-ray detectors as used William H. Oldendorf submitted a be worried that nuclear radiation was
in scintigraphy; SPECT and PET, dis- patent for a CT scanner in 1960, and involved when that is not the case. In
cussed later under gamma-ray imag- it was awarded in 1963. The title is fact, unlike CT scans and X-rays, MRIs
ing, work similarly. “Radiant energy apparatus for investi- do not involve potentially harmful ion-
gating selected areas of interior objects ising radiation.
History of CT obscured by dense material” and you MRI detects the presence of hydro-
The mathematics that was to be later can view it at siliconchip.com.au/link/ gen, which is mostly in water (H2O)
used for computed tomography was ab91 (see Fig.15). and fat molecules in the body in abun-
introduced in 1917 by Johann Radon However, his idea was rejected by dance. By mapping these molecules
and is known as the Radon Transform. a manufacturer who said: “Even if it and their position within the body,
It has many uses apart from CT, such as could be made to work as you suggest, the overall structures within can be
in barcode scanners. Stefan Kaczmarz we cannot imagine a significant mar- imaged (see Fig.19).
did additional theoretical work in ket for such an expensive apparatus The position of hydrogen atoms
1937, followed by Allan McLeod Cor- which would do nothing but make a is determined by causing them to
mack in 1963-64. radiographic cross-section of a head.” emit radio signals and measuring the
This paved the way for the image Oldendorf’s work also led to the strength, frequency, phase and timing
reconstruction method used by God- development of MRI, SPECT and PET of those signals, then processing them
frey Hounsfield (see below). imaging. with a computer.
Fig.16: the world’s first commercial Fig.17: the world’s first clinical CT
CT head scanner, made by EMI scan of a human head, at 80x80 pixels
in 1971. Image processing was resolution, performed in the Atkinson Fig.18: a modern CT image of a stroke
done on a Data General Nova 1200 Morley Hospital, England, October victim’s brain. Compare the detail in
minicomputer. Source: Wikimedia 1971. this image to Fig.17.
user Philipcosson. Source: James Heilman, MD.

Fig.19: an MRI image of
osteochondroma of the knee.
Source: M.R. Carmont, S. Davies,
D.G. van Pittius and R. Rees.
MRI machines generate a power-

ful, uniform magnetic field using a
superconducting magnet cooled with
liquid helium to a temperature of 4K Fig.20: hydrogen is found in water and virtually all other molecules in the
or -269°C. A second magnet is used body. Each nucleus (proton) is randomly aligned with respect to other hydrogen
to impose a gradient over the uniform protons. All are aligned by a powerful magnetic field, then are subjected to an
magnetic field just described. They RF pulse. Original source: Kathryn Mary Broadhouse.
also contain an RF pulse generator and
RF receiver, and a powerful computer
to process the data that is produced.
The magnetic field strength gener-
ated is typically between 1.5T and 3.0T
(teslas), compared with the earth’s
magnetic field of 0.00006T.
As shown in Fig.20, the hydrogen
atom of (in this case) a water molecule
has a spinning nucleus consisting of
one proton, with north and south poles
like a magnet. These are randomly ori-
ented under normal circumstances
and precess about their axis like a
spinning top at a certain frequency.
When a powerful and highly uni-
form magnetic field is applied in the
direction indicated in the diagram (the
B0 field), all the protons of the hydro-
gen atoms align along with it, although
some are ‘up’ and some are ‘down’. Fig.21: (A) shows the different resonant frequency of protons depending upon
the applied magnetic field strength. (B) different structures within organs
Each of these protons generates a mag-
produce different signal strengths, allowing them to be distinguished. (C) Some
netic field, and if the numbers of ‘up’ of the brain imagery produced. Original source: Kathryn Mary Broadhouse.
and ‘down’ protons were even, there
would be no net magnetic field as they the protons to align, but the preces- applied at the same frequency as the
would cancel each other out. sional frequency of the protons is also precessional frequency of the protons
However, it so happens that due dependent on the strength of the mag- (as determined by the strength of the
to the laws of quantum mechanics, netic field. The stronger the magnetic magnetic field). In that case, they will
slightly more protons have a prefer- field, the faster the precession. resonate at that frequency and absorb
ence for the ‘up’ direction, and this So, once we apply the magnetic energy and move their spin axis away
means the magnetic fields of the indi- field, all the protons align and precess from the B0 magnetic field.
vidual protons do not cancel each at a specific frequency. A powerful When the pulse stops, they return
other, but leave a slight net magnetic repetitive radio frequency (RF) pulse is to their original position and emit
field. It is this small net field that is applied. That interacts with the small radio waves to release the absorbed
measured in MRI. net magnetic field that remains. energy. These emitted radio waves are
The magnetic field not only causes Suppose that repetitive pulse is recorded (see Fig.21).

Fig.24: the Siemens MAGNETOM
Terra 7T MRI machine, the world’s
Fig.22: cross-sectional and lateral views of an MRI Scanner. first 7T machine for clinical
Original source: Wikimedia user Fbot. applications.
Fig.23: the world’s first experimental 10.5T MRI machine with a 110-tonne Fig.25: an image from the Siemens
magnet, designed to image humans. It is at the University of Minnesota. The MAGNETOM Terra, showing small
hole in the middle is where the person goes. blood vessels in a human brain.
Source: www.cmrr.umn.edu Source: Siemens.
MRI is used to look at ‘slices’ field patterns depending on the spe- 10.5T is more than three times stron-
through the body. If the magnetic field cific application. ger than the most powerful commercial
were uniform over the entire body or MRI machines usually have three machines now in common use, typi-
area of interest, all the resonating pro- sets of gradient coils corresponding to cally 1.5-3.0T. A 3T machine gives a
tons would emit radio waves at once, the X, Y and Z directions. This allows resolution of about 1mm, a 7T machine
and we would not be able to determine virtually any ‘slice’ of the patient to gives 0.5mm (see Figs.24 & 25) and a
their position in the body. be imaged by energising some com- 10.5T machine is of course better than
As previously mentioned, the res- bination of these coils with different that (in this case resolution refers to the
onant frequency of the protons is intensities. smallest feature that is visible).
dependent upon the magnetic field See the YouTube video of a 7T
strength. A stronger field means a Magnetic field strength machine titled “Siemens MAGNE-
higher frequency of resonance. This With MRI, the more powerful the TOM Terra - 7 Tesla MRI Scanner” at
is the reason for the superimposition magnet, the greater the maximum pos- https://youtu.be/PYNGCxQaXrw
of the additional magnetic field from sible image resolution and the faster Hazards involved in high magnetic
the “gradient coils”. the image acquisition for a given res- fields such as 7T or beyond include
The gradient coils are simply loops olution (due to an improved signal- temporary patient discomfort or over-
of wire or metal sheets inside or close to-noise ratio). heating. In higher magnetic fields,
to the inner bore of the machine where Currently, the most powerful full- hydrogen nuclei resonate at a higher
the patient is located, like those shown size MRI capable of imaging a person frequency, and thus more powerful RF
in Fig.22. is rated at 10.5T with a magnet weigh- pulses are needed. These are more eas-
These generate a secondary mag- ing 110 tonnes and 600 tonnes of iron ily absorbed by the body, which can
netic field that predictably distorts the shielding. It is located at the Univer- cause heating if not managed correctly.
uniform electric field, such as shown sity of Minnesota’s Center for Magnetic Small MRI machines are also possi-
in Fig.21. There may be other magnetic Resonance Research (see Fig.23). ble – see Fig.26.

History of MRI
The first clinically useful whole-
body MRI scan was obtained in 1980
by a machine developed throughout
the 1970s by John Mallard at the Uni-
versity of Aberdeen (see Fig.27).
Functional MRI
Functional MRI or fMRI machines
measure brain activity by detecting
blood flow in the brain. Activity is mea-
sured based upon the differences in
the magnetic response of oxygen-rich
arterial blood and oxygen-poor venous
blood.
Diffusion MRI
With this method, MRI parameters
are tuned to highlight the movement
of certain molecules by looking at the
response as a function of time. For
example, water molecules that can Fig.26: MRI imagers don’t have to be huge. This is the “Swoop” model of
tumble freely give a different signal bedside MRI from Hyperfine (https://hyperfine.io). It offers rapid imaging and
to those that are relatively constrained turnover with minimal patient handling.
(see Fig.28).
Fig.27: the first MRI machine to ►
Medical gamma-ray imaging produce a clinically useful whole-
Gamma-ray imaging is a medical body image, in 1980. It was called the
imaging technique whereby a patient MRI Scanner Mark One.
consumes small amounts of radio- Source: Wikimedia user
AndyGaskell.
actively ‘tagged’ chemical agents or
‘radiopharmaceuticals’. These emit
gamma rays, and a gamma-ray detec-
tor is used to create an image.
In a sense, it is like an X-ray but with
the radiation source on the inside of
the body instead of the outside. The
metabolic activity of cells is measured
due to the uptake of the radiopharma-
ceutical by targeted cells.
To make the agent, a radioisotope
replaces a non-radioactive element
in a biologically active chemical com-
pound. Common agents include:
• Calcium-47 chloride for investi-
gating bone metabolism
Fig.28: a diffusion MRI of a human
• Sodium iodide-123 for thyroid
brain; specifically, a diffusion tensor
imaging image depicting certain fibre tracts.
• Krypton-81m for lung ventilation Source: Wikimedia user Thomas
imaging (the m stands for “meta- Schultz.
stable” since it has a very short
half-life of 13s in its isomeric
transition form) Some “fun” MRI videos
• The positron emitter fluorine-18
as fluorodeoxyglucose (18F) or At the end of its service life, during an emergency or certain maintenance procedures,
18F FDG for imaging tumours and the very expensive liquid helium that keeps the superconducting magnet coils of the MRI
studies of glucose metabolism in machine cooled to -269°C has to be vented. This is called a magnet quench.
the heart, brain and elsewhere Some people have recorded these quenches and also put some objects into the magnet
• Rubidium-82 for cardiac imaging cavity before the decommissioning of these machines. See the video titled “Quenching an
Several similar products are made MRI Magnet” at https://youtu.be/4dbQxyrhZ2A
at Australia’s only nuclear reactor in The liquid dripping from the outside of the metal vent pipe is liquid air that has con-
Lucas Heights, Sydney, called OPAL. densed on the pipe. Also see the video titled “How dangerous are magnetic items near an
Certain medical isotopes such as for MRI magnet?” at https://youtu.be/6BBx8BwLhqg

Fig.31 (above): a SPECT image showing slices through a normal human brain.
The uptake of the radiotracer is greater in regions of higher metabolic activity.
Source: Dr Bruno Di Muzio, radiopaedia.org
Fig.29 (above): a whole-body bone

scan using scintigraphy, showing the
uptake of radiopharmaceutical in a
normal skeletal structure.
Source: Wikimedia user Myohan.
►
Fig.32: the imaging principle of PET.

A positron is emitted from an atomic
nucleus of an injected radioactive
compound which is annihilated when
it collides with an electron, and two 511keV gamma-ray photons are emitted.
These are detected in a coincidence detector ring along a line of response (LOR).
An image is assembled from these by tomographic techniques.
Source: Herman T. Van Dam (siliconchip.com.au/link/ab97).
Fig.30 (above): an Elscint VariCam

scintigraphy machine circa 1995.
It had a variable-angle dual-head
gamma camera and was one of the
first machines able to do 2D (planar)
scintigraphy, SPECT scanning and
PET scanning. GE took over Elscint,
►
and this machine evolved to include Fig.33: small PET scanners exist for laboratory animals (microPET). This shows
CT scanning in the GE Discovery VG disease progression and regression in response to therapy in a mouse using
with the “Hawkeye option”. Source: 18F-FDG as a radiotracer. It appears that the author has transposed scans 4 and
Wikimedia user Arturo1299. 5. Source: University of Iowa, Small Animal Imaging Core Facility.

PET imaging can also be made in a Fig.34: the GE Discovery MI Gen 2,
medical cyclotron. There are about an example of a combined CT and
18 of these in Australia, at various PET scanner.
hospitals and imaging centres (there
is a list at siliconchip.com.au/link/
ab92).
The imaging techniques applicable
to gamma-ray imaging are scintigra-
phy, SPECT (Single-Photon Emission
Computed Tomography) and PET
(Positron Emission Tomography)
Scintigraphy is a two-dimensional
or planar technique using a gamma
camera (see Figs.29 & 30). It gives an
image equivalent to a 2D X-ray.
SPECT imaging is much like scin-
tigraphy, but it produces 3D images
instead (see Fig.31). To achieve this,
the gamma camera(s) are rotated about
the patient (tomography) to create a
series of 2D slices. The 3D image is
generated with the appropriate math-
ematical transformations in a com-
puter.
SPECT scans have a resolution of Fig.35: a combined CT and PET image showing a lesion of interest in green and
about 1cm and use the same gamma- a cross-section through the neck on the left. The anatomical detail is captured
emitting radiopharmaceuticals as in with CT and the metabolic detail of the lesion with PET.
scintigraphy.
PET imaging is similar to SPECT For more information on coinci- relate structure and function. Images
– SPECT radiotracer substances emit dence detection, see siliconchip.com. from single-mode machines can be
gamma rays directly, while those used au/link/ab93 combined by overlaying them in an
for PET emit particles known as pos- PET scanners have a resolution alignment process called image regis-
itrons (see Figs.32 & 33). A positron of about 4mm-6mm, with dedicated tration. Still, better alignment can be
is the positively-charged antimatter brain scanners going down to about obtained by acquired images using two
equivalent of an electron. 2.5mm. The fundamental theoreti- or more modes from the same machine
Positron emission occurs when a cal limit for PET resolution is about during the same scanning session.
proton in a nucleus decays to give a 2.4mm for practical devices. This Scans from combined PET and CT
neutron, a positron and a neutrino. In is explained at siliconchip.com.au/ (see Figs.34 & 35) have been shown
PET, gamma rays are emitted when link/ab94 to yield more accurate diagnoses than
the positron from this decay collides Different radiopharmaceuticals are either type alone.
with a nearby electron, causing the needed for PET than for scintigraphy Machines exist that combine PET
annihilation of both particles and the and SPECT. The radioisotopes used and CT, or PET and MRI. Both combine
emission of two gamma-ray photons are short-lived (eg, fluorine-18 with a structural and functional information;
in opposite directions. These are what 110-minute half-life or rubidium-82 at a combined CT and MRI machine has
is detected. 76 seconds). This means that they must not yet been developed. Combined
The emission of two gamma-ray be prepared on-site with a cyclotron. PET and CT is the more established
photons simultaneously in opposite This makes PET scans a very expen- technology.
directions and their “coincidence sive procedure.
detection” gives more information SPECT is a cheaper imaging method Medical ultrasonic imaging
about the exact location of the emis- than PET because of the more readily- Ultrasonic imaging (or sonography)
sion, and thus a higher image resolu- obtained radioisotopes but gives uses sound waves beyond the range of
tion than with SPECT. poorer contrast and resolution. human hearing, and is similar to the
In coincidence detection, the emis- process that bats and toothed whales
sion event can be located anywhere Combined CT, MRI use to navigate. The sound waves are
along a line between the two detec- and PET imaging typically in the range of 1-6MHz for
tors. Thus, it is necessary to generate Every method of scanning has inher- deeper tissue penetration with less
a large set of data from multiple coin- ent advantages and disadvantages. For resolution, or 7-18MHz for shallower
cidence events with detectors at dif- example, CT and MRI give structural tissues with greater resolution. Higher
ferent angles in a “detector ring” to anatomical information while PET frequencies may be used in some
form an image, as in Fig.32. The data gives functional parameters such as applications.
is mathematically filtered to remove metabolism, blood flow and compo- Ultrasonic waves are produced
likely false coincidences or single sitional information. by a piezoelectric transducer, which
instances of emission. Combined images can be helpful to converts an electrical signal into

Fig.38: some of the wide variety of
medical ultrasound imaging probes
available. From left-to-right we have a
linear, curvilinear, phased array, and
all-in-one handheld probe. These are
from Meraki Enterprises.
Fig.37: a basic ultrasonic transducer Fig.39: in phased array ultrasound

element for medical imaging. imaging, each piezoelectric element
The matching layer provides an is fired with a slight delay so that the
Fig.36: this diagram shows how a acoustic impedance match between wavefronts of the individual beams
piezoelectric transducer can convert the transducer and human tissue. join at an angle dependent upon the
an electrical signal into sound (upper) Hundreds of such elements can (θ). T represents the transducer
delay (θ
and also can generate an electrical be used in a transducer. Source: elements, TX is the oscillator signal,
signal when vibrated by a sound wave Dr Daniel J Bell and Dr Rachael C the control system and φ the delay.
(lower). Nightingale et al., radiopaedia.org Source: Wikimedia user Chetvorno.
mechanical motion (see Figs.36 & 37). Piezoelectric transducers for medi- element is fired, then the next one in
Ultrasonic waves are then transmitted cal imaging must be sensitive and have sequence and so on, to form a line
through a sound-conducting medium the following properties: image. In a phased array, the acoustic
and reflected back to the transducer. a) Good conversion efficiency beam can be steered electronically by
The time delay between the emission between electrical and mechan- firing each element with a slight delay
of the signal and its return represents ical (sound) energy with respect to the previous ones (see
the total distance travelled (or twice b) Be acoustically matched to the tis- Fig.39). Focusing is also possible by
the distance to the target). sue, much like a radio antenna has appropriate beam management. Some
It works like sonar (using sound to be impedance-matched probes have a mechanically steered
waves) or radar (using radio waves), c) Must be matched to the elec- transducer array (see Fig.40).
only on a much smaller scale. tronics While traditionally ultrasound
The same piezoelectric element Materials like PZT are good for (a) produced two-dimensional images
used to create ultrasound when a volt- and (c) but not (b). Piezoelectric poly- (‘slices’), modern computing power
age is applied can also generate a volt- mers are good for (b) but not (a) or means that ultrasound can now gen-
age signal when a signal is returned. (c). It has therefore been proposed to erate 3D images – see Fig.41.
Alternatively, two different transduc- develop a composite material, having
ers may be used. the best properties of both materials. Medical ultrasound develop-
While quartz is a common piezo- In recent years, composite transduc- ment in Australia
electric material, medical devices ers have been introduced for medi- Australia was once a pioneer in
generally use PZT (lead zirconate tita- cal ultrasound consisting of PZT rods medical ultrasound technology.
nate) because of its high conversion embedded into a polymer matrix. Research began in 1959 with the
efficiency. Transducers for medical imaging establishment of an Ultrasound
Piezoelectric polymers (plastics) have between 128 and 512 piezo- Research Section within the Common-
such as PVDF also exist. A typical electric elements in either a linear or wealth Acoustic Laboratories (CAL).
basic piezoelectric transducer is a disc phased array (see Fig.38). That section became the Ultrasonics
with electrodes attached. With a linear array, one individual Institute in 1975, as a branch of the

Probe
movement Central scan
during plane
acquisition
of volume
Acoustic window
Coupling fluid
Array
Gear
Motor
Position sensing
device
Cables
Housing
Fig.40: an example of a mechanically- Fig.42: the CAL Mark I Abdominal Echoschope at the Royal Hospital for
scanned ultrasound transducer for Women, Sydney, in early 1962. The patient would stand with her abdomen
medical imaging. pressed against the water bag on the right. Source: ASUM (www.asum.com.au).
Fig.41: a 3D fetal ultrasound with Fig.43: fetal images obtained from Echoscope in 1962, considered the best in the
a normal presentation. Source: Dr world. The line drawings are manual annotations, not computer renditions; it
Servet Kahveci, radiopaedia.org was an entirely analog system. Source: ASUM.
Commonwealth Department of Health. Part of the motivation for develop- a machine that was made commer-
In 1989, the Institute was transferred ing obstetric ultrasound was the rec- cially by Ausonics (part of the Nucleus
to the CSIRO, and its staff were even- ognition of the hazards of fetal X-rays, Group, for whom I used to work) called
tually integrated elsewhere within the the only alternative at the time. Apart the UI Octoson. More than 200 were
organisation. from obstetric ultrasound, machines made between 1976 and 1985 and
In 1962, a system designed by CAL were also developed for the eye, breast sold in Australia and overseas. The
called the CAL Mark 1 Abdominal and paediatric brain. machines sold for $100,000 each (see
Echoscope (Fig.42) was installed at One of the technical innovations Fig.44 overleaf).
the Royal Hospital for Women in Syd- made by the Australian group in The Octoson could acquire an image
ney. It was designed by George Kos- 1969 was greyscale imaging, which in one second. This work was cred-
soff and David Robinson. The obstet- yielded more and better quality imag- ited to George Kossoff, David Robin-
ric pictures obtained from this were ing than black-and-white. The grey- son, David Carpenter, Ian Shepherd
acclaimed as possibly the best in the scales resulted from signal process- and George Radovanovich; it became
world (see Fig.43). ing to extract more data, such as the obsolete with the development of real-
The transducer ran at 2.5MHz and distinction between liquid and solid time scanning.
was a 25mm weakly-focused disc. All tissue material. Existing Echoscopes For a more comprehensive history
the original electronics were vacuum were modified to operate in this mode. of medical ultrasound in Australia,
tubes, with a Hughes Tonotron storage This development was credited see siliconchip.com.au/link/ab95 &
CRT (as used in radar at the time) for to George Kossoff, David Carpenter, siliconchip.com.au/link/ab96
image display using long-persistence Michael Dadd, Jack Jellins, Kaye Grif-
phosphors. This was an entirely analog fiths and Margaret Tabrett. Endoscopy
system with no computer (they were After many successes, in 1975, A modern endoscope is a flexi-
not sufficiently advanced at the time). the work led to the development of ble, steerable tubular instrument for

Fig.44: the Australian-made Ausonics UI Octoson from 1977. The patient lies on Fig.45: a flexible endoscope Source:
top of a water-filled membrane to conduct the ultrasonic waves. Source: ASUM. Wikimedia user de:Benutzer:Kalumet.
looking inside certain hollow or oth- as conduct light out to a camera. Each simpler, safer and cheaper than con-
erwise accessible parts of the body fibre optic bundle has about 50,000 ventional operations.
such as the colon, oesophagus, blad- individual fibres.
der, kidney, joints, abdomen and pel- Minor procedures can be performed UV imaging of skin
vis (see Fig.45). These instruments are with small instruments attached to the Photographing the skin in wave-
usually specialised for the part of the end of the device, to take tissue sam- lengths of light other than ordinary
body they are intended for. ples or remove small growths such visible light such as ultraviolet can
Inside the flexible tube, there are as polyps. reveal damage to the skin or underly-
cables to help steer the instrument Lasers can also be directed down ing conditions not visible to the naked
and bundles of optical fibres to trans- the tube to destroy diseased tissue. eye (Fig.46).
mit light into the body cavity as well Endoscopic procedures can be much
Thermographic imaging
Thermographic imaging is a tech-
nology for taking images of the human
body in infrared light to examine med-
ical conditions. It primarily reveals
temperature anomalies due to varia-
tions in blood flow (see Fig.47).
It is considered an aid to diagnosis
rather than a direct diagnostic tool. It
can also be used to measure body tem-
perature in a non-contact manner, as
is often done these days on entry to
hospitals to ensure a visitor does not
have a fever and is possibly infectious.
Pill cameras
Tiny ‘pill’ cameras exist which
Fig.46: imaging of the skin of a melanoma survivor in ultraviolet wavelengths can be swallowed and take pictures
reveals damage not visible in ordinary light. throughout the alimentary canal (see
Source: University of Colorado Cancer Center. Fig.48). This was described in detail
►
Fig.47: thermography of a patient’s in the August 2018 issue, in an article
legs after exposing the left foot to cold titled “Taking an Epic Voyage through
water to examine complex regional your Alimentary Canal!” (siliconchip.
pain syndrome (CRPS). Source: com.au/Article/11187).
Wikimedia user Thermadvocate.
Next month
That’s all we have space for in this
issue. Next month’s follow-up article
will continue on the theme of imag-
ing technology, but with non-medical
applications. That includes investi-
Fig.48: the PillCam by Given Imaging. gating delicate archaeological objects,
It is swallowed and has a tiny camera searching for contraband, checking
on board to take pictures as it passes structures for damage or defects and
through the body. biometric access control. SC

Our capabilities
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siliconchip.com.au Australia’s
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electronics magazine
magazine August2021
FEBRUARY 2021 25
37
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Second-Generation
Colour Maximite 2
The Colour Maximite 2 computer, published about a year ago, has been a huge
hit, with thousands built. Now we present the second generation of the Colour
Maximite 2. This does not make the first generation obsolete; it is an evolution
with several improvements that will be appreciated by enthusiasts who are pushing
the boundaries.
Words and MMBasic by Geoff Graham
Part 1: introduction Design and firmware by Peter Mather
F or readers who missed the intro-

duction of the Colour Maximite
2 (July & August 2020; siliconchip.
processor running at 480MHz, hun-
dreds of times faster than the 8-bit
CPUs of the 80s.
supporting over 16 million different
colours. This is known as ‘true colour’
and is the same colour range used
com.au/Series/348), this computer is This chip also includes integrated by PCs. So photographs can now be
inspired by the personal computers memory, communication systems displayed without noticeable colour
of the early 1980s. Computers such as and its own video controller, capable banding (eg, in the sky).
the Apple II, Commodore 64 and the of generating a VGA output at resolu- The third feature is the use of a four-
Tandy TRS-80. But thanks to modern tions of up to 1920x1080 pixels with layer PCB with all components placed
technology, it’s way more powerful some resolutions supporting 24-bit on the top side of the PCB. With the
and costs much less. ‘true colour’. first generation, we were able to get
Like those computers, the Colour away with mainly using through-hole
Maximite 2 has a built-in BASIC inter- New features parts, but as we are now mounting
preter and boots up instantly, straight The second-generation CMM2 offers the CPU directly on the board (rather
into the BASIC prompt. You can imme- three main improvements over the than via a module), that is not a via-
diately enter a command or a program original Colour Maximite 2. The first ble option.
and start doing something useful. is that the random access memory has As a result, most vendors will offer
The emphasis of the Colour Maxim- been boosted to 32MB compared to this design partially or fully assem-
ite 2 is on ease of use and having fun. the original 8MB, and it is also much bled rather than a simple kit of parts.
Plug it in, and within seconds, you can faster. The revised circuit is shown in There are a few other minor new fea-
be entering a program to draw on the Figs.1 & 2. tures in the Generation 2 design, which
screen, calculate astronomical move- This increased memory capacity we will cover later. These include two
ments or play music. It is ideal for and speed have enabled several new Wii game controller connectors, the
learning to program, educating chil- features, including a 1920x1080 pixel ability to connect a mouse easily, an
dren and just exploring what you can VGA mode, 24-bit colour and more optional high-accuracy real-time clock
do with this small and cheap computer RAM for BASIC programs to use for and the ability to mount an ESP-01
you program yourself. arrays, I/O buffers, etc. WiFi module on the PCB.
While the concept of the Colour The second improvement is the
Maximite 2 (CMM2) is borrowed from video DAC (digital-to-analog con- Circuit description
the computers of the 80s, the technol- verter) which now uses eight bits for The circuit consists mostly of con-
ogy used is very modern. The CPU each colour channel. That means that nectors and ICs surrounding the main
is an ARM Cortex-M7 32-bit RISC this version can generate 24-bit colour, processor, IC3, so we’ll just mention

some of the more noteworthy aspects
of the circuit. The full circuit is shown
in Figs.1 & 2.
The 24-bit colour VGA output is
Features & Specifications
generated using 24 digital outputs 480MHz ARM Cortex-M7 32-bit CPU with 2MB of flash and 1MB of RAM
from IC3 arranged in three groups: Additional 32MB off-chip RAM, used for BASIC variable storage and video
one for red, one for green and one for pages
blue. Each group drives an R-2R ladder
DAC made from discrete resistors. The Colour VGA output with 15 software-selectable resolutions from 240x216
effect of this is that the 7th output in pixels to 1920x1080 pixels, in both standard 4:3 and widescreen 16:9 ratios
a group has half the effect on the out- Four colour modes from 8-bit (256 colours) to 24-bit (16 million colours)
put voltage as the 8th, the 6th half that
of the 7th and so on down the ladder. Full-featured BASIC interpreter with support for strings, double-precision
Almost all components require a floating-point and 64-bit integers, long variable names, arrays with up to
3.3V supply. As the incoming power is five dimensions and ‘unlimited’ user-defined subroutines and functions
5V DC, the power supply is very sim-
ple, consisting mainly of linear regu- BASIC programs can be up to 516KB (typically 25,000 lines or more) and
lator REG1 plus many bypassing and run at 200,000+ lines per second
filter capacitors. 24MB storage memory for BASIC programs
IC4, the RAM chip, connects to IC3
Seven selectable fonts, user-designed fonts, line drawing, circles, squares
via a 16-bit data bus and 13-bit address
and full control over all pixels.
bus, plus 10 control lines.
Can load image files formatted as BMP, GIF, JPG or PNG from the SD card,
Assembly options positioned anywhere on the screen and scaled and rotated
The new four-layer PCB with mainly
SMD components mounted onboard USB keyboard support for US, UK, French, Spanish or German layouts and
makes scratch-building the CMM2 wireless keyboards with a USB dongle
Gen2 a bit more challenging than the PS/2 mouse support for dual-mode USB mice with a PS/2 adaptor – an
earlier version. optional chip provides support for standard USB mice.
If you’re keen to build it your-
self, you can still do that, although SD card support up to 128GB for storing programs and files (FAT16, FAT32
you might find sourcing the proces- or exFAT)
sor somewhat tricky given the severe
Built-in graphical file manager makes it easier to manage files and
shortages affecting the semiconductor
directories, along with mouse support
industry at the time of publishing this
article. But it is an option for those who Stereo audio output; can play WAV, FLAC and MP3 files, computer-
are confident in their SMD assembly generated music (MOD format), robot speech, synthesised sound effects
skills (or keen for a challenge!). and sinewave tones
Another option would be to use a
PCB fabrication company to popu- Battery-backed real-time clock (RTC) will keep the time even when
late and solder the surface-mounted powered down
components for you, using their
pick-and-place machines and reflow 28 I/O lines which can be configured as analog inputs, digital inputs/
ovens. They can do this reasonably outputs, for frequency measurement etc; pin layout is compatible with
cheaply in small quantities. But it will Raspberry Pi HATs
probably be cheaper and easier for Support for communications protocols including serial, I2C, SPI and 1-wire
you to buy one of the kits that come
with a mostly pre-populated PCB, as USB socket for connecting to a personal computer (Windows, Mac or
described below. Linux) as a terminal or for file transfer
If you want to solder your own
Special features for animated games including multiple video layers with
Colour Maximite 2 but are not confi-
selectable levels of transparency, multiple video pages with high-speed
dent that you can handle the SMDs,
copying between pages, BLIT (copy a block of video), SPRITE (animated
especially the 144-pin main CPU,
sprites) and support for Wii game controllers
consider building the first-generation
design. It primarily uses through-hole
parts and offers many of the same fea- Built-in full-screen editor with colour coded text, up to 255 character line
tures as this revised version. lengths, clipboard for copy and paste, advanced search and replace and
mouse support
Upgrades to the original Powered from USB 5V, drawing less than 300mA
In the following discussion, we will
Firmware upgrades via USB with no special hardware required
describe the second-generation design,
including its new features. However, Compatibility mode for running programs written for the original Colour
many of its features also apply to the Maximite

TO CON3
PINS 37 & 39
REG1 AMS1117-3.3
JP1 +5V + 3 .3 V +3.3V
IN OUT
PWR 10mF GND 100mF 1m F 4.7mF RST
172
159
149
103
136
127
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72
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S1 100nF VDD 166
+3.3V 6 BOOT0
VBAT 107
POWER 8 PG3
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100nF 100nF 24 PB11
Vcc PF6 31
ST-LINK 1 6 VBAT BATTERY 25 RST
32kHz IC7 VBAT
28
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1
3 DS3231MZ 8 SCL 147
PF10
13
2
SQW/INT SCL PD5 PI11
PA14 146 1
PD4 PE2
3
4 7 SDA 137 92
GND RESET SDA PA14 PA14 PB12
124 145
GND PA13 PA13 PD3
4 9 144
PA13 5 2x PC14/OSC32_IN PD2
141
5
10k W 45 PC12
RST X1 32768Hz PH4 139
+ 3 .3 V 10 PC10
6 PC15/OSC32_OUT 140
PC11
16 79 89
C ON8 100nF 12pF 12pF PB10 PH12
4 Vcc 14 118 110
V3 RTS PC9 PG6
117 57
15 13 10 W PC8 PB1
R232 DTR 39 32
USB TYPE B VDDA PC0
12 38 87
PWR/CONSOLE DCD VREF+ PH10
86
1 6 11 10mF 1mF 100nF 157 PH9
2 D– UD– IC8 RI 156
PG14
PH8
85
5 CH340G 10 111
PG13
PH3
44
UD+ DSR PG7 43
3 D+ 120 PH2
4 3 PA9 176
RXD 121 PI7
C ON2 7 2 PA10 175
164 PI6
XI TXD +3.3V PB6 174
8 9 MODE 152 PI5
XO CTS PG9 173
X3 1 4 26 PI4
GND PF8 154
ST VDD 27 PG11
1 100nF 8MHz JP7 PF9
PD6
150
29
OUT PH0/OSC_IN 155
XO 3 30
PH1/OSC_OUT
PG12
+ 3 .3 V 3
GND 151 PE4
PD7 11 VERT SYNC
3 9 43 49 14 27 1
2 TO NUNCHUK 1
45
PA2
PI9
6x 12 HORIZ SYNC
80 PI10
100nF VDDQ VDD (SEE FIG.2) PB11
53 98 +3.3V
6 COM2:Tx
DQ15 PD10
51 97
DQ14 PD9
50 96
DQ13 PD8
40 48 78
NC DQ12 PE15
4
2
8
47 77 IC3
DQ11 PE14 STM32H743IIG
16 45 76
WE DQ10 PE13
17 44 75
CAS DQ9 PE12
18 42 74
7
3
5
RAS DQ8 PE11
19 13 73
CS DQ7 PE10
11 70
DQ6 PE9
10 69 COM2:Rx
DQ5 PE8
38 8 68 133
37
CKE IC4 DQ4
7 143
PE7 PI2
132
CLK MT48LC16M16A2 DQ3 5 PD1 PI1
131
142
DQ2 PD0 PI0
39 4 105 130
DQMH DQ1 PD15 PH15
15 2 104 153
DQML DQ0 PD14 PG10
36 106 128
A12 PG2 PH13
35 67 5
A11 PG1 PE6
21 22 66 4
BA1 A10 PG0 PE5
20 34 65 165 I2C #2 SDA
BA0 A9 PF15 PB7
33 64 168 I2C #1 SDA
A8 PF14 PB9 2
23 32 63 167 I C #1 SCL
A0 A7 PF13 PB8
24 31 60 33 COUNT1
A1 A6 PF12 PC1
25 30 21 129 COM2:Rx
A2 A5 PF5 PH14
26 29 20 34 COUNT2
A3 A4 PF4 PC2_C
VSSQ VSS 19 35 COUNT3
PF3 PC3_C
6 12 46 52 28 41 54 18 163 SPI1 MOSI
PF2 PB5
17 162 SPI1 MISO
PF1 PB4
16 161 SPI1 CLK
P F0 PB3
108 56 PWM1C
PG4 PB0
109 116 PWM2B
PG5 PC7
169 134 GPIO
PE0 PI3
170 94 SPI2 MISO
PE1 PB14
112 41 COM1:DE
PG8 PA1
84 93 SPI2 CLK
PH7 PB13
58 95 SPI2 MOSI
PB2 PB15
101 115 PWM2A
PD13 PC6
100 7 GPIO
PD12 PI8 2
99 88 I C #2 SCL
PD11 PH11
83 55 GPIO
PH6 PC5
59 54 COUNT4
PF11 PC4
160 53 PWM1B
PG15 PA7
46 138 FAST COUNT
PH5 PA15
123 40 COM2:Tx
TO A3 ON CON1 (SEE FIG.2) PA12 PA0
122 52 PWM1A
TO A2 ON CON1 (SEE FIG.2) PA11 PA6
50 47 COM1:Rx
PA4 PA3
AUDIO 4.7kW 51 42 COM1:Tx
PA5 PA2
125 119
VCAP PA8
81 2
VCAP PE3
VSSA VSS
4.7kW
2.2mF 2.2mF
61
71
C ON4
37
48
113
148
158
102
126
135
14
90
22
JP3 JP4
COLOUR MAXIMITE 2 GEN2

TO B3 ON CON1 (SEE FIG.2)
SC
Ó2021 MAIN CIRCUIT TO B2 ON CON1 (SEE FIG.2)

BOOT0
+ 3 .3 V + 3 .3 V
2.2W 10k W
ESP_3.3V IC2
JP2 100nF
10kW 10kW 1k W 4.7kW 3 3 TSOP4838
1kW Vcc IR SENSOR
100nF 100mF 2 DS18B20
1
RESET
A A 1
DQ DIGITAL
THERMOMETER l
GND
100nF S2 l POWER SD CARD l
RST PROG/RUN IRD1
K K
2
2. 2 W
LED1
100nF 10 m F
CON6
SD CARD SKT
CARD PRESENT
CD
9
CARD ENABLE 1
240 W DATA TO CARD 2
240W
3
240 W
240W 4
240W CLOCK TO CARD 5
240W
6
240W DATA FROM CARD 7
240W 8
120 W 120 W 120 W 120 W 120W 120 W 120 W
240W CARD WRITE PROTECT WP
240W 75 W CON5
VGA CONNECTOR
240 W
240 W 6
240W 240W VIDEO – RED 1 11
240W 7
240W VIDEO – GREEN 2 12
VERT SYNC
240W 8
VIDEO – BLUE 3 13
120 W 120 W 120 W 120 W 120W 120 W 120 W 75W
9
HORIZ SYNC 240W 4 14
75W
10
CON9 5 15
(HEADER FOR CONNECTING
ESP-01 WIFI MODULE)
240W
240W
240 W VERT SYNC
240 W IC3 PI9
240W
240 W HORIZ SYNC
240 W IC3 PI10
240W
120 W 120 W 120W 120 W 120W 120W 120 W
TO NUNCHUK 2
240W
(SEE FIG.2)
2 10kW
I C #2 SDA 2
I C #2 SDA +3.3V
2
I C #1 SDA 10k W
2
I C #1 SCL
COUNT1
COM2:Rx 10kW
COUNT2
COUNT3
SPI1 MOSI
SPI1 MISO
SPI1 CLK
PWM1C
PWM2B
GPIO
SPI2 MISO
COM1:DE +3.3V
SPI2 CLK
SPI2 MOSI
20
22
26
28
38
32
36
34
30
40
24
18
12
14
16
10
PWM2A
4
6
2
GPIO CON3
2
I C #2 SCL EXTERNAL
GPIO
I/O
31
21
11
25
33
1
13
5
23
35
19
15
29
27
39
17
3
37
7
9
COUNT4
+5V
PWM1B
FAST COUNT
COM2:Tx
10kW
PWM1A
COM1:Rx
COM1:Tx COUNT4
2 PWM1B
I C #2 SDA
IC5_PIN18 FAST COUNT
2
I C #2 SCL COM2:Tx
IC5_PIN17
PWM1A
COM1:Rx
Fig.1: the Colour Maximite 2 is centred around COM1:Tx
the ARM Cortex-M7 processor, IC3. This, along with 32MB (512Mb) RAM chip IC4, does most of the work. The rest of the
circuit is mainly concerned with supplying power to those chips and connecting the processor to the outside world. The
keyboard & mouse interface didn’t fit in this diagram, so it is shown separately in Fig.2.

first generation version via firmware
upgrades, for example, mouse sup-
port and the 1280x720 pixel display
resolution.
So, if you have the original Colour
Maximite 2, you should upgrade the
firmware to the latest version to get
these features. The firmware download
is available from the Silicon Chip web-
site or the Author’s website at http://
geoffg.net/maximite.html
Note that the same firmware file will
load and run on both the first- and
second-generation designs. The firm-
ware automatically detects the hard-
ware that it is running on and config-
ures itself accordingly.
Basic operation summary

To use the Colour Maximite 2, all
you need to do is plug in a monitor,
keyboard and power supply. The com- The front view showing the infrared receiver (for remote control), two Wii
puter generates a VGA output with controller ports for the Wii Nunchuck or the Wii Classic game controllers, status
LEDs for power and SD card activity, the SD card slot, the audio output socket
one of 15 different video modes, some
and the power switch.
widescreen and some that work best
with older 4:3 aspect ratio monitors. power source, as they often limit the programming, it is easy to use and
The highest resolution is 1920x1080 current delivered via their USB ports learn. It became popular in the late 70s
pixels; the 1280x720 resolution works to conserve their battery capacity. and early 80s as the default language
well with a widescreen monitor, and With the first generation Colour for early personal computers.
the text is easy to read. Maximite 2, we found that most prob- MMBasic is the name given to the
The CMM2 defaults to an 800x600 lems encountered by our readers could BASIC interpreter running on the
resolution which suits all monitors, be traced to the power source, closely Colour Maximite 2. It is an interpreter,
but this can be changed using the followed by the quality of the USB which means that the computer will
OPTION DEFAULT MODE command. cable used for the power. These are decode each line of the program as it
The keyboard interface accommo- the first things you should investigate encounters it. This is different from
dates most USB keyboards, including if you have strange problems such compiled languages such as C and
keyboards that use a wireless dongle. as failure to boot, errors with the SD C++, where code is converted to native
Keyboards that have been tested and card, intermittent crashes, keyboard machine instructions before execution.
work well include the Logitech K120, problems etc. Compilers use a series of programs
K270, K400+ or K800 models, HP You will need an SD card to hold (a compiler, linker and loader) to
SK2885, Lenovo KU-0225 and Mic- your programs. The Colour Maxim- take your program and convert it into
rosoft 600. ite 2 supports cards up to 128GB for- machine code. This is then used to
We have discovered that some key- matted with FAT16, FAT32 or exFAT. create a program file that the com-
boards will not work correctly for an Generally, you do not need a very large puter can run.
unknown reason related to the USB capacity, so an 8GB or 16GB card for- This process results in a higher exe-
protocol stack. This is rare, but if you matted with FAT32 will provide more cution speed than an interpreter, but
run into keyboard problems, try one than enough space and will be quite creates certain restrictions in how pro-
of the above-listed types. The Logitech cheap (under $10). grams can be written. It also means
K120 works well, is cheap (under $20) With a power supply, keyboard you need to wait each time you make
and is readily available. and monitor attached, flipping on the a change for the code to compile before
The power supply can be any USB power switch will result in the Colour you can launch it and see what effect
source of 5V. The typical power draw Maximite 2 booting up in under a that change has had.
of the computer with just a keyboard second, straight into the MMBasic Many programs don’t need the abso-
and monitor is 250mA; however, when interpreter. It will display the BASIC lute fastest execution speed, especially
you connect external circuitry to the prompt (a greater than symbol, “>”), with modern processors being quite
rear I/O connector, this can increase. and you are ready to enter your first fast. So interpreted languages are pop-
If you are using a USB charger as a command or program. ular with non-professional program-
power supply you need to be careful, mers (and even with professionals for
as many of these struggle when they MMBasic specific tasks).
are anywhere near their limit. So make BASIC is a programming language MMBasic in the Colour Maximite 2
sure that it is rated for at least 500mA, that has been around for a long time. is the same as the BASIC interpreter
and preferably at least 1A. Also be Initially developed in the 1960s by that runs on our popular Micromite
careful if you are using a laptop as the Dartmouth College (USA) for teaching series of embedded controller chips.

arrangement created a slight jitter in
the signal, which sometimes caused a
corresponding instability in the VGA
video output.
Generally, this was not a problem at
the standard 800x600 pixel resolution.
But as higher resolutions were enabled
via firmware upgrades, it became more
of a problem.
With the second generation design
capable of generating a 1920x1080
pixel video output, the requirement
for a more stable clock became critical.
This is why an external (to the ARM
processor) 8MHz oscillator module
has been specified. This oscillator is
very stable and supports the extended
resolutions that many users would
like to use.
If you have the original Colour Max-
imite 2 and would like to use the high
Along the back panel, you can see the VGA output socket, the external I/O resolutions provided by the later firm-
socket for a ribbon cable, a Type-B USB connector for power and serial console ware upgrades, we recommend that
access and two stacked Type-A USB connectors. The top connector is for the
you also upgrade the hardware to an
keyboard, while the lower connector is for a mouse.
external oscillator. The first genera-
MMBasic has over 500 built-in two speed types – the older 400MHz tion PCB was designed for this pos-
commands and functions. It is also version and a later 480MHz version. sibility, and the second article in this
designed to emulate Microsoft BASIC, STMicro was transitioning from the series will have the details of how to
the premier programming language for slower to the faster variant, but annoy- perform the upgrade.
personal computers in the 80s. This ingly, they used the same part number Usually, video images are stored in
means that you can get Micromite pro- for both versions. the RAM within the ARM Cortex-M7.
grams or programs written for Micro- This made it difficult for suppliers But for high-resolution images, we
soft BASIC working on the CMM2 with and you, the end user, to know what needed more RAM than it has. This,
minimal changes. variant you were going to receive. in part, is the reason for the exter-
You can type in almost any com- It seems that now the supply chain nal 32MB RAM chip. Using this, the
mand at the MMBasic prompt, and has flushed out most of the 400MHz firmware can assemble much larger
the interpreter will execute it immedi- chips, as over the past few months, images. This RAM is also used to
ately. For example, if you type PRINT 2 all the chips that we have seen are support 24-bit graphics modes and
+ 2 and press Enter, it displays “4” on the 480MHz version. So you can be provide more memory for BASIC pro-
the screen as you would expect. This reasonably sure that the second gen- grams.
immediate feedback is one of the ben- eration Colour Maximite 2 will run at The internal clock/calendar used by
efits of running an interpreter, and it this speed. But, that is not guaranteed. MMBasic is derived from the real-time
allows you to easily test the commands Regardless, either speed is very fast, clock built into the ARM Cortex-M7
and functions in the BASIC program- and the firmware will automatically processor. This is effective, but if you
ming language. support whatever chip is supplied. If want a much better level of accuracy,
you are curious, you can determine you can add an optional DS3231MZ+
ARM Cortex-M7 processor the variant you have by using the fol- to the PCB, and it will typically only
The hardware and firmware of the lowing command to report the speed: lose or gain a second or two in a week.
Colour Maximite 2 are fully covered in The command to enable this optional
PRINT MM.INFO(CPUSPEED)
the Colour Maximite 2 User Manual, feature is:
so we will not go into all the details
Oscillator module OPTION DS3231
here (there are a lot of details).
The computer is centred around the The ARM processor is clocked by Whichever real-time clock is used, it
ARM Cortex-M7 processor. This is the an external 8MHz oscillator module. is powered by the coin battery on the
large central IC that you can see in the This signal is multiplied within the PCB. This is also used to keep alive
photographs. Along with the 32MB processor to generate all the various some static memory within the ARM
(512Mb) RAM chip, this does most of clocks required, including the instruc- Cortex-M7 that stores option settings
the work; the other components and tion clock, USB clock, VGA timing etc. and saved variables so that they are
connectors supply power and connect In the original Colour Maximite 2, not lost on power down. The current
the processor to the outside world. we used the crystal on the Waveshare drawn from this battery is tiny, so it
When we designed the original CPU module and the oscillator built should last for many years.
Colour Maximite 2, the STMicroelec- into the ARM processor to generate The main board now has provision
tronics STM32H743IIT6 chip came in this clock. But it turned out that this for mounting an ESP-01 WiFi module.

This module uses the ESP8266 chip, our North American cousins. The console is where you enter com-
a self-contained SOC (system on a This is configured via the three mands and programs into the com-
chip) that includes the TCP/IP proto- jumper pins beside the switch. When puter. Typically, this is done using a
col stack, 2.4GHz transmitter/receiver the centre pin and the pin to the rear keyboard and VGA monitor, but the
and other features to allow the Colour are connected, down will be on. The serial console allows you to connect a
Maximite 2 to access a WiFi network. reverse is true if the centre pin and PC or laptop to the Colour Maximite 2’s
Currently, MMBasic does not have the pin towards the front panel are console via a serial interface over USB.
Internet features built in, but you can connected. You can do everything that can be
access the ESP8266 using a standard done via the keyboard and monitor
serial interface and the AT commands Rear panel features (except graphics) via this interface.
built into the ESP8266. With special Along the back panel (starting from You can enter and edit programs, set
firmware running on the ESP8266, you the left) is the VGA connector for your options, run programs etc.
can extend the BASIC console over monitor. As described previously, this A CH340C USB-to-serial bridge is
WiFi so that you can remotely connect supports a wide range of resolutions used. This converts the serial I/O from
to the Colour Maximite 2 to upload, and colour depths. the ARM Cortex-M7 to USB using the
edit and run programs. We have been asked why the Colour CDC (communication device class)
Maximite 2 does not support HDMI, protocol over USB. Support for this
Front panel arrangement and the answer is that the ARM Cortex- chip and the CDC protocol is included
The two Wii Controller ports domi- M7 does not support this protocol. So in Windows 10 and other operating
nate the front panel. These will accept an expensive and complicated HDMI systems.
either the Wii Nunchuck or the Wii controller chip would be required. The first generation Colour Maxim-
Classic game controllers; MMBasic There are also difficulties associated ite 2 used a different chip for the same
can work with either. Many games with HDMI licensing, so this feature task, but the CH340C is cheaper and
written for the Colour Maximite 2 use was just not practical. more readily available, so we have
such a controller, so they are a useful VGA to HDMI converters are readily switched to that.
addition if you plan on playing some available and inexpensive, so if you
games. MMBasic can support up to want to connect the CMM2 to a mon- Mouse interface
three controllers, with the third via itor via HDMI, that is the best way to The last connector on the back panel
the rear I/O connector. do it. These converters cost a lot less consists of two stacked USB Type-A
Positioned between the two game than it would cost us to implement sockets. These are for the keyboard
controller connectors are two LEDs. onboard HDMI. (top connector) and a mouse (lower
The bottom green LED illuminates Next on the back panel is the 40-pin connector).
when power is applied. The top red external I/O connector. This supports The second-generation design sup-
LED initially illuminates to indicate 28 inputs or outputs, with 12 of these ports two types of mouse interfaces.
that the firmware has successfully able to be configured as analog inputs. The first is a USB-only mouse, which
found and enumerated the USB key- Many of the I/O pins can also be used requires a Hobbytronics mouse con-
board. This is a handy indicator if you as PWM outputs or to handle serial troller chip (www.hobbytronics.co.uk/
are experiencing problems with your communications, including asynchro- usb-host-soic) to be installed as IC5,
keyboard. nous serial, I2C, SPI and more. along with its supporting components.
Following this, the red LED is used The pin allocations on this connec- You can then plug the mouse into the
to indicate SD card activity. It will tor are inverted compared to the first USB mouse socket (the lower socket).
illuminate while the SD card is being generation Colour Maximite 2. This is This feature is optional, and the cir-
accessed, and this is a warning: do not because while the I/O signal allocation cuit for it is shown in Fig.2. Typically,
remove the card while the LED is lit. on the first generation was compatible suppliers of the second generation
The SD card acts as the computer’s with the Raspberry Pi, the pin num- Colour Maximite 2 will not include
“disk drive”, where programs and bering was inverted, which sometimes this chip as it is easier to use a dual
data are stored. Next to it is the audio caused problems. USB-PS/2 mouse, which is the second
socket. The tip is the left channel, the So the Generation 2 version cor- type of mouse interface supported.
ring is the right channel and the sleeve rects this by exactly matching the Most wired mice will automatically
is ground – the standard configura- Raspberry Pi configuration, including switch between USB and PS/2 modes,
tion. The output is a high-impedance pin numbering. With the first genera- and many come with a USB to PS/2
signal at about 1V RMS, suitable for tion, you had to cut a new key slot in adaptor. This adaptor simply signals
feeding to an amplifier or amplified the shroud if you wanted to plug in a the mouse to switch to PS/2 mode via
speakers. device intended for the Raspberry Pi. a pull-up resistor inside the adaptor.
Programs can generate audio in With the second generation design, The adaptor also provides the physi-
many formats, ranging from simple this is no longer necessary. cal PS/2 connector.
sinewave tones through to playing Continuing across the back panel, Even if your wired mouse did not
WAV, FLAC, and MP3 files. the Type-B USB connector provides come with this adaptor, it is very likely
Next along the front panel is the both power and a serial console. We that it will work as a PS/2 mouse – so
power switch, which has a special fea- covered the power requirements of it is worth giving it a try. A typical
ture: it can be set to be on when the the Colour Maximite 2 earlier, but the example is the Microsoft Basic Opti-
toggle is down (for Australian and New serial console feature needs a little cal Mouse, which is low in cost (under
Zealand readers), or the opposite for explanation. $20), widely available and works well

Fig.2: the keyboard & mouse connector, along with the optional USB mouse interface chip, IC5. You generally won’t need
this chip as most wired USB mice will work in PS/2 mode, regardless of whether they came with a PS/2 adaptor.
as a PS/2 mouse with the Colour Max- The mouse CLOCK (pin 5) line con- They offer partially assembled kits
imite 2. nects to pin 33 of the I/O connector, and, by that, we mean that the PCB is
To use a dual USB-PS/2 mouse, IC5 and the DATA (pin 1) connects to pin populated with all the small surface-
must not be populated, and all four 32. Both must have a 4.7kW pull-up mount components already soldered
solder jumpers marked PS/2-CLK and resistor to +5V. This can be assem- in place. The larger components (con-
PS/2-DAT on the PCB (JP3-JP6) must bled on a small piece of perforated nectors, SD card socket, battery holder,
be joined with solder blobs. You can stripboard. etc) are supplied loose for you to sol-
then plug the mouse into the USB der yourself. This only takes half an
mouse socket (the lower socket). A Where to get it hour or so.
USB to PS/2 adaptor is not required, The Colour Maximite 2 is available These suppliers might also offer
as the Colour Maximite 2 will force the from several suppliers around the fully assembled and tested versions,
mouse into PS/2 mode, even though it world. Many of these will supply it pre-cut front/rear panels and a suit-
is plugged into a USB socket. with all the SMDs already soldered, as able case for the completed computer
MMBasic has built-in support for a building it from scratch requires good – check the supplier’s website for the
mouse via the MOUSE() function. The soldering skills. details. You will also need USB cables
program can query the mouse cursor’s Vendors selling kits for the second and a 5V supply, as these are generally
position and detect clicks or double generation Colour Maximite 2 include not included.
clicks of the mouse buttons using this. Rictech Ltd in New Zealand (www. For brave readers, a construction
Both the file manager and the edi- rictech.nz) and Micromite.org in the kit is available from the Author’s web-
tor built into MMBasic can also use UK (https://micromite.org). Both will site (http://geoffg.net/maximite.html)
the mouse for most functions that send kits anywhere in the world. and this contains the parts list, PCB
you might expect. For example, you
can use the mouse to point and select
a file or line; you can select text with
the mouse, scroll using the scroll
wheel, double click to open/run a file
and so on.
While the second-generation design
makes it easy to plug a dual-function
mouse into the USB socket (without
an adaptor), the first generation design
running the latest firmware also sup-
ports a PS/2 mouse via the rear I/O
connector. The only difference is that
you will need to solder some wires Fig.3: If you have a first-generation Colour Maximite 2, you can add a PS/2 mouse
from the mouse’s connector to the I/O to it by wiring it to the rear I/O connector as shown here. For the mouse to be
connector, as illustrated in Fig.3. recognised by MMBasic, you must upgrade the firmware to version 5.07 or later.

fabrication files, schematic, and the
Parts List – Colour Maximite Gen2 pick-and-place assembly files.
You can also get the PCB for the
1 partially assembled PCB module – see below revised Colour Maximite 2 from the
1 USB 5V power supply or computer with powered USB socket Silicon Chip Online Shop, but you
1 DS18B20+ temperature sensor (IC2; optional) will have to gather all the other bits
1 3-pin infrared receiver (IRD1; optional) yourself. Note that we still sell a kit
1 USB Type-A to Type-B cable (for power) for the original CMM2, which includes
1 dual horizontal USB Type-A PCB socket (CON1; Amphenol FC1 72309- almost everything you need; it just
8034BLF) ∎
lacks the case.
1 USB2 Type-B right-angle PCB socket (CON2; Amphenol FC1 61729-0010BLF) ∎
The design and firmware for the
1 40-way DIL right-angle box header, 2.54mm pitch (CON3; Hirose HIF3F-40PA-
2.54DS(71)) ∎ Colour Maximite 2 are in the pub-
1 3.5mm stereo jack socket (CON4; Switchcraft 35RASMT4BHNTRX) ∎ lic domain (free to anyone), and two
1 15-pin right-angle HD D-sub PCB socket (CON5) other vendors have created their own
[RS 481-443, element14 2401183/2857990, Digi-Key AE11036-ND, versions of the Generation 2 design.
Mouser 523-7HDE15SDH4RHNVGA] These are compatible with the stan-
1 SD card socket (CON6; Hirose DM1AA-SF-PEJ(21) or DM1AA-SF-PEJ(82)) ∎ dard firmware and offer additional
1 3-pin header (CON7; optional – for serial comms) features such as a sea-of-holes PCB
1 6-pin header (CON8; optional – for ST-LINK programmer) prototyping area, more Wii Control-
1 4x2-pin header (CON9; optional – for connecting an ESP-01 WiFi module) ler ports, etc.
1 right-angle vertical PCB-mount SPDT toggle switch (S1) These vendors are CircuitGizmos in
[Altronics S1320, RS 734-7107, element14 9473297, Digi-Key EG2364-ND, the USA (https://circuitgizmos.com)
Mouser 34ASP27T7M2QT] and PS Labs in Poland (http://maximite.
1 button cell holder for CR1220 (BAT1; Harwin S8411-45R) ∎ pslabs.pl). Both of these will ship
1 CR1220 lithium button cell (BAT1)
worldwide, and you should check
1 3mm dual green/red LED assembly (LEDs1a & 1b; Dialight 553-0112F) ∎
their websites for the various features
1 3-pin header with jumper shunt (JP2)
1 short length of 0.7mm diameter tinned copper wire, or a component lead off- of their versions, including the sup-
cut (PWR) plied cases.
1 plastic instrument case, 140 x 110 x 35mm
[Jaycar HB5970, Altronics H0472, element14 1526699] Difficulty obtaining parts
4 5mm untapped spacers When you are purchasing a Colour
∎ available from [RS, element14, Digi-Key and Mouser] Maximite 2, be aware that large scale
semiconductors such as the ARM
Partially assembled PCB module parts
Cortex-M7 are in short supply world-
1 four-layer PCB with plated through holes coded 07108211, 128mm x 107mm
1 32768Hz 12.5pF SMD crystal, 3.2 x 1.5mm two-pin package (X1) wide. It has got so bad that some car
[eg, Seiko Epson Q13FC1350000400] manufacturers such as Ford have
1 8MHz 3.3V SMD crystal oscillator module, 7 x 4mm four-pin package (X3) had to shut down plants and lay off
[eg, Seiko Epson X1G004481001400] workers because they cannot get the
1 5.1 x 5.1mm SMD four-pin tactile switch (S2) semiconductors needed to finish the
[eg, XKB Connectivity TS-1187A-C-C-B] vehicles.
We have seen this effect with both
Semiconductors
the ARM Cortex-M7 and the 32MB
1 STM32H743IIT6 32-bit microcontroller, LQFP-176 (IC3)
1 Micron MT48LC16M16A2P-6A IT:G 256Mb (32MB) SDRAM, TSOP(II)-54 (IC4) RAM chip used in the Generation 2
1 DS3231MZ real-time clock, SOIC-8 (IC7; optional) design. So you might experience lon-
1 CH340C USB/serial converter, SOIC-16 (IC8) ger delivery times for your Colour
1 AMS1117-3.3 3.3V low-dropout linear regulator, SOT-223 (REG1) Maximite 2 kit than you would typi-
cally expect. This is caused by events
Capacitors (all SMD 50V X7R ceramic, M3216/1206 size unless otherwise stated) outside the control of the supplier, and
2 100μF 6.3V SMD tantalum, SMB, SMC or SMD case patience is the only answer.
4 10μF 16V SMD tantalum, SMA case
1 4.7μF 2 2.2μF 2 1μF Next month
32 100nF 2 6pF C0G/NP0 ceramic, M2012/0805 size
In the follow-up article next month,
Resistors (all SMD 1/4W 1% thick film, M3216/1206 size) we’ll have PCB layout details, for if
13 10kW 3 1kW 1 10W you’re planning on building it your-
Resistors (all SMD 1/8W 1% thick film, M2012/0805 size) self, debugging/testing, or you just
5 4.7kW 27 240W 21 120W 3 75W 2 2.2W want to see what connection is where.
The final construction details will fol-
Optional parts for USB Mouse low that, plus information on loading
1 Hobbytronics USBHOST-SOIC, SOIC-28 (IC5) – www.hobbytronics.co.uk
the firmware into the STM32 chip, a
1 16MHz 10ppm 9pF SMD crystal, 3.2 x 2.5mm four-pin package (X2)
short guide on writing BASIC pro-
[eg, Yangxing Tech X322516MLB4SI]
1 SMD LED, M2012/0805 size (LED2) grams on the CMM2 and some links
2 18pF 50V C0G/NP0 ceramic capacitors, M2012/0805 size to external resources that you will
find helpful. SC

By Geoff Graham
Professional
PCB Assembly
If you aren’t confident soldering small SMDs, don’t have time or don’t
want to populate your boards with dozens or hundreds of components,
there is another option. For a modest fee, you can have your boards
professionally assembled using parts that you specify, and in many cases
these components will cost just a pittance!
O ur first article on the Second Gen-

eration Colour Maximite 2 com-
puter (which you can see on page 26
now ‘hire’ a machine to assemble a
complex board that would be diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to put together
like the one used in the Second Gen-
eration Colour Maximite 2, this saves
the effort involved in sourcing then
of this issue) mentioned that you could yourself. tediously soldering over a hundred
have the PCB professionally assem- You design your PCB using SMD tiny components. Furthermore, for
bled. This includes the PCB fabrica- parts as you would normally do, but someone who is not comfortable sol-
tion, supply of the components and instruct your PCB design software to dering SMD components, this avoids
the soldering of these components generate two extra files: a Bill Of Mate- that issue entirely.
onto the board. So, how do you get rials (BOM) and a Component Place- It is worth reflecting on how the
that done? ment List (CPL). With these files the times have changed. A little over ten
The process is remarkably cheap fabricator has enough information to years ago, a typical hobby project
and easy, even if you only want a cou- supply the components and solder would be based on a single-sided PCB
ple of boards assembled. For the home them in their correct positions. etched and drilled at home. Even Sili-
constructor, this is a boon as you can For a relatively complicated PCB con Chip projects were based on PCBs
The assembled
prototype PCB for the
Second Generation
Colour Maximite 2,
exactly as received
from JLCPCB. It
has about 100
components
supplied and
soldered, with
only the large
components
(connectors, switch
etc) to be fitted.
siliconchip.com.au Australia's
Australia’s electronics magazine August 2021 35

like that. Now, a fabricator will make to the PCB design software. This is the It’s important to know the capabil-
you a four-layer PCB for the price of unique part code assigned by the fab- ities of the manufacturer; JLCPCB’s
a hamburger and then populate it for ricator to each component. The fabri- can be found at https://jlcpcb.com/
the price of a six-pack of VB. How cator needs these numbers to identify smt-assembly
great is that? the components to load into their pick- For example, they can only perform
and-place machines. PCB assembly on boards between 20 x
Designing the board If you go into the JLCPCB web- 20mm and 250 x 250mm in size, with
Most PCB design software can gen- site, there is a link at the top labelled a quantity of no more than 50 PCBs.
erate BOM and CPL files. As an exam- “Resources”, and if you click on
ple, the designer of the Second Gener- that you can then select “SMT Parts Parts selection
ation Colour Maximite 2 printed cir- Library”. Then you can browse the var- There are a few tricks to selecting
cuit board (Peter Mather in the UK) ious categories (Capacitors, Resistors parts. If the part is not in their catalog
used DesignSpark. This is a free pro- etc) in their catalog, or you can search or identified as “Not Stocked”, you
gram from RS Components, and it did using a part code or a value. will have to source and solder that part
a great job. These are all surface mount com- yourself after receiving the board. This
To fabricate the prototype Colour ponents (JLCPCB can assemble some is true of most non-SMD components,
Maximite 2 board, we used a company through-hole components by “hand including connectors.
called JLCPCB (https://jlcpcb.com/) soldering”, at an extra cost). When you But do not be put off if you cannot
in China. There are other companies select a component, it will list the part initially find the component that you
(mainly in China; there are some in code used by the fabricator, which, need. It might be listed in a different
Australia too) who will do the same, in the case of JLCPCB, is called the package, different temperature speci-
so you are not restricted to JLCPCB. “LCSC Part number”. You must then fication etc. An extended search often
Still, we will use them as an example enter this part code into the properties will get you what you need; JLCPCB
of how you go about getting your own of the component in the PCB design says that they stock over 80,000 com-
boards populated. software. ponents.
We have covered how to design You can also search for parts (and As a last resort, it might be easier to
PCBs before, so we will not go over find their numbers) at the LCSC web- redesign your circuit to use something
that again. However, to get the fabri- site, which is a Chinese component that they do have in stock, for example,
cator to populate the board, you need supplier and the sister company of a regulator with a different footprint.
to supply one more bit of information JLCPCB (http://lcsc.com). If you plan to have the Second
Generation Colour Maximite 2 board
assembled during 2021, you will prob-
ably find that the ARM processor and
the 32 megabit memory chips are out of
stock. This is due to the current semi-
conductor shortage; all you can do is
wait until they come back into stock,
then get in quickly before they run out.
JLCPCB lists components as being
either “basic” or “extended”. Basic
parts are always loaded on their pick-
and-place robots and are ready to be
This is an example of the Bill Of Materials (BOM) file generated by DesignSpark.
The fabricator uses this file to associate a component’s reference designator with placed onto your PCB. This primarily
their part code. applies to items like small resistors
and capacitors.
The extended components are the
less common items that are stored
in their warehouse. These must be
retrieved and loaded on the pick-and-
place robot specially for your build, so
they attract an additional charge per
item (generally a few dollars each).
You need to watch out for the
extended fee, as it can add up. For
example, the Second Generation
Colour Maximite 2 board was initially
designed using M3216 (3.2 x 1.6mm,
imperial 1206) sized resistors, but
most of these are listed by JLCPCB as
An example of the Component Placement List (CPL) file, used by the pick-and- extended parts. Given the number of
place robots to place the component on the PCB. It lists the part’s designator, the different resistor values, that would
PCB coordinates of the centre of the component, which side of the board to place have added over $40 to the board
the part and the orientation (ie, rotation). assembly cost.

Redesigning the PCB to use the login so that you and they can manage solder mask, vias and silkscreen in
slightly smaller M2012 (2.0 x 1.2mm, your job. You can then upload your great detail. The components are pho-
imperial 0805) resistors, listed as basic Gerber files defining the PCB. That torealistic, with their markings clearly
parts eliminated that cost with no dif- is easy; just drag and drop the ZIP or visible, and they should be positioned
ference in functionality. RAR file containing all the files onto in their correct location.
The components supplied by JLCPCB the web page. This image is almost as good as hav-
are generally reasonably priced. For Following this are multiple options ing the final board in your hand, and
example, an M2012/0805 SMD resis- that you can select (solder mask colour, provides confidence that you will get
tor is less than half a cent. The other PCB thickness, copper finish etc), but what you intended.
factor is that there is no wastage; your you can leave these at their defaults A detailed check of this image is
project might need (for example) one for most projects (including the CMM2 vital, as it can show all sorts of errors
10W resistor. If you were assembling Gen2). JLCPCB will auto-fill most of that you did not realise existed when
that at home, you would likely end up the entries based on the Gerber files you designed the board. The most
purchasing 10 or even 100 to get that which is very convenient – but not all common is incorrect component ori-
single resistor at a reasonable cost. manufacturers do this, so take note. entation.
At this point, the website will ask It is possible that the orientation
Component Placement Files you to select which Gerber files repre- of the component in your PCB foot-
With the correct part codes entered sent the various copper layers on your print will be different from the foot-
into the component properties, you board and the number of boards that print used by JLCPCB. That can cause
can then get your PCB design soft- you want to be made. polarised components to be reversed,
ware to generate the Bill Of Materials If you just want a PCB (without ICs with pin 1 in the wrong place
(BOM) and Component Placement List assembly), you are finished. But at etc. So check every part thoroughly
(CPL) files. These are spreadsheets, the bottom of the web page, there is a and, if necessary, edit the CPL file to
normally in Excel format. Depending button that allows you to select “SMT change the orientation parameter for
on the software, these files might need assembly”. If you choose that, you the offending component, then reload
some reformatting to suit the fabrica- will be asked how many you want to the file.
tor’s specifications (eg, adding head- assemble and who should add the tool-
ers, swapping columns etc). ing holes. The tooling holes are small The final result
The BOM file is a list of all compo- holes in the PCB used in the assembly With the component list and image
nents, including their description, the process, and you usually let JLCPCB checks completed, JLCPCB will pres-
reference designator (R21, C1 etc), the add them. ent you with a list of the costs that
component footprint and the fabrica- Clicking “next” will take you to a make up the total price for the assem-
tor’s part code. The fabricator is really web page that asks you to upload the bled board.
only interested in their part code and BOM and CPL files. Again, this is a This includes the price for the board
the reference designator. simple drag-and-drop operation. itself, fixed setup charges, extended
The CPL file lists the reference des- parts charges, the cost of components
ignator, the X and Y coordinates of the Final checks etc. Of course, the service is more
component’s centre on the board, the Clicking “next” again will take you cost-effective if you are getting a rea-
PCB layer that the component is to be to the summary page. This page lists sonable number of boards made, but
placed on and the rotation of the com- all the components on the board and it is still worthwhile if you only want
ponent in degrees. provides a ‘preview’ of the assembled two boards assembled (their mini-
JLCPCB can only populate one side board. It is vital that you check this mum).
of a PCB, so in our example CPL file thoroughly as it is easy for a mistake to The cost of our assembled board
that side is the top layer. propagate through, and this is the last for the Second Generation Colour
The PCB is defined by files in the checkpoint before sending the board Maximite 2 (as shown in the photo)
standard Gerber format, and these are off for assembly. was about $10 for the four-layer PCB,
the same as you would use if you were For example, you might find some $59 for the components and $19 for
only getting a PCB made without the components listed as being out of assembly (plus postage). These costs
component assembly. You do need to stock, and this is where you need to are per board, for two boards and in
supply the “paste” file (which is used go back to the JLCPCB parts list and Australian dollars. Since then, the
to create the PCB stencil), which has select something different. You can exchange rates and component prices
the outlines of the solder paste stencil either go back to your PCB design soft- could have changed, so your experi-
that is used to deposit solder paste on ware to make the change, or you can ence might vary.
the pads as required. Most PCB assem- just manually edit the BOM file and Given the complexity of the board,
blers will add a separate charge to man- change the part number there. we feel that this is a reasonable price,
ufacture the PCB stencil. Either way, you will have to especially considering that everything
For a four-layer PCB, as used in the upload your files again and recheck is supplied and soldered for you.
Second Generation Colour Maximite the component listing to ensure that The actual assembly cost was small,
2, there are a total of ten files required all is OK. and it makes you wonder why you
to make the PCB, plus the “paste” file. The final step is to check the pre- would be bothered soldering a hun-
view provided by JLCPCB of the dred tiny components when you could
Placing the order assembled board. This image is very have it done professionally for the
JLCPCB requires that you create a realistic and shows the PCB with its price of one dish at a restaurant. SC

Harold S. Black, Negative
Feedback and the History
of Operational Amplifiers
Op amps and negative feedback circuits are ubiquitous
today, and you would be forgiven for thinking that they
have been around forever. But there was a time when
electronics was still developing, and such devices had
not yet been invented. That changed in 1927 with the
bright idea of one clever man…
by Roderick Wall & Nicholas Vinen
O ne of the most significant early

circuit ideas was Harold Steven
Black’s invention of negative feed-
back. In 1927, Harold S. Black (1898-
1983) was on a ferry heading towards
his office in the West Street Labs of
Western Electric, the forerunner of
Bell Telephone Laboratories in New
York City.
An idea popped into his head that
would dramatically change electronic
communications, which continues to
be used to the present day.
His idea was for a negative feedback
amplifier, where the gain is accurately
set and distortion limited by feeding
part of the output signal back into the
amplifier.
Black sketched his idea on a mis-
printed page of his copy of the New
York Times, the only paper that he had
on him. When Black got to his office,
he had a colleague witness and sign
it – see Fig.1.
Black’s job had been trying to
improve three- and four-channel tele-
phone amplifiers based on carrier
telephony for the last six years. For
long-distance telephone calls, repeat-
ers had to be added to cover the dis-
tance. But these repeaters had too
much distortion, so by the time the
audio signal reached its destination,
it was unintelligible.
Black realised that amplifier distor-
tion and noise could be reduced using
negative feedback, at the expense of
reduced amplifier gain. He later said
Fig.1: Harold Black’s original hand-written notes on the principle of using that he did not know what made his
negative feedback for distortion cancellation. idea pop into his head; it just came.

Fig.2: a page from one of Harold Black’s many patents regarding
negative feedback. This one is from patent 2,102,671, showing some
possible ways of building an amplifier with negative feedback using
valve(s).
Black used his new idea to design control, battery monitoring, instru- types, singles, doubles, quads etc.
low-distortion broadband repeater mentation and sometimes RF too. The term “operational amplifier”
amplifiers that were finally suitable The principle is used in TVs, radios, goes back to about 1943, when this
for long-distance telephone calls. computers, medical equipment, con- name was mentioned in a paper writ-
That allowed more channels over a trol circuits, measuring instruments ten by R. Ragazinni with the title
pair of wires. and mobile phones. You would find it “Analysis of Problems in Dynamics”.
very hard to find an electronic appli- The paper was the work of the US
His patents ance that does not use negative feed- National Defence Research Council
Harold S. Black was granted 62 pat- back. (1940), was published by the IRE in
ents during his career, 18 of which You will see negative feedback being May 1947 and is considered a classic
relate to negative feedback; these are used with operational amplifiers and work in electronics literature.
listed in Table 1. His most famous pat- in discrete circuits in most issues of George A. Philbrick Researches intro-
ent is number 2,102,671, which you Silicon Chip. duced the K2-W valve-based general-
can view at https://patents.google.com/ purpose op amp in 1952, more than a
patent/US2102671A Operational amplifiers decade before the first transistorised
If you replace the number in that This paved the way to the devel- version appeared (Figs.3 & 4).
link with the other patent numbers opment of operational amplifiers (op The first solid-state transistor was
(plus the “US” prefix), you can view amps); essentially, a monolithic imple- successfully demonstrated on Decem-
the relevant PDF. mentation of a circuit which applies ber 23, 1947, but it took a while before
This patent, titled “WAVE TRANS- negative feedback. transistors were in widespread use.
LATION SYSTEM”, was filed in 1932 Thousands of different types of op The first series of solid-state op amps
and granted in 1937. It comes to 87 amps are available to suit just about any were introduced by Burr-Brown
pages and includes many detailed application; low-power types, high- Research Corporation and GA Phil-
drawings (including circuits and plots) speed types, high-gain types, precision brick Researches Inc in 1962.
and plenty of explanatory text. Fig.3: a popular
One of the most important sets of early valve-based op
circuit diagrams (but far from the only amp, the Philbrick
one!) in this patent, appearing on page Research K2-W.
four, is reproduced in Fig.2. It shows
four different ways of implementing
his idea using ‘tubes’ or valves, the
technology of the day.
Other important plots in the patent
include gain curves, stability criteria,
equivalent circuits and several practi-
cal implementations of the technique.
The importance of
negative feedback
Almost all analog equipment man-
ufactured today uses negative feed-
back. This includes circuits that han-
dle audio signals, analog video, motor

Table.1: Harold S. Black’s patents relating to negative feedback (patent numbers are hyperlinks)
When filed Serial number When issued Patent number Title Pages
UNKNOWN UNKNOWN 7 February 1928 CA277770A Wave signalling system NA
8 August 1928 298,155 Split into serial numbers 411223 & 411224 below NA
3 December 1929 411,223 21 December 1937 2,102,670 Wave Translation System 21
3 December 1929 411,224 4 June 1935 2,003,282 Wave Translation System 12
26 March 1930 439,205 NA Not granted Wave Translation System NA
3 April 1931 527,371 1 August 1933 1,920,238 Wave Translating System 17
22 April 1932 606,871 21 December 1937 2,102,671 Wave Translation System 87
30 September 1932 635,525 28 May 1935 2,002,499 Wave Translation System 10
29 December 1932 649,252 20 August 1935 2,011,566 Wave Translation System 7
29 March 1933 663,316 9 July 1935 2,007,172 Wave Translation System 6
29 March 1933 663,317 27 September 1938 2,131,365 Wave Translation System 12
25 September 1934 745,420 16 November 1937 2,098,950 Vacuum Tube Circuit 5
6 October 1934 747,117 17 March 1936 2,033,917 Electric Wave Amplifying System 5
5 December 1936 114,391 27 September 1938 2,131,366 Electric Wave Amplifying System 5
5 December 1936 114,390 6 August 1940 2,209,955 Wave Translation System 29
23 March 1937 132,559 18 April 1939 2,154,888 Wave Translation System 5
10 November 1937 173,749 3 December 1940 2,223,506 Wave Amplification 7
27 May 1938 210,333 17 June 1941 2,245,565 Wave Translating System 5
20 December 1938 246,791 7 October 1941 2,258,128 Wave Translating System 9
30 July 1940 348,433 26 May 1942 2,284,555 Signaling System 8
28 February 1942 432,860 20 July 1943 2,324,815 Stabilized Feedback System 7
The first solid-state monolithic op many varieties, up to the present day. You can think of op amps as the
amp IC, designed by Bob Widlar and One particularly popular model was building blocks for most analog cir-
offered to the public in 1963, was the the uA741, which has been improved cuits.
uA702 manufactured by Fairchild since it was first introduced in 1968.
Semiconductors. Some variants of it, such as the LM741, Negative feedback
But it required strange supply volt- are still being produced today! Its So how is negative feedback used to
ages such as +12V and -6V and had equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.5. control an op amp to reduce the dis-
a tendency to burn out. Still, it was Modern op amps mostly use the same tortion and set a fixed gain?
the best in its day, and sold for about principles, but differ in some imple- The output voltage of an op amp is
US$300 (a fortune today!). It was used mentation details, such as the method the non-inverting input voltage minus
mainly by the US military due to its of internal frequency compensation. the inverting input voltage times a
high cost. One big benefit of the op amp is large factor (in some cases, over one
Then the uA709 from Fairchild its flexibility. It can perform a wide million). If we say the gain is exactly
Semiconductor was released in 1965. range of analog ‘functions’ with the one million, this means that:
It was introduced at about US$70, and addition of a few passive components. • If the + input is 100μV and the
was the first to break the $10 barrier, These functions include signal mix- − input is 99μV, the output will
then not much later, the $5 barrier. ing, amplification, filtering (low-pass, be +1V.
By 1969, op amps were selling for high-pass, bandpass, notch etc), inte- • If the + input is 100μV and the −
around $2 each. From then on, multi- gration, differentiation, multiplica- input is 100μV, the output will
ple manufactures produced op amps in tion, simulated inductance and more. be 0V.
• If the + input is 100μV and the −
input is 101μV, the output will
be -1V.
From this, you can see that if the
difference between the input voltages
is more than a few microvolts, the
output voltage will be ‘pegged’ at one
supply rail or the other. So unless we
are using the op amp like a compara-
tor (a possible op amp function), the
inputs will almost always be at a very
similar voltage. The negative feedback
is typically configured to ensure that
this is the case.
Fig.4: the K2-W uses a similar configuration to transistor-based op amps, with Let’s say we feed 10% of the output
an input pair (one 12AX7 twin triode) followed by a voltage amplification/ voltage back to the inverting input and
buffering stage made from another 12AX7 twin triode plus two neon lamps. apply 1V to the non-inverting input.

by the circuit the output is driving.
Often, the output will be connected
directly to the inverting input. But
in some cases, the resulting source
impedance mismatch between the
inputs can cause temperature drift
and other problems. Resistor Rf can
be chosen to match the non-inverting
source impedance to avoid this.
2) Non-inverting amplifier
Fig.7 shows an op amp providing
non-inverting gain. The output voltage
is an AC signal with the same shape
as the input signal but an increased
magnitude, by a factor of Rf ÷ R1 + 1.
As with the buffer, this circuit can be
connected to a signal source that has
a high impedance, but it still provides
a low-impedance output.
Capacitor C1 may be omitted, but
it’s usually a good idea to keep it. It
Fig.5: the internal circuitry of perhaps reduces the circuit’s gain at higher fre-
the most ubiquitous op amp, the uA741 quencies, thereby increasing stability
(actually, National Semiconductor’s
and preventing the amplification of
equivalent). It contains 20 transistors,
12 resistors and one ‘Miller’ unwanted high-frequency signals.
compensation capacitor for stability. You might see a high-value capacitor
at the bottom of the feedback divider,
When the output is less than 10V, to ideal results for AC signals, as long between the bottom end of R1 and
the voltage difference between the as they are well below the op amp’s ground, shown as an alternative con-
inputs will be positive, so the output bandwidth (usually specified as gain nection for R1 in Fig.7. This sets the
voltage increases. When the output is bandwidth, which must be divided by circuit’s DC gain to unity regardless
greater than 10V, the voltage difference the configured gain). Thus, an op amp- of the AC gain, so it is mostly used
between the inputs will be negative, based amplifier can give an essentially when amplifying AC signals; also refer
so the output voltage will decrease. flat gain curve across a range of fre- to Fig.19.
Thus, the output voltage will tend quencies, whereas a transistor or valve By reducing the DC gain of the cir-
towards 10V. will typically be far from flat unless it cuit, it prevents the output from peg-
The only real sources of error in a is a special type. ging at the positive rail on positive
DC context are the input offset voltage Here are some basic op amp circuits: signal excursions, and also reduces
(the output not being exactly 0V with 1) Unity-gain buffer the amplification of the input offset
both inputs at the same voltage) and Fig.6 shows an op amp arranged error voltage.
the finite gain, which adds a few addi- as a unity-gain buffer. The output is The practical gain limit depends on
tional microvolts of error. But that’s fed back to the inverting input, so the op amp’s gain bandwidth and the
just one part per million or so. the output voltage tracks the non- maximum signal frequency. For exam-
So it is pretty close to an ideal ampli- inverting input. As the output of an ple, an op amp with a gain bandwidth
fier with fixed gain; that is certainly not op amp has near-zero impedance (due
the case with a typical single-transistor to feedback), but the input has a rel-
or single-valve amplifier! Due to man- atively high impedance, this config-
ufacturing tolerances, it is challenging uration is useful to avoid the circuit
to set up (bias) a single transistor or feeding the input from being loaded
valve to provide an exact gain. Even
if you achieve it (eg, by trimming), it
will likely change with temperature
and over time.
Note how the exact gain of the op
amp is not important; it only affects
the (tiny) gain error. The overall gain Fig.7: you only need two resistors
is set by the feedback divider, usu- to set up an op amp as a fixed gain
ally made of resistors (and sometimes Fig.6: using an op amp to buffer a voltage amplifier. As the signal is fed
signal can be as simple as connecting directly into the non-inverting input,
capacitors), so it’s easy to set it close
its output to its inverting input. the input impedance is high. Optional
to the desired value. It can be trimmed However, resistor Rf is a good idea capacitor C1 limits the bandwidth
to be almost exact if required, and it’s to balance the input currents if for stability, while C2 can be used
unlikely to drift. the source impedance for the non- to reduce the DC gain to unity while
Negative feedback also gives close inverting input is relatively high. having a higher AC gain.

Fig.8: the inverting amplifier
configuration also uses two resistors Fig.9: the virtual ground mixer is
and one optional capacitor. While it an inverting amplifier with multiple
has the advantage that the gain can signal sources. As both op amp inputs Fig.10: the basic differential
be less than unity, the disadvantage are held very close to 0V, there is no amplifier calculates the difference
is that the input impedance is equal way that the signals being fed in can between two voltages, multiplied by
to Rin, rather than the usually much interact with each other, except at the a constant, plus an offset. It needs
higher figure for the op amp’s inputs. output of the mixer. good resistor matching.
of 3MHz has a maximum practical gain In this circuit, capacitor C1 performs However, Vref is often set to 0V so the
of 30 times for signals up to 100kHz a similar role as in Fig.7, although it is output voltage is referenced to ground.
(3MHz ÷ 100kHz). Noise and distor- arguably more effective here since it This circuit needs precise resistor
tion in the output increase with gain, reduces the gain at very high frequen- matching for a good common-mode
as there is less feedback (closed-loop cies to zero rather than unity. rejection ratio (CMRR). Even with
bandwidth) for the op amp to work 4) Virtual ground mixer 0.1% tolerance resistors, a CMRR of
within. Fig.9 shows a circuit that is basi- more than 60dB is difficult to guaran-
3) Inverting amplifier cally an inverting amplifier with tee. Trimming can give good results,
By feeding a signal into the invert- multiple resistors feeding different although the procedure can be tricky.
ing input rather than the non-inverting signals into the inverting input. As It’s generally better to use laser-
input, via a resistor, the signal is the inverting input is held at a fixed trimmed monolithic devices like
inverted and gain can still be applied, DC voltage by the negative feedback, instrumentation amplifiers (‘inamps’)
as shown in Fig.8. The gain is -Rf ÷ there is no possibility of cross-talk that can have CMRRs over 100dB.
Rin, so unlike the non-inverting ver- between the signals (which might be Most instrumentation amplifiers
sion, gain values less than unity (ie, significant in a mixing console, where use a slightly different internal circuit
attenuation) are possible without a they are fed to multiple locations). that includes three op amps; besides
separate input attenuator. 5) Differential amplifier having a very good CMRR, this has
An unfortunate consequence of this This is a very useful circuit used the advantage that the gain can be set
configuration is that the typically high in many different forms. While you using a single external resistor. How-
input impedance of the op amp is can build it using regular op amps, ever, the basic principle is the same.
reduced to the value of Rin, so the cir- it is probably more widely used in A difference amplifier is basically
cuit feeding the input is loaded more monolithic instrumentation amplifiers an instrumentation amplifier where
heavily. This can be solved by adding (albeit in modified form), difference the input voltages can be well outside
a unity-gain buffer between the signal amplifiers and current shunt monitors. (usually above) the device’s supply
source and the inverting amplifier. Fig.10 shows the basic version of range. A current shunt monitor is a
One advantage of this configuration this circuit. It provides an extremely specialised version of an instrumenta-
is that both op amp inputs are held at useful function; it takes the difference tion amplifier. All are based internally
a constant voltage (Vbias), so there is between two voltages, multiplies it by on op amps or similar circuits.
no common-mode signal and therefore a constant (determined by the resis- A shunt monitor allows you to place
no common-mode distortion (often tor values) and then possibly adds a low-value shunt resistor in the posi-
the dominant distortion mechanism). a positive or negative offset voltage. tive supply to a section of the circuit,
►
Fig.11: this full-wave rectifier circuit uses op amps to effectively cancel out
the forward voltage of the diodes. As a result, for positive voltages at Vin,
Vout tracks very closely (within microvolts, given sufficiently high precision
op amps) while for negative voltages at Vin, Vout = −Vin (again, within
microvolts). This is ideal for circuits that need to sense peak signal levels,
such as audio clipping meters.
Fig.12: this Sallen-Key low-pass filter provides ►

a reduction in amplitude at -12dB/octave above
its -3dB frequency, and multiple stages can be
cascaded for an even steeper slope. Changing the
resistors to capacitors and capacitors to resistors
makes it a high-pass filter instead.

►
Fig.13: this multiple feedback filter does the same job as the Sallen-Key filter,
but is more effective at higher frequencies. That’s important for low-pass filters
as otherwise, it can pass signals that the filter is supposed to block. As only
one extra resistor is needed, it’s a worthwhile upgrade, and the gain can be set
without any more resistors (although it does invert the signal).
►
Fig.14: this active bandpass
filter blocks signals outside of a
given frequency range, although
the slopes are only -6dB/octave.
For steeper slopes (eg, -12dB/
octave), one of the active low-
pass filters described above can
be connected in series with a
similar high-pass filter.
►
Fig.15: this Twin-T active notch filter attenuates signals at a specific frequency. Both that frequency and the
steepness/depth of the notch can be controlled by careful selection of the passive component values.
and obtain a ground-referenced volt- Fig.13 shows a multiple-feedback order low-pass and high-pass filters.
age to feed to an analog-to-digital con- low-pass filter. This provides precisely Alternatively, you can use the configu-
verter (ADC) or similar. They have a the same function as the Sallen-Key fil- ration shown in Fig.14, where a single
high CMRR to reject supply ripple. ter, but it is less prone to signal feed- op amp can act as a first-order band-
6) Precision rectifiers through, which means it performs pass filter with adjustable gain and a Q
A precision rectifier acts like a diode much closer to an ideal filter at fre- of up to 25. This configuration inverts
or bridge rectifier, but without the for- quencies approaching the op amp’s the signal phase; however, if chaining
ward voltage drop. This is important bandwidth. The only disadvantage is multiple filters, it can be re-inverted
for rectifying low-level signals (too low the use of one more resistor. by another stage.
to forward-bias a diode), or for accu- To calculate the required resistor 10) Active notch filter
rately rectifying AC signals in order to and capacitor values for a given cut- Fig.15 shows a “Twin-T” active
measure their magnitude etc. They are off frequency, go to siliconchip.com. notch filter. One interesting aspect
commonly employed in devices like au/link/aajq of this design is that the Q, and thus
VU meters or AC current monitors. Note that it is possible to build a the depth of the notch, changes based
Fig.11 shows the full-wave version, third-order Sallen-Key active low-pass on the resistor and capacitor values
similar to a bridge rectifier. The half- filter using a single op amp. This will selected. See the online calculator at
wave version is basically just one of give you an 18dB/octave roll-off with siliconchip.com.au/link/ab8x
the op amp/diode/resistor sections. one op amp, 30dB/octave with two 11) Gyrator
The op amps reduce the effective etc. This is shown at siliconchip.com. Fig.16 shows a ‘gyrator’, an active
forward voltage of the diodes by a fac- au/link/ab8v element that behaves similarly to an
tor of their open-loop gain, meaning 8) Active high-pass filter ideal inductor at low current values. It
the ~0.7V drop of a standard silicon To convert the low-pass filters does this by using the op amp’s nega-
diode is effectively less than 1μV for an shown in Figs.12 & 13 into high-pass tive feedback to effectively invert the
open-loop gain of around one million. filters, simply transpose the resistors behaviour of capacitor C.
The resistor values shown result and capacitors. As with the low-pass This is useful in circuits like graphic
in unity gain. This circuit originally filters, these will provide a 12dB/
came from National Semiconductor octave slope per op amp.
who specified R = 100kW, although For both the low-pass and high-pass
other values can be used. The values filters, by adjusting the resistances and
could be changed to give a fixed gain capacitances, it is possible to design
if necessary. filters with characteristics other than
7) Active low-pass filter Butterworth. Butterworth has minimal
The simplest way to implement a (essentially no) ripple in the passband,
low-pass filter with an op amp is to but different filter types such as Che-
combine a basic RC low-pass filter byshev trade off increased passband
with a unity-gain buffer. However, a ripple for a steeper roll-off beyond it.
more economical arrangement is the To calculate the required compo-
Fig.16: the gyrator is a particularly
Sallen-Key low-pass filter shown in nent values, see siliconchip.com.au/ clever circuit. It uses negative
Fig.12. This has a -12dB/octave slope, link/ab8w feedback to make a capacitor behave
compared to -6dB/octave for the RC 9) Active bandpass filter like an inductor. It is superior to
filter, using just one op amp. It also A second-order bandpass filter can an actual inductor in many signal
allows gain to be applied. be created by combining active second- processing applications.

equalisers, where resonant (LC) ele- Even Class-D amplifiers typically use verter uses two op amps to present
ments are needed with accurate res- some form of negative feedback to a load impedance proportional to
onance frequencies, low distortion avoid gross distortion. another impedance. The ratio can be
and small size. Inductor tolerances 14) Other uses for op amps set using fixed or variable resistors (or
are typically much wider than capac- An op amps can be used as a basic even other impedances!).
itors, and high-value inductors can comparator by operating it in open- Many op amps are designed to drive
be very bulky, so in signal-processing loop mode, or with positive feed- relatively low load impedances, such
circuits, the gyrator is almost always back (hysteresis). A comparator IC as 600W. These work quite well as
better than a resonant circuit based on is essentially just an op amp with basic headphone drivers, with rela-
an actual inductor. the frequency compensation compo- tively low distortion figures driving
12) Baxandall active filter nent(s) removed for a faster swing at typical headphone loads, even as low
Fig.17 shows a basic version of the the output. as 16W. They can’t supply a tremen-
widely-used Baxandall active tone An op amp can also be used to build dous amount of power, but enough for
control. It has many good properties, an ‘integrator’ or ‘differentiator’. An most headphones to deliver decent
such as the ability to have as many integrator produces an output ramp volume, using one low-cost IC.
or as few bands as you want, with no proportional to its input voltage, while An op amp can also be used as an
interaction between the controls, and a differentiator produces an output error amplifier in feedback control. For
no special requirements for the poten- voltage that’s proportional to its input example, to adjust the drive to a motor
tiometers. This one shows bass and ramp (rate of change). to maintain a constant speed despite
treble pots, but one or two midrange A log amp takes the exponential a varying load.
pots can easily be added. nature of a bipolar transistor and turns An op amp can form the basis of
Fig.18 is the Baxandall active vol- it on its head using negative feedback various oscillators, to generate wave-
ume control. The traditional volume to provide a logarithmic transfer func- forms at fixed or variable frequencies;
control method is a logarithmic poten- tion. As a result, its output voltage is primarily sinewaves, but also triangle
tiometer, but dual versions usually a constant multiple of the natural log- waves or sawtooth waveforms.
have poor tracking at the low end, so arithm of its input voltage. An op amp (especially a CMOS
they are not great for stereo circuits. This can be used as the basis of a type) can be used as a high input-
The Baxandall active circuit pro- multiplier circuit; by taking the natu- impedance buffer amplifier or guard
vides logarithmic-like control with ral loge(x) of several voltages, summing ring for monitoring sensors that cannot
a linear potentiometer for superior or averaging them, then exponentiat- handle any loading, such as narrow-
tracking. It can also offer significantly ing the result, the output voltage is the band oxygen sensors and pH sensors.
better noise performance as the pot product of the input voltages. CMOS op amps can have input imped-
adjusts the gain over a wide range, Other mathematical functions can ances in the terohms range (more than
from zero up to many times (as set by be applied to voltages by an op amp, one trillion ohms)!
the fixed resistors). including addition, subtraction, divi- CMOS op amp buffers can also be
13) Audio amplifiers sion and inverse logarithm (the expo- combined with analog switches and
Fig.19 is a simplified version of the nentiation mentioned above). low-leakage capacitors to form sample-
circuit from our SC200 audio ampli- Op amps can also be used to build and-hold circuits, often used for sam-
fier. It is essentially a high-power op controlled current sources/sinks, pling voltages over small time windows
amp with large output transistors that including constant loads, by combin- to feed an ADC or similar.
can source and sink plenty of current ing op amps with large transistors that
(and that are well heatsinked). can handle lots of power with suffi- Signal swing limitations
Most Class-A, Class-AB and similar cient heatsinking. For a very long time, the signals at
amplifiers are variations on this theme. The generalised impedance con- the inputs and outputs of an op amp
Fig.17: the Baxandall tone control was initially designed with a Fig.18: the Baxandall volume control also places
valve or transistor as the active element, but it works even better the potentiometer in the negative feedback loop.
with an op amp. It is elegant and expandable, with virtually no This gives exponential gain control with a linear
interaction between the stages (in this case, two: bass and treble potentiometer and a wide range of gain settings
adjustments). No matter how many bands it has, only one op amp with a reasonably constant noise level.
is required per channel (ie, two for stereo).

could only have a considerably smaller (RRIO) op amps are very common. interchangeable, as these usually come
swing than the supply range of the op Some can even run down to very low in an 8-pin package. After accounting
amp. For example, if you had an op supply voltages, like 1.8V! These op for the two supply rails, two inputs
amp running from 12V, the inputs and amps essentially remove the above and one output, the remaining three
outputs might be limited to a range limitations, with input and output sig- pins can be used for trimming/balanc-
of 3-9V. Or, with a dual supply like nals that can range anywhere between ing, external compensation capacitors
±15V, you might be limited to a signal the supply rails. or various other functions. Some are
swing of ±12V. Some will even handle input signals interchangeable (even if they don’t
That’s because the op amp’s internal outside the rails, although usually only have exactly the same features), but
circuitry needs some voltage ‘head- in one direction (eg, positive) and by not all.
room’ to operate. a limited number of volts. These days, single op amps are also
But more recently, single-supply Note that RRIO op amps sometimes available in tiny 5-pin SMD packages
and rail-to-rail output op amps started compromise performance in other for where space is at a premium.
to become available. Single-supply op ways, such as having higher noise or
amps typically allow the inputs and distortion, or just costing more than Conclusion
outputs to go down to the negative rail ‘regular’ op amps. The op amp is an incredibly flexi-
(eg, 0V). So a single-supply op amp ble device, available these days at very
running from 12V can handle signals Multiple op amps low cost and in a vast range of differ-
of say 0-9V. As op amps became cheaper and ent versions, optimised for different
Rail-to-rail output op amps gener- more versatile, dual and quad op amps tasks. While it is possible to process
ally have the same input limitations as became popular. These save money analog signals without op amps, gener-
standard op amps, but their output can and space; a quad op amp IC often ally, the results will be worse. So most
swing over virtually the entire supply costs less than twice what a single one analog designers make extensive use
range. This is especially useful when does, and only requires two power of op amps in their circuitry.
applying gain to AC signals, as in that tracks to be routed and one bypass They are an essential building brick
case, the input swing will never reach capacitor. Most dual (8-pin) and quad that most designers would have diffi-
the rails anyway (at least, not without (14-pin) op amp ICs use the same pin- culty doing without. We have Harold
‘saturating’ the op amp). out so they can be interchanged. S. Black to thank for making our lives
These days, rail-to-rail input/output Single op amps are not quite so a lot easier! SC
Fig.19: a slightly simplified version of our SC200 power amplifier circuit. It’s essentially a big op amp; transistors Q1 &
Q2 are the differential input pair (the inputs are at their bases), Q8 is the voltage amplification stage, Q11 & Q12 are the
output drivers and Q13 and Q15 are the power output transistors. The components highlighted in red form the negative
feedback path, from the output at the emitter resistors of Q13 & Q15 back to the base of Q2, which is the inverting input.

Silicon Chip By Tim Blythman
Nano Pong on your TV
Atari’s Pong arcade game is nearly 50 years old and is remarkable for its
time, inspiring many of the computer games that followed. Our Nano Pong
game is modern and retro at the same time; it replaces the 70-odd discrete
logic chips in the original with a single chip that costs about $1! But it still
looks and plays much like the original game.
I n Dr Hugo Holden’s in-depth arti-

cle on recreating the original Pong
arcade game (June 2021; siliconchip.
corrected a few bugs along the way (all
described in the article linked above).
But his faithful recreation depends on
is the first to win 11 rallies. We say
‘inspired’ as we haven’t attempted to
make it identical. No doubt those who
com.au/Article/14884), he stated that some parts which are becoming hard played the original game would notice
none of the later versions of Pong to get or expensive. some differences.
were as good as the original. He spe- Our version of this classic game is But we have tried to emulate the
cifically mentioned single-chip solu- made using not much more than a style and gameplay of the older game.
tions as being inferior to the discrete small microcontroller and some pas- In doing so, we hope that those build-
version. This project is an attempt to sive components. It’s so tiny that we ing this project can experience the
change that! haven’t even specified a case for it; it joy of playing a 50-year-old computer
While this is a complete redesign of can simply be wrapped up in a length game without the hassle of having to
the circuitry to implement the Pong of heatshrink tubing and left hanging locate and solder a multitude of vin-
game, we have tried to be reasonably behind the TV. tage logic chips.
faithful to the original in terms of its A pair of controllers (‘paddles’) Like the original, the two player con-
graphical style, and how the game is are built into small enclosures on trol paddles are potentiometers that
played. flying leads, but if you’re interested translate the player’s paddle position
Another inspiration for this design in creating something more akin to to a corresponding on-screen paddle.
was our article about new 8-pin the cabinets and consoles that would We’ve also added a pushbutton
PIC microcontrollers (November have existed at the time, you can do (which isn’t in the original) to allow
2020 issue; siliconchip.com.au/ that too. a player to ‘serve’ the ‘ball’. The PIC
Article/14648). One of the chips we Nano Pong is closely inspired by chip emulates the gameplay mechan-
looked at then was the PIC12F1572 the original Pong; two players con- ics, and generates analog audio and
microcontroller. It was about the trol on-screen bats that vie to keep the video signals that can be fed to a PAL
cheapest 8-pin PIC we could find at ball in play. The winner of the game television’s AV inputs.
the time, and despite that, it had supe-
rior features to the PIC12F675 that we
Our Nano Pong project fits on a miniature
have used for many years.
43 x 16.5mm PCB and relies on a single
As one of the smallest, cheapest micro that only costs $1.
microcontrollers around, we decided
that it would be an interesting chal-
lenge to use it to recreate Pong.
Nano Pong
Dr Hugo Holden’s recreation of
Atari’s original Pong arcade game
mainly kept with the original design.
Still, he made the PCB smaller and

Fig.1: this Nano version of Pong doesn’t need much in the way of
hardware! A single 8-pin PIC microcontroller and surface-mounted
passives are complemented by a handful of off-board parts for the
player controls.
Hardware We’ve specified standard 24mm amplitude from 5V peak-to-peak to

Fig.1 shows the complete schematic potentiometers, but if you think your around 1.6V peak-to-peak or 0.56V
– there is not much to it! Potentiom- Nano Pong might be subjected to long RMS. This is AC-coupled by a 1μF
eters VR1 & VR2 and pushbuttons S1 periods of vigorous gameplay, you capacitor and biased to ground by a
& S2 are not located on the PCB, but could upgrade them to more robust 100kW resistor before going to the out-
connected via flying leads. types. put RCA plugs that connect to the TV.
CON1 is the first modern flourish. A Although it would not be in line We’ve chosen these values to keep
mini-USB socket provides 5V power to with the original, slide (rather than the sound signal well below 1V, as the
the circuit, significantly simpler than rotary) potentiometers could also be audio (as per the original Pong) is a
the original mains supply. Since many used to make a more intuitive inter- shrill-sounding square wave.
TVs now have a USB socket, the unit face, matching the straight-line motion The video signal is a standard CVBS
can be powered from the TV that it’s of the bat on the screen. (composite video baseband signal) in
connected to. Pins 4 & 5 of CON4 and CON5 con- monochrome PAL format. Many of the
5V power goes to pins 8 (GND) and nect across normally-open momentary differences between PAL and NTSC
1 (Vdd) of IC1, a PIC12F1572 microcon- pushbutton switches. By pressing the involve colour transmission, so many
troller, bypassed by a 100nF capacitor. button, the player pulls pin 2 of CON4/ NTSC TVs should lock onto this sig-
IC1’s MCLR pin is pulled up to 5V by CON5 (connected to the potentiome- nal. The main remaining difference
a 10kW resistor, so the PIC will run its ter wiper) to 0V. As the lowest voltage is in the number of lines that are sent
internal program from flash memory the pot can generate is around 1.25V, per frame. Modern TVs will usually
as soon as power is applied. the microcontroller can distinguish detect and display the correct format.
Pins 7 and 6 of IC1 are inputs to this as a button press. The top padder This signal is formed from digi-
the ADC (analog-to-digital converter) resistor limits the worst-case current tal levels at output pins 2 and 3 of
peripheral and communicate the through the switch. IC1. Pin 2 is designated as luminance
Player 1 and Player 2 control inputs Pin 5 of IC1 is the pulse-width mod- (LUM) and pin 3 as synchronisation
to the PIC. ulated (PWM) sound output. It feeds a (SYNC). The TV is assumed to have
Each player has a 1kW potentiom- 1kW/470W divider, reducing the PWM a 75W terminating impedance, so it
eter padded on both track ends by a
470W resistor. The resistors are fitted
to the PCB. The potentiometer flying
leads connect to pins 1-3 of CON5 for
Player 1, and CON4 for Player 2. With
the 470W padding resistors in series
with the 5V supply, the player pad-
dle wipers vary between 1.25V and
3.75V depending on the potentiome-
ter rotation. Once finished, the PCB and cabling can be covered with heatshrink tubing.

the colour picture information; since
we are not transmitting such sig-
nals, the picture is decoded as mono-
chrome. During the visible video area,
the video intensity is determined by
the signal voltage, between the black
and white levels.
A longer sync signal is used to trig-
ger a vertical retrace. Often, the vertical
sync signal is mixed with the horizon-
tal sync signal to create a so-called ‘ser-
rated’ sync signal that allows horizon-
tal sync to be detected during the ver-
tical retrace. This improves the TV’s
ability to maintain horizontal hold.
Thus, a single 1V peak-to-peak ana-
log signal can encode raster inten-
sity and both horizontal and vertical
synchronisation to recreate a 2-D TV
image.
Software
Understanding the following is not
necessary for getting Nano Pong to
Scope 1: a scope grab of the video signal for a typical scan line, along with
a portion of the display around that scan line, so you can see how they
work. Still, it is interesting to com-
correspond. Each line is delimited by the dips in the trace to the low sync level pare it with how the original version
(horizontal sync pulses), while the peaks correspond to a white raster on a operates, especially since the original
black background. The red lines indicate that there is a substantial part of the version was purely hardware-based.
signal outside of the visible area. Accurately emulating the logic
chips in Pong would be a better job
Fig.2: the way that the for an FPGA than a microcontroller, as
screen is laid out makes the former allows everything to hap-
it very easy to generate
pen independently in parallel, a lux-
in a left-to-right fashion.
Each horizontal scan line ury we do not have.
can display the Player Our PIC needs to generate a tightly
1 bat, Player 1 score, timed signal to maintain a steady pic-
net, Player 2 score and ture. Most older PICs would require a
Player 2 bat. The ball is crystal oscillator to provide an accu-
produced separately by rate enough clock to display a TV
the PWM peripheral so image, which would take up two of
that it can appear at any our eight pins.
horizontal position. But here, we get accurate timing by
running the PIC’s internal oscillator at
32MHz (requiring the use of the inter-
nal PLL), which gives an instruction
clock of 8MHz. At 64μs per line, we
will see different voltages depending Analog video signal can distinguish up to 512 horizontal
on the pin states. So how does a TV translate this sig- positions per line. By scaling this to
If both LUM and SYNC are low, then nal to a two-dimensional picture? The use 256 positions, we can use 8-bit
the output is 0V, which corresponds to TV continually scans its raster in left bytes to hold pixel locations. In prac-
the so-called ‘sync’ level. With SYNC to right horizontal scan lines from top tice, the actual horizontal play area is
high and LUM low, the TV sees around to bottom of the screen, with each scan around 200 positions.
300mV. This is known as black level, line taking around 64μs. If you look closely at our images,
and corresponds to a black raster being A 4-5μs low pulse indicates the start there is a bit of horizontal jitter, which
displayed. Finally, with both pins of a new horizontal line. The visible would not be present with a more pre-
high, a level near 1V is seen, which area takes up most, but not all, of the cise crystal oscillator. But we don’t
generates a white raster. remaining scan line. The actual visi- think it looks out of place in our rec-
Scope 1 shows the voltage generated ble area takes 52μs to transmit, so it reation of 50-year-old technology.
over time for a typical horizontal scan is bracketed by periods of black level As PAL TV signals have 312 hori-
line, along with several lines of video called the ‘back porch’ and ‘front zontal lines per field, we conveniently
(including this scan line) above. Note porch’. set the play area to be 256 lines, which
the horizontal sync pulse troughs on Colour transmissions contain sig- neatly lines up with the visible area
either side of the displayed video. nals in the back porch to help decode on most TVs.

With such tight timing needed, we Screen 1: a typical game
have fallen back to using assembly of Nano Pong. The ball
language so that we know how long is in play after Player 1
every part of our program will take to has won the first point of
execute, ensuring the image quality the game.
does not suffer.
The initial setup is written in the C
language. It then calls our main assem-
bly language subroutine. The main
program is a loop of 312 subroutine
calls, each corresponding to a hori-
zontal display line variant. These, in
turn, consist of numerous direct pin
manipulation commands to set the
necessary video output levels inter-
spersed with calls to a delay routine
Screen 2: with a
to affect the timing. reasonable amount of
This starts with six vertical sync program flash memory
lines to start the field, followed by 28 to spare, we added this
blank lines. The blank lines are 5μs at splash screen when the
sync level (SYNC and LUM low), fol- unit is powered up.
lowed by 59μs at black level (SYNC
high and LUM low). The vertical sync
line is serrated by delivering 5μs of
black and 59μs of sync instead.
After this are 256 active display
lines. The counter LINECOUNT is
used to keep track of which line is
being displayed, and this is compared
with the bat and ball positions, then
flags are set to indicate whether the
bat or ball should be displayed on the Screen 3: the start of a
current line. These flags are set during game, before Player 1
the line’s horizontal sync period, so it has served the ball.
does not affect the timing of the visi-
ble part of the display.
The way these flags are set is a bit
unusual.
To ensure that each line runs for
the same amount of time, as needed
to maintain a steady picture, we avoid
skipping over code we don’t want to
run (as usually happens if a condition
is false), which would change the pro-
gram timing.
Instead, we use the ‘skip on bit
test’ assembler opcodes (BTFSC and
BTFSS), which essentially treat the With that taken care of, the remain- differently. These are effectively bit-
following opcode as a NOP (no oper- der of the visible lines can be neatly maps hard-coded as brief assembly lan-
ation) if a test is true. These sequences broken up into sections that can be guage sequences, so the PWM output
of commands all take the same time handled sequentially. is turned off while the scores are being
regardless of their outcome, retaining From left to right, these are the displayed. Thus, the ball disappears
the necessary consistent timing. Player 1 bat, Player 1 score, the net, behind the scores, which could pro-
For lines where the ball is visible, Player 2 score and Player 2 bat. For vide an advantage for a canny player.
we use the PWM peripheral to dis- the bats and net, we briefly toggle the After the 256 active lines, a further
play it. The PWM peripheral on the polarity of the PWM signal, thus get- 21 blank lines are displayed, followed
PIC12F1572 is quite advanced, with ting the XOR effect as the ball passes by a single customised blank line that
phase and offset parameters. The ball’s over, so the ball does not ‘merge’ with handles all of the logic that updates
horizontal position is determined by them. the game’s state. The code for this line
the PWM phase and its width by its Fig.2 shows how the horizontal lines is two instructions shorter than the
duty cycle. This means we don’t have are organised, and Screen 1 shows it other blank lines, to account for the
to keep track of when to turn the LUM without the lines. time taken to jump back to the start
output on and off. The scores are handled slightly of the loop.

Most of the time that this final blank you can change the 470W resistors con- around during assembly.
line is being generated, the game logic nected to the potentiometers at pins Fume removal or ventilation is also
is processed. If it detects that the ball 1 and 3 of CON4 and CON5. Increas- recommended, as flux generates more
has struck a wall or bat, the ball vector ing their value will create a gap near smoke than typical solder wire.
is adjusted. This includes taking into the top and bottom of the screen that Start by fitting IC1 and CON1.
account where it strikes the player’s the bats can’t reach, as in the original Apply flux to the pads and rest CON1
bat, as this affects the ball’s vertical Pong game. in place, then add a small amount of
speed, like the original game. Also like For example, replacing these four flux to the top of the pads. Its small
the original game, each strike of the 470W resistors with 560W resistors plastic pegs should align it to holes
bat can also increase the ball speed. will leave around a 3% gap at the top in the PCB.
These events also trigger a sound and bottom of the bat travel. Clean the tip of the iron and add
to be played, generated by a different If you have a 5V power source that some fresh solder. Apply the iron’s
PWM channel playing a tone from pin doesn’t have a USB connector, it can tip to the two longer pads on the PCB;
5 until it is reset on the next field. This be fed to pins 2 (positive) and 3 (neg- the flux should help the solder run up
gives a variety of differently toned ative) of CON2. We haven’t tested it, the leads. You only need to solder the
beeps depending on what the ball but the circuit should run from a 4.5V two outer leads as this socket only sup-
has struck. supply, such as three AA or AAA bat- plies power.
The two ADC channels for the pad- teries in series. If you create a solder bridge, add
dles are alternately sampled and allo- some more flux and press the solder
cated to their respective players. The Construction braid against the bridge until it draws
relationship between the ADC value In keeping with the theme of this up any excess solder. There should
and on-screen position is adjusted to being a modernised and miniaturised still be enough solder left to make a
take into account the range set by the version of Pong, the PCB uses mainly successful connection.
resistors. SMD components. Since these are Turn up the iron temperature
If the ADC value is outside this resistors and capacitors, with one IC slightly to solder the four larger pads
range, then the bat position is not in a relatively large 8-pin SOIC pack- to the PCB that mechanically secure
updated, which also takes care of the age plus the USB socket, assembly is the connector, then return the iron to
case when the ADC pin is pulled low not difficult. its original setting.
by the button press. Thus, trick serves The double-sided PCB is coded IC1 needs to be fitted in the correct
are not possible. 08105212 and it measures just 43 x orientation, with its pin 1 towards the
A point is registered whenever the 16.5mm. Refer to the PCB overlay and USB socket. There should be corre-
ball reaches the screen edges (ie, miss- wiring diagram, Fig.3, during con- sponding marks on the PCB and the
ing the player’s bat), which increments struction. part itself.
the score counter. Flags are set to indi- Start by mounting those SMDs. We Apply flux paste to the PCB pads
cate that the player winning the point recommend that you have a tempera- and rest the IC in place. Add a little
is to serve, and if the score has reached ture adjustable soldering iron, flux solder to the iron top and touch it to
11, that a win has occurred. paste, tweezers, a magnifier and solder one pin to tack the part in place. If the
In this case, a melody is played on wicking braid, as well as some solder IC isn’t flat against the PCB or the pins
the pin 5 PWM channel and the win- wire. The small PCB can be tempo- are not aligned with their pads, care-
ning score is flashed. Timing for these rarily secured to your desk with some fully apply the iron again and adjust
events comes from different bits in the Blu-Tak or similar, so it doesn’t move the position.
FIELDCOUNT parameter.
Since the main program only uses
about 2/3 of the available flash mem-
ory, we also added a splash screen,
shown in Screen 2. This uses data
from the score bitmap sequences in a
hard-coded loop. An 8-bit timer counts
down over 256 fields at 50Hz, so this
screen shows for around five seconds.
Component notes
With such a small PCB, there isn’t
a lot that can be modified. If you find
that the volume of the sounds doesn’t
match your other TV sources, you
can adjust the 1kW/470W divider con-
nected to pin 5 of IC1. Reduce the 470W Fig.3: with fewer than 20
part value (or increase the 1kW part onboard parts, the PCB is easy to
value) to reduce the volume. Alterna- assemble. Mount SMD parts IC1
tively, increase the 470W part value to & CON1 first, then the passives,
increase the volume. then the connectors (if you are
using connectors).
If you want to make the game harder,

Once it is correctly aligned, solder
the remaining pins. Then, if you have Parts List – Nano Pong
bridged pins, use the braid to remove
them as described above. 1 double-sided PCB coded 08105212, 43 x 16.5mm
The 100nF capacitor sits between 1 PIC12F1572-I/SN (SOIC-8) programmed with 0810521B.HEX (IC1)
IC1 and CON1. Using a similar tech- 1 SMD mini Type-B USB socket (CON1)
nique to IC1, tack one lead, adjust and 1 10cm length of 20mm diameter clear heatshrink tubing
solder the other. Go back to the first 3 RCA plugs AND
lead and add a little flux paste or sol- 1 3m length of shielded cable OR
der to freshen it up. 1 triple RCA plug cable [eg, Jaycar WV7316]
Don’t be alarmed if your solder 1 5-way male pin header (CON2, optional for programming, see text)
joints don’t have compact, concave Capacitors (all 50V X7R SMD ceramic, M3216/1206-size)
fillets. The important thing is that the 1 1μF 1 100nF
parts are connected firmly, and a large Resistors (all 1% metal film SMD, M3216/1206-size)
glossy solder joint that isn’t bridging 1 100kW (marked “104” or “1003”)
to other parts is fine. 1 10kW (marked “103” or “1002”)
Now fit the remaining SMD pas- 2 1kW (marked “102” or “1001”)
sives where shown in Fig.3. The resis- 6 470W (marked “471”, “470R” or “4700”)
tors usually are marked (see the typ-
Controller parts
ical codes in the parts list), while the
2 small plastic enclosures (eg, UB5 Jiffy boxes)
capacitors will only have their values
2 1kW 24mm rotary potentiometers (VR1, VR2) [eg, Jaycar RP3504]
printed on the packaging.
2 large knobs (up to 50mm) to suit potentiometers VR1 & VR2
Once all the surface mounted parts
2 momentary pushbuttons (S1,S2) [eg, Jaycar SP0716]
are fitted, you can clean the excess flux
1 1m length (or longer) of 4-5 core wire for controllers [eg, Jaycar WB1590]
from the PCB using your preferred flux
2 100mm cable ties
cleaning solution. Allow the board to
dry out thoroughly before continuing.
All of the through-hole headers are into the ICSP header, CON2. You can into plastic UB5 Jiffy boxes, but you
optional; CON2 is only required if solder a header strip to the pads, but could also mount all the parts in a sin-
you do not have a pre-programmed we’ve had success by simply resting gle enclosure to imitate the hardware
microcontroller, while CON3-CON5 the header in place and applying gen- of the arcade version of Pong. Fig.4
can be regular headers or sockets as tle force to ensure contact. shows the two possible ways that these
you need, or you can just solder wires A PICkit 3 or PICkit 4 can be used, can be wired.
(eg, sections of ribbon cable) directly or even a Snap programmer, if you can The only difference is that if the
to the PCB pads. supply power to the board (which the controls are wired remotely, one end
Snap cannot do by default). The eas- of the switch can be wired directly to
Programming IC1 iest way to do this is using the mini- the pot wiper to save having to run
We expect most constructors will USB socket, CON1. an extra wire back to CON4 or CON5.
get a pre-programmed PIC from us. Use software like Microchip’s Fig.5 shows the cutting diagram that
Otherwise, you can program the chip MPLAB X IPE to upload the 0810521B. suits the parts we have used (listed
after soldering it to the board, but it’s HEX file to the chip. There’s nothing in the parts list). You might need to
a bit tricky. The problem is that the obvious to indicate that the chip is modify the hole sizes if you are using
programming pins, pins 7 (ICSPDAT) working, apart from using the software different parts.
and 6 (ICSPCLK) are also connected to option to verify that the file has been Our photos show how we have con-
the player paddle wipers. So it’s best transferred correctly. nected everything, but the design is
to program the chip before connecting quite flexible and can be adapted to
up those paddles. Wiring it up different parts and enclosures. We’ll
To do this, plug your programmer We built the two player controls describe how we finished our version.
This is what our player controls look like, with a separate UB5 box for each controller.
1kW potentiometer and momentary pushbutton.
Internally it’s very simple, comprising of a 1kW

Fig.4: wiring up the two player paddles/
controllers externally only requires a four-
core cable. Each paddle is wired the same,
with Player 1 connecting to CON5 and
Player 2 connecting to CON4. If everything Fig.5: we built our paddles into UB5 Jiffy boxes, with holes drilled in
is being mounted in the same enclosure, their bases as shown. There also needs to be a hole in the side of the box
you can run the pot and switch wires back for the cable to pass through. Check that the size of your potentiometers,
to CON4 & CON5 separately. switches and wires match the hole sizes before drilling.
Drill holes in a pair of UB5 Jiffy To make the RCA connections for If so, the main PCB can be sealed up
boxes according to Fig.5, noting that the TV, we simply cut a three-way RCA by enclosing it in a length of 20mm
this should include a hole in the end cable in half. Strip back a good amount diameter heatshrink tubing. Ensure
of the box for the wire. The bottom of of insulation and collect all the braids that the CON1 end does not overhang
the box becomes the top when held in together. Attach these to pin 1 of CON3 the connector. A 10cm length should
the hand. Doing it this way means that (marked on the back with “G”). We put ensure that the cables are secure and
we aren’t trying to juggle wires leading a short length of heatshrink tubing over have some strain relief.
from the lid to the cable entry while the braids for extra protection.
mounting the lid. Then bare the internal wires by a Let’s play!
Cut down the potentiometer shafts small amount. The video plug (which At the start of the game, the ball will
to suits the knobs you are using, and will usually be yellow) should be con- be in front of one player’s bat. Press-
use a file to tidy up any rough corners nected to pin 2 of CON3, marked “V”. ing the button on that controller will
or edges. This is most easily done with Pins 3 should go to the left audio lead cause the ball to be served. Rotate the
a hacksaw while holding the end of the (white, “L”) lead, and pin 4 should go potentiometer to move the bats on the
potentiometer shaft (rather than the to the right audio lead (red, “R”). screen to keep the ball in play.
body) in a vice. This avoids straining Plug the RCA leads into the AV If a player misses the ball, the other
the potentiometer mechanism. connections of a television and apply player wins a point. Once one player
Fit the pushbutton switches and power to CON1. You should see the reaches eleven points, the game is over.
potentiometers to the Jiffy boxes. You splash screen followed by the main The winning score will flash and a mel-
can also fit your knobs at this stage. We game screen. Check that everything ody will play. Serving the ball starts
whipped up some 3D printed knobs to operates correctly. a new game. SC
give a bit more grip; the files are avail-
able along with the firmware down- This is how we built our
load from the Silicon Chip website. Nano Pong setup. It uses a
Solder and heatshrink the wires as separate controller for each
shown in Fig.3 and our photos. Run player, and has a composite
the connecting cable out through the video connector.
hole and secure a cable tie around each
cable to prevent it from being pulled
off the terminals inside the box.
Next, solder the other ends of the
wires to their respective pads on CON4
and CON5. If you want to test the pad-
dle operation, apply power and check
for 3.75V on the middle lead of each
potentiometer in the fully clockwise
position, and 1.25V anti-clockwise.
This voltage should drop to 0V when
the button is pressed.
There are normally-closed variants
of this switch, so if you find that the
action is reversed, you might have this
other variant.

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SERVICEMAN'S LOG
Rocking Raucous Retro Roland Repair Dave Thompson
I’m trying to stay positive despite the world falling apart around my
ears. Earthquakes, plagues, waves of misguided activists – they’re all
conspiring to ruin what’s left of our idyllic way of life. At least customers
still occasionally find their way to me, with devices that sometimes can
still be repaired; in this case, a throwback to the 1980s. And that’s just
fine with me, because they knew how to build fixable gear back then.
Items Covered This Month

• Rocking Roland repair
• Samsung aircon repair
• Fixing LED light fittings W e live in ‘interesting times’. The
pandemic is disrupting lives, if
not directly through infections, then
that so many policies these days are
not being thought through, especially
with politicians now taking advice
• Repairing a water heater and by hammering businesses through the from school kids rather than listening
key-fob collateral damage of lockdowns, and to the experts.
• Multiple LED downlight failures a drop in people being able to go out In the electronics world, I’ve been
• Repairing a TV with constantly and buy goods and services. The eco- worried about how getting older is
decreasing audio levels nomic toll is becoming increasingly affecting my ability to do fine repair
apparent and harming us all. work, but I also have all the above in
• Fixing outdoor lighting There is also significant lobbying the back of my mind, which doesn’t
*Dave Thompson runs PC Anytime going on from all manner of crack- help my state of mind.
in Christchurch, NZ. pot pressure groups trying to make Work, while sparse, is still coming
Website: www.pcanytime.co.nz everyone’s lives worse. They might in. Recently, a Roland Juno DX2 key-
Email: dave@pcanytime.co.nz not see it that way, but there’s no board came into the shop accompanied
escaping the reality. I get the feeling by its owner. It had simply stopped

working. Not only were there no dulcet tones one usu- lightning strike or other huge power anomaly, then yes, a
ally associates with a Juno, there was nothing at all. No transformer can burn out, but in ‘normal’ use, it is unusual.
lights, no power. A transformer is essentially just two coils of insulated
These vintage 80s-era keyboards are now quite sought wire wound onto a soft-iron core; how those coils are
after for their genuine ‘analog’ retro sound, so its owner arranged determines what type of transformer it is.
very much wanted it to be fixed. I told him that, in the- In the Dominions and other areas where 220-240V is
ory, everything was fixable – if not by me then by some- the norm, the primary and secondary windings will be
one with more experience – and it all really depended different than in the USA and other territories where the
on how deep his pockets were. mains voltage is 110-115V. If a device is intended to be
As with many musicians, it turns out his pockets were used in either location, it will often have two 110-120V
not very deep at all! Quite shallow, in fact. I advised primaries that can be connected in series for 220-240V
him that I would assess it and then let him know what operation or in parallel for 110-120V operation.
was ailing the machine, and it would be up to him as to This is one reason why many modern appliances (com-
whether he wanted to carry on. But it was also up to me puters, printers etc) have a separate power supply; the
as to when to pull the pin on any given job, which is part basic machine runs on the same internal voltages, it is
of our serviceman’s creed. He agreed. just the supply that differs. Of course, these days, most
He had already done some of the work in taking all the of those switchmode supplies can run off a wide range
screws out from the bottom and cracking the case open, of voltages, like 90-250V AC, so they are suitable for use
so that saved me some time. worldwide.
He could get this thing apart so easily because he didn’t Obviously, if there is a frequency-dependent compo-
have any of those stupid security fasteners to deal with. nent in the device (that is, it needs the 50Hz or 60Hz sig-
Manufacturers back then were usually sensible, making nal as a reference to operate), the internal power supply
products that were able and meant to be repaired, with will vary between countries. In this case, however, the
any proprietary spares usually available from dealers (for Juno was designed to be used in this part of the world,
a good while at least). The electronic components used with 220-240V AC mains.
throughout were often available from any good local elec- I removed the power supply board, a simple operation
tronics store. with only four PK-style screws holding it down, and then
Access to the circuit boards was usually good as well, desoldered the transformer leads from the board. With the
with no break-away plastic clips or similar impediments board resting safely on the chassis, I used my non-Variac-
restricting any attempts at repairs. I liked that philosophy branded Variac to slowly apply AC voltage to the circuit
then, and I like it now. downstream from the (now removed) transformer.
With my multimeter probes attached to the board’s out-
Dead on arrival puts, I expected to see whatever DC voltages the board
Testing this thing was also simple. I plugged in the sup- was designed to provide. Sadly, I got nothing; perhaps
plied power lead and hit the “On” button. Result: nada. there was more to this than I thought. While I’d need the
Zilch. Bupkis. Nothing. right transformer, I might also have to see what else was
The first thing to do was to test the power supply. Many damaged before I could resurrect the Juno.
a repair has come unstuck because the serviceman over- I had hoped I might get lucky, but usually, by the time
looks the patently obvious; that the lead or power supply a transformer blows, there is a lot more collateral dam-
has failed. It’s easy to do, and I’ve done it myself many age due to unusually high secondary voltages being pro-
times, being too keen to roll up my sleeves and get stuck duced as it fails. Even though there is a fuse, by the time
into a job. One must temper one’s urge to get into it and that blows, a lot of harm can already be done. I might still
test the obvious first. have many more problems to sort out, but I would have
In this case, the power lead is likely as old as the to replace this transformer to find out.
machine, and without knowing its history, it could very
well have fatigued and failed. The obvious test is to unplug The appeals of retro
it from the keyboard and stick a couple of multimeter Did I mention I love working on older stuff like this?
probes into it in a way that I could wiggle it around and Each section of the keyboard’s functions sits on a separate
ring it out without electrocuting myself. circuit board. The VCO (voltage controlled oscillator), VCF
This I did, and I got a healthy 240-odd volts AC no (voltage controller filter) and the VCA (voltage controlled
matter what I subjected the cable to. So I was happy that amplifier) sections are all separate. The same goes for the
it was OK. keyboard processor, signal processing and audio ampli-
The next step was to plug the cable back into the key- fier sections. If one section fails, a new (or repaired) PCB
board and test some points in the power supply circuit can simply be installed, and regular operation resumes.
board. This was separate from the rest of the circuitry and This philosophy is unlike how modern instruments are
easy to spot, given the transformer, capacitors, diodes and produced, where everything is typically on one big cir-
associated leads connecting to it. I love this older hard- cuit board with propriety COB (chip-on-board) ICs and
ware; everything is so obvious as to what it does. no spares available from the manufacturer. Even worse,
A quick probe around the board showed that mains no circuit diagrams generally are provided, whether you
potential was going into the transformer but not coming are a repair agent or not.
out. This is quite unusual; transformers are one of the If something goes wrong, you usually have to chuck the
most basic of all electronic components and for one to whole thing away (into a landfill) and pay an exorbitant
fail is, in my experience, quite rare. I mean, if there’s a price for an entire new keyboard, as the cost of repair is

so high. Nowadays, it seems to be all about IP (‘intellec-
tual property’) protection and making hyper-consumable
products with almost zero ability to repair.
Back then, for better or worse, they used standard parts
and standard (if increasingly clever) circuitry to achieve
what they wanted to do. Foreign powers with commer-
cial aspirations often hijacked these designs, calling the
resulting device something else, but essentially cloning
and copying the original company’s design.
Affected manufacturers responded by making it increas-
ingly difficult to reverse-engineer their products, usu-
ally by using proprietary parts and making spare parts or
components and replacement circuit boards increasingly
unavailable, meaning repair was simply not an option.
No wonder people are up in arms about huge increases
in e-waste and the rise of built-in obsolescence!
I’m actually with them. This is just wrong, and while
it might be great for IP protection, I don’t think it’s the
best way forward.
However, as our Juno 2 has discrete components on
separate boards, it is a veritable dream for a serviceman
like myself to fix.
So it seemed that the problem with this machine was
in the power supply board. I was hoping that if I could
resolve this, the rest of it should still be OK. But like any
good mystery, I wouldn’t know until I got the power sup-
ply board working.
I do know that many of these older analog ICs were
pretty hardy devices in their day, so the lack of any obvi-
ous burned-black spots on the other PCBs, holes in chips
or that distinctive stink of burnt electrical components
was a good sign. I was reasonably sure that once I got the
power supply board working, the rest of it would start
up again and start producing sounds. Fingers crossed!
To be thorough, I should test every component on the
power supply board. That’s not too onerous a task, to be
frank, because there is not much on it. There is a diode
rectifier array, two relays, a regulator, a few capacitors
and a fuse.
The fuse had not blown, so that usually indicates a lack
of shorts. The regulator is a standard 78XX type, and the
capacitors and diodes are all common components. All
are clearly marked, as is the PCB assembly. To really save
the planet, modern manufacturers should take a hint from
the way this keyboard is manufactured.
My first check was to measure the transformer’s out-
put, and I got nothing, indicating that at least one of the
windings was open-circuit.
Fortunately, the transformer has a part number on it, but
a quick Google search found nothing relating to it. The great
news is I have a commercial transformer-winding machine.
The bad news is that I would have to dig it out of storage in
my garage to use it, and that idea wasn’t appealing at all.
The good news is that I got about a hundred miscella-
neous transformers when I bought the winding machine,
but the bad news is I’d have to trawl through those trans-
formers to find a suitable replacement for this one. The
good news is that I didn’t have to! I had a Jaycar replace-
ment in the drawer that would not only fit, it would also
be suitable electrically. That really is excellent news...
This was not so surprising, as all I really needed was
a mains transformer with a 12V AC output with a rea-
sonable current capacity, and those are a dollar a dozen.

Removing the old one was simple, and He was over the moon, and although boards, but the marks were confined
replacing it almost too easy. Surely this he said he thought it would be an “easy to the mains areas of the boards. So
repair couldn’t be this straightforward. fix”, he doesn’t know the half of it. I doubted that was the real problem.
Once I had replaced that, I powered They reported no lights on the indi-
the machine on and... nothing. I knew Samsung air conditioner repair cator panel and the system was com-
this was too good to be true. N. K., of Kedron, Qld likes to wield pletely unresponsive.
I now had 12V AC, but nothing past a soldering iron to repair written-off I figured that if the problem was
the diode array. Out the board came devices. It’s part of his hobby, and he with the outdoor power supply, or any-
again, and this time I replaced the enjoys the challenge of solving mys- thing else outdoors, the indoor indi-
existing diodes with four 1N4001s. teries and saving a lot of money at the cator lights should still come on. The
Desoldering these old boards can be same time. In some cases, there is a lot outdoor unit is a linear supply with
tricky, but I have to say I love the smell to gain and little to lose... a conventional transformer followed
of that old solder; it brings back many This one was brought to me by my by a four diode rectifier bridge. The
memories. I replaced all the diodes, son. His friends, a young couple with fuse was intact. It’s only used to power
and for good measure, the regulator as small children, had their air condi- relays anyway, and the diodes tested
well while everything was out. tioner written off by the repairman OK. There are no Mosfets, so I was
After reassembly, I hit the power in the middle of Brisbane’s hot and confident the problem was elsewhere.
button with expectations of it all work- humid summer. It was an old Samsung I looked briefly at the indoor indi-
ing – and it did! The display and all split system, and apparently, replace- cator board and saw nothing visually
the lights lit up as they should. With an ment boards are no longer available. wrong. There was not much I could
amp plugged in, I hit a few notes and They could ill afford the $2700 have fixed there anyway, so I put it
was rewarded with that warm, mel- quoted for a new system, so my son aside. Likewise, the complex control-
low, smooth, rich, laid-back, melodi- generously offered to take the boards ler board looked intact. So I dismissed
ous, euphonious analog sound. Thank so he (meaning me) could check them it as both unlikely and too hard.
goodness for that! at the component level. So I could not That left just the indoor power sup-
While I likely could have fixed other test them in operation. The boards ply board. Its fuse was also intact. It is a
parts of the circuit if necessary, I was were the indoor and outdoor unit switchmode power supply with 230V
glad that I didn’t have to work my way power supplies, the display board and AC directly rectified to 325V DC. The
through it all. The time involved alone the controller board, hosting the main rectifier bridge checked OK with my
would have deterred the owner, and he microcontroller and several other multimeter, as did the 400V electro-
likely would have bailed on the proj- surface-mounted ICs. lytic filter capacitor. Tracing the tracks
ect. At least now I could tell him that The repairman said he found dead on the board, this fed a TNY266PN off-
he would probably have many more geckos on both power supply boards line switcher IC, with Mosfet switches
years of use from this beautiful vin- and blamed them for the failure. I to chop the DC into the primary of the
tage keyboard. found evidence of fried gecko on both step-down transformer.
The secondary, low voltage side
of the transformer went to a single
half-wave schottky rectifier diode
followed by filter capacitors and a
small KA78L05AZ linear 5V regula-
tor. There were other components, but
they either checked out OK or did not
look like suspects.
Testing the schottky rectifier diode
hit pay dirt. It was short circuit. How-
ever, without expensive test gear, I am
always suspicious of the black magic
lurking in switchmode supplies.
You can never tell if something else
failed first, damaging the diode, or if
the diode failed and took other com-
ponents with it. In any case, I never
trust the Mosfets in a failed switch-
mode power supply.
That TNY266 could have refused to
power up due to a sensed low imped-
ance on the primary of the transformer,
caused by the shorted diode on the
secondary. This, coupled with my
overall suspicion about failing Mos-
fets, led me to replace the TNY266 as
well. I could not tell if the KA78L05
5V DC regulator had been damaged by

the failed rectifier diode, so I decided across them. Upon reapplying power, being cycled on and off by the con-
to replace it too. bingo, the light worked! trol electronics. That meant that the
The replacement components only To be on the safe side, I decided to failure was most likely in the pump
cost a few dollars, plus $25 for ship- add a 2.2kW resistor in series with the or the plumbing.
ping. I could not find an equivalent LEDs to reduce the current through the I disconnected the hoses, and the
axial lead schottky diode, so I used a remaining LEDs to a similar level as lack of flow or suction confirmed that
surface-mount equivalent, soldered to it would have been with all of them the pumping system or plumbing was
two posts on the board. installed. at fault. Water drained passively from
It was all a gamble, but when my son After a soak test of 48 hours, I rein- the hose connections, though, indicat-
reinstalled the boards and reconnected stalled the light which is still working ing that there wasn’t a major blockage
the power, the air conditioner sprang well after two months. in the piping. That left the pump itself
to life and started doing its job. So I had as the likely culprit.
the thrill of the hunt, the satisfaction Repairing a small water heater With the cover removed, I could feel
of success, and a suitably impressed and a faulty key-fob that the rotor of the pump motor was
son. This also resulted in a very grate- K. D., of Chermside, Qld, had to make turning, so the impeller had to be the
ful couple and a disappointed air con- two repairs recently, both of which source of the problem. Splitting the
ditioner salesman. involved fabricating new parts. In both integrated pump/heater block required
cases, those new parts are far superior complete disassembly of the unit. All
Fixing LED light fittings to the failed ones that they replaced… I found in the pump chamber was a
J. N., of Mt Maunganui, New Zea- I was asked to look at a small unit protruding shaft. There was simply
land, had a go at fixing light fittings that heats water to about 40°C and cir- no impeller to be seen!
with failed individual LEDs... culates it through a mat. Made thirty I did find, however, lots of tiny
I had to replace an outdoor light years ago, the device had initially been pieces of Bakelite or phenolic mate-
because it had become too corroded used to keep premature babies warm. rial in the chamber and the water pas-
and the housing was letting water in. It had long been made obsolete from sages. Reassembling these like a jigsaw
Fortunately, I had a spare replacement that job and repurposed for use in the gave me a flat piece ~40mm x 4.5mm
Arlec ABL003 LED unit on hand. laboratory. The complaint was that the and about 0.8mm thick. It was a very
After installation, all went well for unit wasn’t heating the mat. simple impeller that must have been
about three weeks until the light failed. There were four likely points of attached to a flat on the shaft with a
As I am a retired technician and it was failure: the element, the control elec- couple of spots of glue.
out of warranty, I decided to see if it tronics, the pump or the plumbing. I thought of various ways to replace
could be repaired. After removing the Looking at my notes, I had previ- the impeller, such as making one from
cover, nothing seemed out of place, so ously replaced the cartridge heater in a brass shim or PCB material either
I removed the unit to my workbench. this unit. glued or soldered to the shaft. Then I
I discovered that it had 18 LEDs in The original element was 3/8-inch realised that I could 3D print a better
series, powered by an AC-to-DC con- (9.5mm) in diameter, and the only impeller that would be a press fit and
verter. replacement I could get with suit- held in position by the flat section on
I applied power and verified that it able electrical ratings was 10mm in the shaft.
was producing a reasonable DC volt- diameter. That necessitated the care- I quickly drew a simple design in
age. Next, I tested the LEDs and found ful reaming of the thin-walled pocket a 3D modelling package and sent the
that two were faulty (marked with red the element fitted into with a chuck- file off to a colleague for printing. A
arrows in the photo below). I couldn’t ing reamer. few days later, I had an impeller ready
be bothered replacing them even if I To quickly check the element and to fit. It was a snug press fit onto the
could find replacements. Then I real- control electronics, I measured the shaft and turned freely in the pump
ised that I could simply short out the power consumption of the unit. I chamber. When reassembled, the
two faulty LEDs by applying solder found that the element was clearly unit pumped far better than anyone
remembered.
The next repair began when I
watched a friend unlock her 2001
Toyota Camry with the key and not
the key-fob remote control she usu-
ally used. Some questioning led to
the explanation that a water bottle
had leaked in her bag some days ear-
lier, flooding the remote which had
stopped working.
It was apparent how the water had
gotten in as the rubberised button had
perished and fallen out several years
ago, leaving a large opening through
which the small PCB-mounted switch
could be operated directly.
Looking into the hole, I could see

several surface-mount components Log; May 2020, page 51). I replaced all able to swap good LEDs from a failed
with white corrosion on their leads. I our ceiling lights with 12W multi-LED unit onto another failed unit to make
pressed the button a couple of dozen lights of two different brands. Over the it work properly again. For our seven
times, and the car responded twice, so last two years we have had sweltering installed multi-LED lights, I have
I thought it would be worth attempt- summers, and this appeared to precip- changed about 20 individual LEDs on
ing a repair. itate failures in these lamps. the 120mm aluminium platter.
The remote was obviously never Also, when I installed the first lot After marking and disassembling
intended to be serviced, as the case of three LED lights in the kitchen, I the faulty lamp and identifying the
was glued together. Some leverage found that we could not watch TV LED polarity, I get out my mini gas
split the case at the join, revealing an due to interference. I put about six flame torch. With the 2cm flame burn-
oval PCB containing all the compo- ferrite rings on each light power cable; ing vertically, I hold the LED platter
nents, including a soldered-in coin that reduced the interference so we with pliers and place the faulty LED
cell. Most of the corrosion was near could at least watch most TV chan- above the flame.
the button and was easily removed nels. I ended up shifting the antenna After about five seconds, I can lift
with a fibreglass pencil. to another side of the house using RG6 off the faulty LED with tweezers and
I then washed the board with iso- quad-shield coax. repeat the same to retrieve a good
propyl alcohol. After a couple of days I then installed another two lights LED from a spare (wrecked) LED
drying in the sun, the car responded to in the dining room, and the second light. Again noting the polarity of the
every press of the button. I masked the bedroom (my office). I put six or so replacement LED, I put it where the
switch with tape and gave the board snap-on ferrite rings on each of the faulty LED was removed, heat it again
a generous coat of Electrolube HPA mains power cables again, but still with the gas flame (from the reverse
conformal coating in case of future got interference! I can only watch TV side) and the LED will ‘magically slip’
water ingress. with the lights off. into place using the existing solder.
Next, I had to make a new button. I As these two rooms were in line If you look carefully at the LED
covered the outside of the hole with with my aerial and the Mt Dande- array photos (mine shown below, and
tape and filled the recess from inside nong transmitter, I had to do another the one published in the May issue),
with Dow Corning 3140 conformal antenna shift; this time positioned the faulty LED has a black spot. Pretty
silicone. Once cured, and after some so the antenna points away from the much every faulty LED I have found
trimming with a scalpel, I had a pliable house. I also added a masthead ampli- suffers from this black arcing spot. The
button thoroughly sealed to the case. fier to improve the S/N ratio. We can string of series LEDs fails at the point
That left re-joining the case itself. I now watch TV with the lights on. of the weakest LED, and once it has
chose not to glue it, in case I ever had When the weather gets really hot gone open-circuit, the whole string
to change the battery. Instead, I used (around 40°C), the roof cavity gets to won’t work.
Permatex Form-a-Gasket compound nearly 60°C, and the LED lamps mea- The only other fault I have encoun-
to adhere the case halves together sure 40°C+ on their faces. Initially, tered with these LED lights (and with
with a watertight joint. The remote one LED in the group of a dozen or CFLs) is the 2.2µF (sometimes 4.7µF)
has worked for many months, with so LEDs in each offending light will 400V electrolytic capacitor having a
the homebrew button and case joint flicker annoyingly on/off. swollen top. Replacing that capacitor
still in place. Fortunately, at the time of our LED usually fixes it.
light installation, I purchased an extra
Multiple LED downlight failures spare LED lamp per room. As all the Repairing a TV with persistent
R. H., of Ferntree Gully, Vic, must new lights have been fitted with a GPO lowering of audio levels
have been busy fixing LED downlights power point in the roof loft, it was easy L. J. C., of Forest Hill, Vic, has a story
as he has had quite a few fail, as he enough for me to swap the failing lamp about an electronic fault that had an
relates... for one of my spares. unusual cause, leading to a very frus-
I was prompted to write this by the With multiple lamp failures, rather trating intermittent fault...
LED lamp repair story (Serviceman’s than throw them away, I have been In 1965 my father in law, who lived
Burnt spot
on faulty LED

in a Victorian country town, bought a
new TV. I don’t recall the brand, but it
The internals of a
was Australian made. It worked well typical garden LED
for a few weeks, then developed an light.
annoying fault.
While you were watching it, the
audio level would slowly decrease,
so you would have to get up and turn
the volume up. This would continue,
so you had to keep turning the volume
up periodically until eventually, it was
at full volume.
After a while, presumably due to a
power line spike when a motor turned
on or off (eg, a fridge), the fault would
disappear, so you had to jump up and
turn the volume down! Then, after a
few minutes, the cycle repeated; it was
most annoying.
He had the shop’s TV technician try
to fix it a few times, but he never suc-
ceeded. Eventually, the set went out of were made by rolling plastic dielectric to last very long.
warranty, so I asked him if he would films with the conducting films, with a That low cost means that it’s tempt-
like me to fix it. He agreed. pigtail wire emerging from both ends. ing to throw them away when they
I removed the rear cover; in those I concluded that the connection stop working and buy another one. But
days TVs had a circuit diagram con- between one of the pigtail wires and often, the fix is quite simple. Opening
veniently pasted inside. It was essen- the respective metal film was faulty, ie, them up is usually not too difficult,
tially a valve TV, but it had transistor there was a thin film of oxide between and all you will find inside is a solar
audio IF and audio output amps. the wire and the metal. panel, a battery, one or more LEDs and
I was a telephone technician, and When the set was switched on, the a small control board with a handful
my boss had recovered an old TV chas- transients broke down the insulating of components. The ‘battery’ is often
sis from the rubbish tip, so I inserted film, so the volume was normal. But, a single 18650 Li-ion cell (nominally
the audio IF and output amp valves in as the cap warmed, the insulating film around 3.7V).
and connected a speaker to use it as started to reform; thus, the capaci- If you need a circuit diagram, use
a signal tracer. I connected the input tance became smaller, hence gradually your favourite search engine to look
of the signal tracer’s audio amp to the detuning the IF stage. up the part code printed or etched into
input to the set’s audio amp. I then But when a transient occurred, the main chip. As you can see from
switched the set on, and waited for either from the mains or me attempt- the photo above, there are only three
the volume to decrease. ing to make a measurement, the insu- parts on the tiny PCB. One of the com-
I determined that the fault was in lating film broke down. It became a ponents is a commonly found 4-pin
the audio IF stage since the level com- good Ohmic connection for a while part in a SIL package.
ing from both speakers decreased. But until the insulation started to reform. If one of these lights fails within
when I attempted to measure the col- The gradual detuning by the IF amp the first year or so, the most common
lector voltage on the first IF transis- reduced the signal level going into the cause is corrosion of the battery con-
tor, the transient caused the volume next stage and the FM discriminator, tacts. While the housing should theo-
to leap back to the original level. thus reducing the volume. retically be sealed, moisture might still
Frustrating! I replaced the capacitor with a new make its way inside, and the contacts
I reasoned that the fault might be one and thus solved the problem. will quickly become rusty. That will
temperature sensitive, so I put a radi- prevent the battery from charging. Of
ator at the back of the TV to warm up Fixing simple outdoor lighting course, the battery itself can fail over
the components (my mother-in-law F. F. C., of Sydney, NSW likes dis- time, but it usually lasts a few years
was not impressed). When the vol- assembling broken things and inves- under normal conditions.
ume eventually reduced, it remained tigating the build quality, finding and Another possible failure point is in
low while I made the measurements. fixing problems etc. The subject of this the wiring to the solar panel, which
I connected the input of the signal current letter is those cheap outdoor can be quite fragile. Keep that in mind
tracer’s IF amp to the collector of the solar lights that are known to fail fre- when you disassemble and reassem-
first IF transistor and found that the quently... ble the light to fix it. You could fix the
audio level coming from the signal These lights are attractive for gar- original problem and create a new one
tracer’s speaker was also low. den areas, outdoor steps etc because if you fracture those connections!
Looking at the circuit, I noticed that you don’t need to run any wiring to The circuitry is so simple that it is
the IF coil was tuned by a 560pF plas- them, and of course, the low cost is unlikely to fail. If it does, you can gen-
tic film capacitor. In those days, plastic the other attraction. erally swap the board from another
film capacitors were cylindrical. They The problem is that they never seem light with a different failure. SC

Multi-Purpose
Battery Manager
B l y thman
By T i m
Our recent Battery Multi Logger is a great tool for monitoring and
diagnosing battery problems. But sometimes, you need something
which will not just monitor what’s going on but also take action, such
as connecting and disconnecting loads based on battery charge state.
That’s just part of what this Battery Manager does.
O ur Battery Multi Logger (February

& March 2021; siliconchip.com.
au/Series/355) is a Micromite-based
that you’re treating them well.
Both of these conditions are rela-
tively easy to rectify, as long as you are
Part of the design is a new I/O
Expander board that provides control
signals to allow up to four Switch Mod-
device that monitors the condition and aware of them happening, by simply ules to independently and automati-
usage of a battery system. It can handle disconnecting the load(s) or charger cally connect and disconnect loads
battery systems between 6V and 100V, causing the problem. as needed.
and it is a convenient tool to keep track Our recent Battery Multi Logger The Battery Manager can also inter-
of how batteries are being used, ensur- unit can monitor this but did not have face with the High Current Four Bat-
ing that they are kept healthy. any means to take corrective action tery Balancer (March & April 2021;
Being heavily discharged or over- until now. The Battery Manager adds siliconchip.com.au/Series/358) to pro-
charged can greatly reduce a battery’s switching modules to the Battery Multi vide even more detailed information
working life, possibly leading to the Logger, which can connect or discon- about the state of a multi-cell battery
need to buy an expensive replacement nect loads and chargers to keep the or multi-battery system. The Battery
prematurely. So you want to be sure batteries healthy. Manager can even be used to program,

We are using a PCF8574 IC, which
Features we described in our article on I/O
● Compact, flexible and modular addition to the Battery Multi Logger Expander Modules (November 2019;
siliconchip.com.au/Article/12085).
● Connect and disconnect up to four loads/sources to protect batteries
This lets us easily add eight I/O ports.
● Low battery drain In fact, with multiple ICs, we could
● Can interface with the High Current Four Battery Balancer add up to 128 I/O ports, although that
● Capable of switching well over 20A (possibly over 30A) at 10V-60V would exceed our requirements.
So we have designed a small I/O
Expander PCB, which can be con-
control and monitor the Battery Bal- are driven by a latching circuit that trolled using the available I2C bus. It
ancer. ‘remembers’ the state of the switch provides eight I/O pins connected to
While the Battery Multi Logger hard- and drives the Mosfet gates on or off transistors to drive the opto-isolated
ware remains mostly unchanged from as needed. inputs of Switch Module(s).
the published design, a new control This latch can be toggled in several As noted above, a low quiescent
program adds the interface to config- different ways. A pair of switch con- current is important. The PCF8574
ure, control and monitor the Switch tacts connected to the latch circuit can draws around 10μA when there is no
Modules and Battery Balancer. set its state, providing simple push- activity on the I2C bus. Its primary
The Switch Module and I/O button control. current consumption is the current it
Expander hardware have uses out- The Switch Module PCB also incor- supplies to drive the opto-isolators,
side the Battery Manager, too. While porates a pair of opto-isolators. Their and they are only active very briefly
designed for 3.3V operation, the I/O output transistors are in parallel with during switching.
Expander board will happily work the switch contacts. Thus, there is also
at 5V, so it could be hooked up to an the option to set the latch state and Battery Balancer support
Arduino board or just about any other control the Mosfets via an electrically As we just noted, the COM1: serial
microcontroller. isolated interface. port on the Battery Multi Logger is
Similarly, the Switch Module will free for us to use. Since the Battery
work with just about anything that can I/O Expander board Balancer already has a serial interface,
supply a control signal of 3.3-15V. So You might recall from the Battery we can simply connect these to allow
it can also be driven directly by just Multi Logger article that it doesn’t communication and control between
about any microcontroller. have many free I/O pins left. The two the two.
pins that provide the COM1: serial We can also use the Mini Isolated
Switch Module port are not used, though, and are Serial Link (March 2021; siliconchip.
One of the goals of the Battery Multi brought out to the Battery Multi Log- com.au/Article/14785) to isolate the
Logger is to use as little power as pos- ger PCB edge. different parts of the system.
sible. So we have designed the new But we have earmarked these to Fig.1 shows an overview of the
Switch Module to have very low qui- interface with other serial devices. additions to the Battery Multi Log-
escent and operating currents. A better way to control Switch Mod- ger to turn it into a Battery Manager.
We are using high-current Mosfets ule(s) is to use the I2C interface, which Note the connection from the Bat-
as switches, as these can be controlled is brought out to pins at CON4 of the tery Balancer to CON6 on the Battery
with minimal power. The Mosfets Battery Multi Logger PCB. Multi Logger.
Fig.1: the Battery Manager consists of the Battery Multi Logger plus the peripherals shown here. Up to four Switch
Modules can be added with one I/O Expander; we imagine most constructors will need one or two. It can also interface
with the High Current Battery Balancer, allowing cell status and balancing activity to be monitored.

Updated software 2 would be configured to reconnect the CON1 header connects to the Battery
Naturally, these extra features need load that is disconnected by Trigger 1. Multi Logger’s CON2 for 3.3V power
to be controlled and configured. This Thus these two triggers work to and ground. The I2C bus is present
is done via extra buttons and pages on detach a load from the battery except at the Battery Multi Logger’s CON4,
the Battery Multi Logger’s Micromite when it has sufficient charge. A similar which connects to CON2 here.
LCD interface, shown in screengrabs arrangement in reverse can also work These are situated to align directly,
later in this article. There is also a more as a crude charge regulator, prevent- allowing the I/O Expander module
detailed description indicating how ing overcharging. to stack onto the existing hardware,
to use these new screens along with The external switches can also be using either stackable headers or being
those images. manually manipulated, either for test- directly soldered. Since it is only four
The first new page controls the ing or to override the programming, wires, it can be run remotely too,
Switch Modules; up to eight triggers and you can also manually reset the although a direct connection is pref-
can be set. These are voltage or cur- triggers. erable.
rent thresholds that result in an action Another page shows the current The Battery Multi Logger hosts the
occurring, such as one or more of the operating state of the Battery Balancer pull-up resistors required for the I2C
Switch Modules being activated. A (as reported by the Balancer over its bus, so these are not present on the I/O
latch is also set to prevent repeated serial port), including which cells are Expander board. It’s generally better
activation; a trigger can also reset a being balanced, in which direction and for pull-ups to be on the master, since
latch to provide alternate operation. to what extent. Buttons are also pro- only one pair is needed per bus.
For example, Trigger 1 can be set vided to issue commands to the Bat- On the I/O Expander PCB, the 3.3V,
to activate when the battery voltage tery Balancer. ground, SDA and SCL lines from CON1
falls below 11V. This sets Trigger 1’s Two graph pages are available to and CON2 go to IC1’s pins 16, 8, 15
latch and, via a Switch Module, also show recent data from the Battery and 14, respectively. A 100nF capac-
disconnects some non-essential load Balancer. One page shows the cell itor bypasses IC1’s supply. There are
from the battery, reducing the chance and stack balancing activity, while a two more 100nF capacitors to help
of damage to the battery from deep second page plots the individual cell source current into downstream con-
discharge. voltages. nectors CON3-CON6.
Trigger 2 is set to activate when the IC1, the PCF8574, has three address
battery rises to 12.5V and also to reset I/O Expander operation pins (1, 2 and 3) that need to be pulled
Trigger 1. Similarly, Trigger 1 can reset The circuit diagram of the I/O up or down to set its address. We
Trigger 2. As you might expect, Trigger Expander module is shown in Fig.2. Its avoid the use of pull-up or pull-down
Fig.2: the I/O Expander adds to the modular nature of the Battery
Manager, providing extra I/O ports to drive devices like Switch Modules.
Each I/O Expander adds eight signals, enough to control four Switch
Modules. It uses the PCF8574 addressable I/O Expander IC, which can
be configured to respond to eight different addresses, allowing further expansion.

resistors as this could increase cur-
rent consumption. So a group of three
jumper pads, JP1-JP3, is provided for
this purpose. All pins are pulled low
by default, giving a 7-bit address of
0x20 hexadecimal (32 decimal).
These jumpers are actually solder
pads on the PCB and can be changed
by cutting the thin traces and solder-
ing between pads. Since eight I/O
pins are ample, we have written the
software to simply work with a single
I/O Expander board with the default
address.
The PCF8574 could be replaced by
the mostly identical PCF8574A. The
only difference is that the PCF8574A
uses a different range of addresses; in
this case, the default address will be
0x38 (56 decimal), and the software The Battery Balancer
can be connected to
would need to be modified to suit
the Battery Manager
that value. to provide greater
Pin 13 of IC1 provides an active-low information about the
input change interrupt signal which is state of the batteries. It
not used in this application. We are connects via our Mini
using all of the pins as outputs, so we Isolated Serial Link.
do not need the interrupt function.
The remaining pins labelled P0-P7
(pins 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 12, respec- delivering 3.3V to pin 2 of CON3. a data byte with at least one bit set
tively) are the I/O pins. They are either A similar arrangement exists for low. This causes the corresponding
weakly pulled up (the default state) the other seven I/O pins of IC1. The pin from P0-P7 to go low, turning on
or pulled low by a sink capable of outputs are arranged in pairs, to pro- its Mosfet and sending its correspond-
around 10mA. vide the complementary on/off func- ing output high.
Since the opto-isolators on the Soft tions needed for the Switch Module For the brief period that the I2C bus
Switch are active-high devices, we to operate. is active, IC1 draws a modest 100μA,
use P-channel Mosfets controlled from Each of CON3-CON6 can connect while any of P0-P7 that are active
these I/O pins to source current from to the input of a Switch Module, and will cause less than 1mA to be sunk
the 3.3V rail. These Mosfets also invert so we can control up to four Switch through its pull-up resistor. The tran-
the signals. Modules with one I/O Expander board. sistor will also source whatever cur-
For example, Q1’s gate is connected In operation, the I2C host (in this rent is needed to control the connected
to pin 4 of IC1 (P0). The gate is also case, the Battery Multi Logger) writes Switch Module.
pulled high by a 10kW resistor. While a default value of 0xFF (all bits set
probably not strictly necessary, we high) to IC1, which then sits in this idle Switch Module operation
have fitted these so that false trigger- state, drawing virtually no current. Its Fig.3 shows the circuit diagram of
ing does not occur while the Battery output transistors are off, and all pins the Switch Module. As mentioned, up
Multi Logger is powering up. on CON3-CON6 are not connected to to four Switch Modules can be con-
Q1’s source is connected to the the 3.3V rail. nected to a single I/O Expander board.
3.3V rail and is effectively connected When an output needs to be acti- CON1 and CON2 are large, high-
to its drain when the gate goes low, vated, the Battery Multi Logger sends current connections to the positive
The I/O Expander (also labelled as an

I2C Interface) adds another PCB to the
Battery Manager stack. If you need
multiple I/O Expanders, you could
fit them with stackable headers (as
used on Arduino Shields). Just be sure
to set different I2C addresses on the
stacked PCBs.

end of a battery and its load or source Zener diode ZD2 does not conduct sources by the 220kW resistor and they
(eg, a charger). Thus, we perform high- under normal conditions; it is not switch off, opening the Switch Mod-
side switching, leaving the ground even strictly needed for 12V systems, ule’s connection between CON1 and
connections uninterrupted. The con- but will clamp any spikes that might CON2.
nections are not polarised, so current be present. It also allows the switch Toggling the Switch Module state
can flow in either direction when the module to be used with battery volt- involves pulling either of Q1 or Q2’s
switch is on. ages over 60V. gates to LOGIC_GND. This can be
Across CON1 and CON2 are con- Q1 and Q2 are configured as a done by the phototransistor outputs of
nected pairs of back-to-back P-channel bistable latch, with the 100kW and OPTO1 or OPTO2, respectively.
Mosfets, Q4-Q11. Their sources are 220kW resistors connected to their When a voltage is applied at CON4’s
connected together, with the drains gates providing a mutually exclusive pin 2 that is positive with respect to its
going to either CON1 or CON2. interlock. pin 1, current flows through OPTO1’s
With the gates held near the source The gate of Q1 is connected to the LED via the 470W resistor, turning on
potential, the transistors do not con- drain of Q2 and vice versa. If Q1 is its phototransistor. Similarly, a posi-
duct, and the switch is off. If the gates on, then Q2’s gate is pulled to near its tive voltage at pin 3 of CON4 triggers
are taken low relative to their sources, source voltage, and it is off. Similarly, OPTO2, pulling Q2’s gate low.
then a low-resistance path exists if Q2 is on, then Q1 must be off. This A connection between the pins of
between CON1 and CON2. latch is what retains the state of the CON5 or CON6 will have the same
The Mosfet body diodes pass a posi- Switch Module. effect. This allows control by some-
tive voltage from either CON1 or CON2 Q1’s gate is also connected to Q3’s thing like a pushbutton, in addition to
to the remainder of the circuit. CON3 is gate, so that Q3’s state is generally the control by the Battery Manager.
used to provide a ground connection for same as Q1’s. Q3’s drain is also con- If both Q1 and Q2 have their gates
the circuit and is wired to the battery nected to Q4-Q11’s gates. When Q3 is pulled low, then naturally, Q3’s gate
system’s common negative terminal. on, its drain network (consisting of the is low too, and the Switch Module is
The 10kW resistor in series with the 100kW and 220kW resistors and 15V off. Thus the safe ‘off’ state dominates
GND connection and the 100nF capac- zener diode ZD1) drives the gates of if conflicting signals occur.
itor across ZD2 provide a filtered logic Q4-Q11 to 4-15V below their sources. This is similar to the state that
supply (between LOGIC+ and LOGIC_ In this state, Q4-Q11 turn on, clos- occurs when power is first applied.
GND). Typically, around 90% of the ing the Switch Module’s connection In this case, capacitor C1 (which will
battery voltage is present across the between CON1 and CON2. Other- have been discharged by its parallel
100nF capacitor and ZD2. wise, their gates are pulled up to their 100kW resistor) holds Q1’s gate low
Fig.3: the Switch Module has two opto-isolated inputs which drive a pair of
complementary latching Mosfets. These, in turn, drive a bank of high-current
Mosfets for switching loads up to at least 20A. This is useful in its own right,
as it can be driven by just about any microcontroller, or even a simple set of
contacts such as a pushbutton.
72 Silicon Chip

72 Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

for a brief period, allowing Q2 to turn
on before Q1, and the Switch Module
is forced into the off state.
The time constant of this RC net-
work is less than 1ms, so as long as
external pulses are at least this long,
then incoming pulses are latched
correctly. If the reverse behaviour is
required, then the capacitor is fitted
adjacent to Q2, to the pads marked C3
instead of C1. The Switch Module will
then power up in the on state.
Current consumption
When sitting in the latched off state,
the current consumption is around
500μA at 60V and proportionally
less at lower voltages; around 100μA
at 12V. When switched on, extra cur-
rent flows through Q3, adding around
200μA at 60V, down to 40μA at 12V.
The current during switching will
be higher than this, with Q1, Q2 and
Q3 sinking current, but that occurs The Battery Soft Switch
only very briefly, as the complemen- (or Switch Module) uses high-
tary transistors turn off almost instan- current Mosfets as switches so that the total
taneously. operating power consumption is low. Four of these Switch
Modules can be independently controlled per I/O Expander board.
Switch ratings
P-channel Mosfets Q4-Q11 are need a shunt regulator to prevent their the same current level, and we expect
SUP53P06 types with a nominal maxi- unloaded voltage from reaching dan- most readers will be using the Switch
mum gate voltage of -20V (with respect gerous levels. Module below 60V.
to the source) and a maximum drain So care should be taken when using
voltage of -60V. These parameters set this module with a charging source Handling more current
the practical working limits of the to ensure that the open-circuit volt- If you find that your current require-
Switch Module. age does not exceed the Switch Mod- ments are beyond that of the Switch
These Mosfets are specified at ule’s limits. Module, you can use the Switch Mod-
around 9A continuous current each (at The Mosfet types can be changed to ule to operate the coil of a heavy-duty
25°C), but the PCB track width limits allow operation at higher voltages, but relay. The current when energised will
this to about 20A across the four pairs; other parts of the circuit might have be much higher, but this option allows
perhaps up to 30A with ample cooling. to be modified too. For example, the the Battery Manager to work with just
This can be increased by supplement- SPP15P10 type Mosfet used in the about any load.
ing the PCB with extra wires soldered Burp Charger for NiMH and NiCad In this case, just a single pair of
directly to the Mosfets. Batteries (March 2014; siliconchip. Mosfets is sufficient to operate the
Alternatively, for very light loads, com.au/Article/6730) can handle up relay coil (eg, Q4 and Q5). A snub-
some Mosfets could be left off. to 100V, and is a direct substitute for bing diode across the coil is highly
The dividers around Q1, Q2 and the SUP53P06. recommended, to protect the Mosfets
Q3 have been set to allow operation The other change we recommend from spikes that the coil might gener-
up to 60V (respecting their 20V gate for higher voltage builds is increas- ate when it de-energises.
limit with the 220kW/100kW divider). ing the value of the 10kW resistor to
Since they have gate thresholds down reduce the quiescent current through Software updates
around 3V, they require a battery volt- it and possibly ZD2. This is a good point to upgrade the
age of at least 10V to work correctly. Consider the section in parallel with software on the Battery Multi Logger
ZD1 is provided to clamp the gate volt- ZD2 as having a resistance of around to give it the Battery Manager features,
age to 15V for safety. 100kW. So for 100V switching, replac- if for no other reason than to get it out
This is generally not a problem for ing the 10kW resistor with a 220kW of the way before we connect the I/O
switching loads, as the maximum resistor will put around 30V across Expander to the ICSP header (which
voltage seen will be the battery volt- ZD2, allowing the circuit to operate would make programming trickier).
age. For charging sources, though, the correctly. If you have blank chips, follow the
voltage can be much higher. For exam- We have not specified the SPP15P10 original instructions for programming
ple, a 12V solar panel can have a 22V Mosfet in our parts list because it has the Battery Multi Logger, including
open-circuit voltage. Wind turbines a much higher drain-source resis- putting the Microbridge firmware on
can be even higher; they typically tance. So it will produce more heat at the PIC16F1455. But instead of the

Screen 1: the Battery be sufficient for anything that the
Multi Logger’s Main Switch Module can handle.
screen has been updated You will need to consider how many
to add two new buttons Switch Modules you need. Most peo-
for the Trigger and ple will need one or perhaps two to
Balancer functions. At
bottom right, the trigger
disable non-critical loads when the
state is shown, and battery charge state gets low.
the title has also been There’s always a critical load that
changed to reflect the can’t be disconnected, and that won’t
unit’s new capabilities. need a Switch Module; you’d much
rather have a flat battery than a sub-
merged boat because the bilge pump
wasn’t running!
And assuming you have a reputable
charge controller, there will be little
need to add a Switch Module inline
Battery Multi Logger firmware file You will need to load the ‘crunched’ with any connected solar panels.
(1110620A.HEX), load the newer Bat- (with comments and whitespace Similarly, you might or might not
tery Manager (1110620B.HEX) file. removed) program, as it does not fit in need to build and connect a Battery
Don’t forget to set JP2 to the PROG memory otherwise. The uncrunched Balancer. If you have a 24V, 36V or
position before using the ICSP inter- version is also available so that you 48V system composed of 12V batter-
face, and set it back to RUN after pro- can inspect the fully-commented code ies wired in series, you can make good
gramming. and make changes if you like. use of the Battery Balancer. If the Bat-
For an already-working Battery In general, you should follow the tery Balancer and Battery Multi Log-
Multi Logger, you can simply update instructions for the Battery Multi Log- ger can’t share the same ground, you
the MMBasic file. The same library ger but replace the respective HEX and will also need to build the Mini Iso-
file and LCD OPTIONS are used, so MMBasic files with their Battery Man- lated Serial Link.
no other changes are needed. The act ager equivalents. Regardless, we recommend using
of loading a program will delete any Run the newly installed program to the Mini Isolated Serial Link to avoid
logged data, so you should export that set the AUTORUN flag. Now it should any potential problems; it’s cheap and
first, if necessary. automatically start when powered up. easy to build, and safer to isolate the
The newer software has less space We’ll go into the software detail later, two devices.
for logged data due to needing more but you should see the new main page
space to store configuration variables as seen in Screen 1. Building the I/O Expander
for the Soft Switches. Thus, the long- Let’s start by building the I/O
term data is reduced to 10 days, and Construction options Expander and connecting it to the Bat-
this allows two Soft Switches (con- An important first step before build- tery Multi Logger; you can add switch
trolled by four triggers) to be fitted. ing the board is to determine what Modules after that. If you’re just inter-
These limits are set by CONST val- parts are needed. Given the low cost of ested in the Battery Balancer related
ues in the program. We’ve listed some the parts for the I/O Expander board, upgrades, you can skip most of the
options below regarding how these we recommend that you build the full construction (assuming you’ve already
two values can be changed and still version, which can handle four Switch built the Battery Multi Logger and Bat-
fit within the existing flash memory. Modules. tery Balancer).
But generally, as long as the sum of the However, you could leave off some The I/O Expander is built on a dou-
number of days stored and the num- of the parts if you are sure that you ble-sided PCB coded 11104212 which
ber of triggers is no more than 14, it will only be connecting one or two measures 37.5 x 35.5mm. Fig.4 is the
should work. Switch Modules. PCB overlay diagram; all the compo-
These are the D_COUNT and TRIG_ The specifics of your battery instal- nents are on one side, but there are
COUNT values. Due to the way they lation might also affect how you build some solder pad ‘jumpers’ on the
are displayed on the page, TRIG_ it. We’ve designed the Switch Module underside, so both sides are shown.
COUNT should be no higher than PCB with holes to suit 8mm screws and Since the I/O Expander will essen-
eight, as otherwise, the control buttons thus eyelets suiting up to 8G (3.25mm tially become part of the Battery
cannot be seen. diameter copper) cable, which should Multi Logger PCB, we have used
Fig.4: assembly of the I/O Expander is straightforward – it

uses mostly SMD components, but they are easy to handle.
Fit IC1 first, ensuring its pin 1 marking is orientated as
shown. All capacitors and resistors are non-polarised and
of a single value. You don’t have to use vertical headers, as
shown here; you could use right-angle headers, sockets or
just solder wires to the pads.

surface-mounted parts. We recom-
mend having on hand a fine-tipped sol- Parts List – Battery Manager
dering iron, flux paste, solder wicking
1 assembled Battery Multi Logger module
braid, a set of tweezers and a magnifier.
(February-March 2021; siliconchip.com.au/Series/355), with IC1 programmed
Flux paste releases a fair bit of smoke, with 1110620B.hex instead of 1110620A.hex
so good fume extraction or ventilation 1 assembled Battery Balancer module (optional)
is important too. (March-April 2021; siliconchip.com.au/Series/358)
Start by fitting IC1, noting that its 1 or more assembled I/O Expander modules (see below)
pin 1 is closest to the mounting hole. 1 or more assembled Switch Modules (see below)
We found the marking on this chip 1 assembled Mini Isolated Serial Link (optional)
difficult to discern; there should be a (March 2021; siliconchip.com.au/Article/14785)
small circle on the top of the part, and various lengths of heavy-duty wire, eyelet lugs etc to suit battery and application
a bevel along the nearest edge. On the various lengths of medium-duty hookup wire (see text)
various jumper leads (optional; to connect I/O Expander module[s] to the Battery
chips we have, pin 1 is at lower left
Manager and Switch Module[s])
when the chip markings are the right
way up (with the bevel along the bot- I/O Expander module parts (per module)
1 double-sided PCB coded 11104212, 38 x 36mm
tom edge).
1 PCF8574 I2C expander IC, SOIC-16 (IC1) [Digi-Key, Mouser]
Put some flux on the PCB pads for 8 IRLML2244 P-channel Mosfets (Q1-Q8) [Digi-Key, Mouser]
IC1, rest the chip roughly in place and 3 100nF X7R SMD 3216/M1206-size ceramic capacitors
apply a bit more flux to the top of the 8 10kW 1% SMD 3216/M1206-size resistors
pins. It doesn’t hurt to be generous! 1 5-way header (CON1)
Load the tip of the iron with a bit 1 2-way header (CON2)
of solder and tack one pin in place. 1-4 3-way headers or subminiature screw terminals� (CON3-CON6)
Adjust the chip if necessary by melt- 1 untapped 12mm-long spacer, ~3.125mm inner diameter
ing the solder and nudging the chip 1 M3 x 20mm panhead machine screw
with tweezers. Once all the pins are Switch Module (per module)
correctly aligned, solder them to the 1 double-sided PCB coded 11104211, 82 x 83mm
PCB. 1 3-way pin header or subminiature screw terminal� (CON4)
If there are any bridges between 16 M3 x 6mm panhead machine screws
4 M3 x 12mm tapped spacers
pins, remove them with the braid. Add
8 M3 nuts
flux to the bridge and press the braid 8 M3 washers
against it with the iron, carefully pull- � eg, Digi-Key part number ED10562
ing it away when the braid has drawn
Semiconductors
up the solder. 2 4N25 opto-isolators, DIP-6 (OPTO1,OPTO2)
Solder the transistors next. They are 3 2N7000 N-channel small-signal Mosfets, TO-92 (Q1-Q3)
all the same type and are polarised, 2-8 SUP53P06 P-channel high-current logic-level Mosfets, TO-220 (Q4-Q11)
but should only fit one way due to 1 15V zener diode (ZD1)
their shape. Put some flux on the pads 1 39-60V zener diode (ZD2) (optional; see text)
and tack one lead in place, then sol- 2 1N4148 small signal diodes (D1,D2)
der the remaining leads. Despite their Capacitors
small size, the leads are well spread 1 100nF 100V MKT 1 1nF 100V MKT
around the part, so they are quite easy Resistors (all 1/4W 1% axial metal film)
to solder. 3 220kW 3 100kW 1 10kW 2 470W
Place the three capacitors next; they
are near the top of the PCB. Use a sim-
ilar technique of soldering one lead at A header can be added to the top of the Logger
a time. The remaining parts are much PCB, as shown, to allow in-circuit programming.
easier to solder and have larger pads. This header can also provide power to a Mini
Follow with the resistors, then clean Isolated Serial Link for connection to a
Battery Balancer (singular red wire).
up any excess flux with the solution
recommended by the flux manufac-
turer (or your favourite one).
Attaching it to the main board

Since the I/O Expander is designed
to mount directly to the Battery Multi
Logger PCB, shut down the Logger and
disassemble it. If you have a header fit-
ted to CON2, remove it and clean up
the pads to allow the I/O Expander to
be fitted.
Take the pairs of header pins and
sockets and plug them together. Install

them in their respective holes between Keep in mind what we mentioned Basic testing
the two PCBs, with the female head- before about solar panels and wind- You might like to test the I/O
ers on the Logger PCB and the male mills producing much higher voltages Expander and Switch Module at
headers on the I/O Expander PCB. than their nominal ratings. this point. Connect CON3 on the I/O
This will reduce the chance of exposed Next, fit the two 1N4148 diodes near Expander to CON4 on the Switch Mod-
connectors if the I/O Expander PCB is CON4, noting their polarity. ule. Connect G to COM, P0 to OFF and
removed. Follow with the two adjacent P1 to ON.
You can then clamp the two PCBs opto-isolators. Take care that their Now attach a 12V power source
together temporarily with a machine pin 1 markings align as shown in our between CON1 and CON3 on the
screw and nut (or tapped spacer). This photos. They both face the same way. Switch Module, with the negative ter-
will make them easier to solder. Refer Now install the two capacitors. As minal to CON3. Connect a multimeter
to the photos as a guide. mentioned earlier, C3 does not need to across the empty C3 pads; it should
Solder the headers in place, remove be fitted unless the default behaviour read about 1/3 of the supply voltage.
the temporary screw and reassemble needs to be changed, so it is not shown Shorting the CON6 pads on the
the stack, including the LCD. Instead in Fig.5. Switch Module should cause this
of fitting the machine screw in the After this, mount the three smaller to drop to 0V and stay there when
corner where the I/O Expander sits, transistors, Q1-Q3. Ensure that they released. Similarly, shorting CON5’s
use the extra spacer and the longer align to their footprints, and push them pads will cause the voltage to revert
machine screw to secure everything down as close to the PCB as possible to 1/3 supply.
against the tapped spacer fitted to the before soldering. Using the SOFT SWITCH page on
back of the LCD. Follow with the larger transistors. the Battery Manager, you can press the
If you are not fitting all of them, fit green button next to TR0 and TR1 to
Switch Module assembly those closest to CON1 and CON2 in toggle the state via the I/O Expander.
The Switch Module is built on a PCB matching pairs. For example, if you Keep in mind that the software has
coded 11104211 which measures 81.5 only need four Mosfets to handle your been configured with some defaults
x 82.5mm and uses all through-hole load current, put them in the spots to suit a 12V battery, and these will
parts. Its overlay diagram is shown marked Q4-Q7. be active when the Battery Manager
in Fig.5. Start by fitting the resistors For each transistor, bend its leads is first powered up.
according to the markings on the PCB. back 90° around 7mm from where If all this is correct, then the I/O
It’s best to check their values with a they meet the body. Insert the leads Expander and Switch Module are
multimeter to ensure you have the cor- through the PCB and fix the tab in working correctly. Your wiring from
rect components. place with the machine screw, washer here will depend on your application,
Follow with the two zener diodes. and nut. Take care not to twist the but consider that CON1 and CON2 are
Neither of these are necessary for transistors, which might bend the the switch terminals.
systems that operate up to around leads. Ideally, you should have a fuse and
25V, as there are unlikely to be volt- Once aligned with its footprint, sol- separate switch to the battery circuit
ages high enough to cause damage to der and trim the leads. The large cop- feeding the Switch Module to protect
Mosfets, although it’s a good idea to per pour will draw heat from your iron, it in the event of a fault.
fit ZD1 to protect the Mosfets. ZD2 so use a higher temperature if neces- So take care that you don’t connect
is only needed for systems that go sary. We’ve added some thermal relief something that can cause damage or
over 60V. on the PCB to help with this. be affected by unplanned switching.
You might like to leave this until later,
Fig.5: the Switch after you have configured the Battery
Module uses all
through-hole
Manager.
components and is Note the holes in the corner of the
easy to assemble. PCB, which are designed to take M3
Watch the orientation machine screws, allowing the Soft
of OPTO1 & OPTO2 Switch modules to be mounted in an
and the diodes. You enclosure. For example, you could fit
can install fewer than them to the interior of the same panel
eight Mosfets if your as the Battery Manager.
load draws less than
20A; just make sure to Battery Balancer interface
fit them in pairs (Q4 &
Q5; Q6 & Q7 etc). The
You need four wires to connect the
load can be connected Battery Balancer to the Battery Man-
either via the two-way ager if using the Mini Isolated Serial
screw terminal, or eye Link, or three if you are not. The fourth
lugs bolted to CON1 & wire is to power the isolator.
CON2. Revision E and later of the Battery
Multi Logger PCB has pads breaking
out the three connections at CON6.
For power, you will need to tap into
the 3.3V supply, and the best place

for this will be at the Battery Manag- go to pin 22 of the IC for RX and pin Balancer PCB (as in Fig.7), it will not
er’s CON2 (which also connects to the 21 for TX. hide the LEDs, although it will slightly
I/O Expander’s CON1). If CON6 is missing, the ground con- overhang the PCB edge. The photo on
If you have an earlier PCB, then the nection can be taken from pin 2 of the page 71 shows the Link fitted to the
only way to tap into the serial data LCD header or the middle pin (pin 3) Balancer in this fashion.
pins (Micromite pins 21 and 22) is to of CON2, the ICSP header. Due to space constraints, there is no
solder directly to the pins at the IC. The preferred arrangement, using 3.3V connection on CON6, so the best
It’s not easy, but it is not much harder the Mini Isolated Serial Link, is shown option is to take this from pin 2 of the
than soldering the SOIC parts in the in Fig.7. Jumpers JP1 and JP2 on the ICSP header. If you lack CON6, then
first place. Isolator board are set to the 5V posi- taking the ground connection from the
Figs.6 & 7 show the wiring required. tion, which means it takes power from adjacent pin 3 is a good choice.
Fig.6 depicts how a direct connection the pin adjacent to ground. Similarly, the TX and RX signals are
would be made, while Fig.7 shows the Since the Battery Balancer has taken from CON6 or the microcontrol-
wiring via a Mini Isolated Serial Link. been designed to have the Mini Iso- ler pins directly, as shown.
Note how in both cases, the wires lated Serial Link directly attached, it While setting up these connections,
appear to go to two points on the Bat- makes sense to do this, as it matches you might also like to solder a five-way
tery Logger PCB at left. They only that configuration. Then run the four header to either CON2 of the Battery
need to go to one. If CON6 is present wires back to the Battery Multi Log- Logger or CON1 of the I/O Expander
(on Revision E boards or later), then ger PCB. to regain the in-circuit programming
use those connections. Otherwise, If the Mini Isolated Serial Link is (ICSP) capability. All the things we
use the dashed alternatives. These fitted upside-down to the Battery have hanging from these pins only
Fig.6: only one of each colour of wire is needed, but we’ve shown two options for each, so you can choose a suitable way
to connect the two boards. The dashed wires are only needed if you have an early revision of the PCB that lacks CON6.
While the boards are notionally at the same ground potential, it wouldn’t hurt to add series resistors, but Fig.7 shows an
even better option.
Fig.7: the preferred method of joining the Battery Multi Logger to our Battery Balancer is via a Mini Isolated Serial Link
module. The module needs to be supplied with 3.3V on each side; ensure that the jumper links on the Serial Link are set
to the 5V positions, as shown (which actually corresponds to 3.3V in this case).

Screen 2: the SOFT take power and ground connections,
SWITCH page shows so they should not affect program-
the trigger states and ming.
thresholds. Pressing But you may have to power the
the buttons allows the board from USB instead of the pro-
triggers’ operation to
be tested and triggers
grammer during ICSP programming,
to be manually reset, if as the programmer might not be able
this form of operation is to provide sufficient current.
preferred. Reassemble anything you have
taken apart during this construction.
Then power up the Battery Logger and
its connected peripherals.
Using it
With everything configured, we can
explore the new screens. Screen 1 is
Screen 3: each trigger the updated Main screen, with two
is configured on its new buttons and a display for the sta-
EDIT TRIGGER page, tus of the triggers.
including its thresholds. If your battery is above 12.5V, you
The page displays the
should see Trigger 1 in red. Or if your
switches it drives and
the other triggers it will battery is below 11V, then Trigger 0
reset. might have tripped.
Press the Trigger button to see
Screen 2. This is an overview of the
triggers, with one displayed on each
line. Each trigger has a parameter
and threshold that it monitors; these
are displayed as in Screen 2. When a
parameter reaches its threshold, the
trigger is tripped and will show a red
TRIP button instead of a green OK
Screen 4: pressing the button. The trigger cannot trip again
SWITCHES button on until it is reset.
the EDIT TRIGGER On each trip event, any combination
page allows the
SWITCH OUTPUTs
of switches can be activated. These
to be set. You can get switches correspond to Soft Switch
an idea of the unit’s inputs, and the software delivers a
operation from the pulse via the I/O Expander to the cor-
example configuration responding switches.
we have provided. Each trip event can also reset any
other trigger, allowing alternate action
as two triggers track a variable between
the two hysteresis points, as demon-
strated by the default settings for TR0
and TR1.
This is only one way it can be used.
Each trigger could be set to require a
Screen 5: the RESET manual reset or could even reset mul-
TRIGGERs are set
tiple triggers.
similarly. All the
changes made to these The page shown in Screen 2 lets you
(and other trigger- manually trip and reset each trigger for
related) settings are testing. Each press toggles between the
saved on exit from the tripped and reset states.
SOFT SWITCH page. Pressing the button (such as TR0
for Trigger 0) takes you to Screen 3,
which has more settings. The TRIP
and RESET buttons work as you would
expect. The various buttons labelled
V and I allow the threshold variable
and condition to be set.
CLEAR removes any threshold,
meaning the trigger will not activate

automatically. The THRESHOLD+ Screen 6: the
button sets a positive value, while the BALANCER CONTROL
THRESHOLD- button is used to set a page is accessed from
negative value. This is useful for cur- the MAIN screen, and
rent thresholds; the Battery Manager shows the current cell
voltages and Balancer
cannot measure negative voltages. operating mode. Buttons
Finally, the SWITCHES and RESETS are provided to issue
buttons allow setting of the actions that control commands to
result from each trigger. the Balancer, assuming
Screen 4 shows the switch controls; it is connected and
these correspond to the P0-P7 outputs communicating.
on the I/O Expander, while Screen 5
shows the reset controls, which cor-
respond to the triggers.
All parameters are saved to flash
memory when you press BACK from
the Trigger overview page seen in Screen 7: the
Screen 2. This provides a good com- BALANCER HISTORY
promise between usability and flash page shows the recent
wear. operation of the
Balancer, including
Balancer menu which cells are being
balanced and in which
From the Main page, pressing the direction.
Balancer button goes to the BAL-
ANCER CONTROL page, as seen in
Screen 6. The two columns of buttons
at left will send commands to the Bat-
tery Balancer to move charge between
specific cells and the entire stack.
The rate at which this happens is set
by the third column, with options of
25%, 50%, 75% and 100%; the cur-
rently selected value is highlighted. Screen 8: similarly,
Similarly, the PAUSE and RESUME the CELL V HISTORY
buttons send commands to the Battery shows the relative cell
voltages (to Cell 1). The
Balancer to pause or resume balancing. button at bottom left
The data displayed at the top of the allowing easy toggling
screen is taken from the Balancer in between these last two
real time. pages.
The GRAPH button goes to the page
shown in SCREEN7, which shows the
relative flow in and out of each cell.
Around 100 data points are stored,
and these are updated in time with
the logging software’s 10-second cycle.
Thus around 15 minutes of balanc-
ing data is available. It is only stored
in RAM, so it is erased if power loss
occurs. The screen does not automat-
ically refresh; you need to press the We expect many people will have dif- modular in construction. We wouldn’t
Refresh button. ferent requirements regarding what be surprised if some people use the I/O
Pressing the ‘Cell V’ button changes they will control and how they will Expander or Switch Module in unre-
the graph to display the individual cell connect things to the Battery Manager. lated projects.
voltages measured by the Balancer. Indeed we expect many people Some people may not need the Bat-
The chart is centred on the current bot- will be adding the Battery Manager tery Balancer add-on, especially those
tom cell voltage, as this will always be to an existing battery installation, per- with 12V batteries that don't require
present. The graph spans 1V from top haps in a car, caravan or boat. And it balancing.
to bottom, allowing cell voltage varia- becomes a relatively simple addition Both the I/O Expander and Switch
tions to be easily seen. to such a system. Module will work fine with 3.3V and
In fact, there are so many features 5V logic levels, so could be used on
Battery Manager in the improved Battery Manager that their own (or together) with other
Thus we have updated the Battery readers may not even wish to add all of microcontrollers such as Arduino or
Multi Logger to the Battery Manager. them. But this is easy, as it is entirely Micromite. SC

CIRCUIT NOTEBOOK
Interesting circuit ideas which we have checked but not built and tested. Contributions will be
paid for at standard rates. All submissions should include full name, address & phone number.
Portable amplifier built from modules The other two modules I used are a
12V-powered MP3 decoder board with
One of the things I like about Silicon not find a voltage regulator chip on the Bluetooth, USB, SD card and FM radio
Chip is that some of the articles pub- board, so I tested the amplifier at lower support. It also came with a remote
lished give me ideas for future appli- voltages and found that it worked with- control, and cost just $6. The remote
cations. A good example of this is the out any apparent problems. control allows for input selection and
El Cheapo article on Class D amplifier With that in mind, I used this ampli- volume control.
modules (May 2019; siliconchip.com. fier board, in conjunction with two Earlier versions of these MP3
au/Article/11614). Several problems other modules, to make up a radio, decoder boards were sold as running
about the particular amplifier described Bluetooth and MP3 player that is pow- from 5V, so would need a regulator in
were identified in that article. ered from a nominally 11.1V Li-ion my circuit. But later ones are rated to
I searched online for a better unit, battery pack. The pack I used con- run from a voltage as high as 12V, and
and found a TPA3116D2-based 2x50W tains nine 18650 cells arranged in a still work well at lower voltages.
+ 1x100W power amplifier for less 3S3P configuration (three sets of three I also bought an 18650/26650 Li-ion
than $20, including delivery. The lay- paralleled cells connected in series). battery tester, which shows the battery
out of the components on the board I bought this second-hand, and it has voltage and load current, for just $10.
was different from the one shown in built-in cell protection and equalisa- I decided to incorporate it in my unit
the article; I suspect it is an improved tion modules. It can be charged using to make checking the status of the bat-
version. It seems to have none of the a standard 12V DC, 1A regulated plug- tery pack easy.
problems described in the article. pack. That charges each cell to 4.0V, I mounted all these components
The specifications for this amp quote which is close enough to full charge (battery, amplifier, MP3/Bluetooth/FM
a working voltage of 12-24V, but the voltage (4.2V) for my needs. module and voltage display) inside a
data sheet for the TPA3116D2 IC shows large ABS plastic box I bought from
that it will work down to 4.5V. I could Jaycar.
I added speaker connectors stripped
from a dead amplifier so that external
speakers could be easily connected. I
sourced some speakers from my local
op shop for $2 each, and the sound
isn’t too bad. With the battery between
9-11V most of the time, it can be wound
up far too loud for an average room.
Larger (and better) speakers can be
connected to improve the sound qual-
ity, making it into a portable outdoor
unit with a lot of grunt.
I sourced the on/off switch and
5.5mm DC charging socket from Jaycar.
The internal wiring is quite straight-
forward, as you can see from the cir-
cuit diagram. I used hot-melt glue and
a mixture of nuts and machine screws
for a quick and straightforward build.
I gave the finished device to my
granddaughter as a Christmas pres-
ent in 2019. It has worked flawlessly
for the last eight months, and she has
only had to charge the battery four
times! She tells me she charges the bat-
tery when it stops working. She usu-
ally connects her mobile phone using
Bluetooth, but occasionally uses other
input methods.
Sid Lonsdale,
Whitfield, Qld. ($100)

The MP3 decoder/FM module ►
incorporates the display. While most
current versions of this module are
powered from 12V, earlier versions
used 5V and so a separate regulator
is needed. The amplifier controls
(below the display) are from left-right:
left/right channel volume; subwoofer
adjustment; total volume control.
The amplifier is the smaller device

►
sitting below the twin JVC speakers.
Larger speakers (up to 50W) can
easily be used if needed.
A close-up of the display of the ►

18650/26650 Li-ion battery tester
module. It displays the battery voltage
and load current.
The internals of the portable amplifier are shown above at larger than actual size. The power amplifier module measures
approximately 100 x 85mm and is sold for about $20 including postage online. Note that this TPA3116D2-based module
has a power-on artifact which induces a pop noise on all speakers even when muted.

Frequency meter with non-contact mains reading
This circuit provides a frequency measured is 6MHz with 16MHz crys- presence of the live wire while a sig-
meter, a non-contact AC mains fre- tal X1 as a reference. nal around 50Hz is picked up.
quency indicator and a live wire detec- When switch S2 is set to MAINS Switch S3 is used only in the mains
tor in one package. It is helpful for FREQUENCY mode, one of its poles frequency mode, to set the mains
locating the breaks in a wire. It will connects output pin 12 (O0) of divider pickup sensitivity. With S3 set to low,
also identify the phase wire of the IC1 to the pin 6 (PD4) input of IC2. The it only indicates detection at 46-51Hz,
mains plugs or switches by flashing other pole connects input pin 5 (PD3) while in the “high” position, this is
a single LED, producing sound on a of IC2 to ground. extended to 6-51Hz.
piezo sounder and displaying its fre- The software configures this pin to The high setting should be used for
quency on the LCD. have a pull-up current, so it will shift checking for the presence of mains.
The circuit is based on a 4024 rip- from a high to low voltage when the The low setting can be used to pin-
ple counter used as a sensing ele- S2 contacts close. In MAINS FRE- point the broken point of a live wire
ment frequency divider, an ATmega8 QUENCY mode, the micro detects while scanning it, or for detecting the
microcontroller and a 16x2 alphanu- this, displaying “Mains Freq.” on the phase wire on a plug or switch.
meric LCD. After assembling, the cir- LCD screen. To avoid electric shocks, there
cuit must be enclosed in a plastic box The 150mm-long insulated wire should be no physical contact between
with the insulated antenna extending serves as an antenna that is tied to the the antenna (insulated wire) and the
outside. clock input (pin 1) of IC1 through a live wire, cord or cable while they
When DPDT switch S2 is in the FRE- 1MW resistor and 1N4148 signal diode. are being scanned and checked out
QUENCY INPUT position, it connects Once the antenna is brought close by this unit.
pin 6 (digital input PD4) of the micro (within 1-10cm) to an electrical cord This can be achieved by fully insu-
to the external frequency measurement or cable, the mains AC signal clocks lating the open end of the wire, or
socket, CON1. The signal fed in will IC1 and the IC divides the mains fre- possibly even looping it back into the
need to have positive peaks of at least quency by two and produces a signal plastic box housing the unit (but not
3V to give accurate measurements. at output pin 12 (O0). connecting it anywhere).
The software uses both Timer0 The micro (IC2) measures the fre- The unit is powered by a 9V battery,
and Timer1 for frequency measure- quency and displays the mains fre- switched by S1 and dropped to 5V by
ments. Timer0 operates as a counter, quency on the LCD. At the same linear regulator REG1 to power the ICs.
while Timer1 is employed as a time time, LED1 flashes and the piezo pro- Mahmood Alimohammadi,
reference. The maximum frequency duces an alarm sound to indicate the Tehran, Iran. ($80)

Aug ust
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rear SAVE $10
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2 For
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SAVE $19 with Wi-Fi sockets.
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off remotely from anywhere in the world.
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Lighting Kit
This kit includes 5m of RGB strip
lighting, power supply, controller
$ 75 .95 Music sensor
can trigger
lights to the
New twist adjustab
le version
unit and IR remote control allowing beat!

Great way you to create colourful lighting
to monitor effects around your home. Get a crisp close up view
your health at Controller features a music sensor Adjustable 5x-7x magnifier with LED
TGA Approved. home input allowing the lighting to trigger backlight. Great for reading fine print
and hobbies etc. Includes case and
Home Blood Pressure Monitor to music being played in the room.
batteries.
A must have for anyone over 50 years old! Save on doctors vis- Great for home entertaining.
its. This handy meter records your measurements so you can mon- Works with Alexa and Google
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Stores readings for 2 people. Requires 4xAA batteries. per metre.
Build Desk Mount

$ 50 SAVE
27% wireless $ 89 SAVE
$40 USB Laptop
SAVE 20%
D 2322
charging into
your desk
Charger
A 96W USB type C char-
$ 27
T 2185A
An ultra-slim desk ger, plus dual QC 3.0 USB
mount 10W wire- charging in the one com- 48pc Compact Driver Kit
less fast charger. Charges pact near flush mount unit. An aluminium driver handle with 48
a laptop, a Charges multiple devices 4mm bits to open and repair all types of
Requires 60mmØ phone & tablet
hole. Includes at the same at once. Requires 60mmØ devices. Housed in an ultra slimline alum-
power adaptor & time! mounting hole. Includes inium casing. Great for field repairs. See
D 2323 power supply. web for full kit contents.
USB cable.
Order online @ altronics.com.au | Sale pricing ends August 31st 2021.

Upgrade your tool kit.
No gas
required!
Recharges in
3.5hrs SAVE $30
T 2690A
$ 95 High Output
Blow Torch
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45 minute run time. 600°C max. Ideal for occasional soldering jobs flame with high output
or light duty repairs and field servicing. Recharge by USB power adaptor SAVE $60
nozzle. Handheld or self
109
in your car or at home - also recharges from a battery bank. Includes standing design for tasks
replaceable 18650 battery. such as heatshrinking, $
model making, silver Micron® 60W T 2417
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An excellent multi purpose soldering iron for service tech-
nicians, schools, engineers, R&D, production work etc.
magnification with LED lamp.
Requires 2xAAA batteries. $ 60 Japanese long life ceramic element. 150°-480°C. 0.8mm
tip. 2 year warranty.
T 2555 T 2496
VE!
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THIS MON TH ON
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IDEAL
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SAVE 22% SAVE 16% SAVE $50 SAVE 16% SAVE $26
$ 30 $37 .95 $49 $119 $ 75 $ 99
Do-It-All Multimeter
All-Rounder 19 Range DMM Handy Auto Water & Dustproof 800A AC & DC With in-built AC mains detection.
Student DMM With in-built AC mains Ranging DMM True RMS Multimeter Clamp Meter This is one of the best DMMs we have
The perfect beginner, student detection. Featuring true Simplicity & functionality in Top of the range! Ideal for Safe and easy measurement evaluated when it comes to build
or enthusiast multimeter. 12 RMS measurement, transistor one compact test device. marine & mining techs. • True of AC & DC voltage/current. quality and features. Its perfect for the
auto ranging test modes with and diode testing and backlit 10A DC current. 1Hz-30MHz RMS measurement • 40MHz freq. In-built non contact voltage serious enthusiast or tradesperson
good accuracy and an easy display. Rugged casing for counter. Includes test leads counter with bar graph • Max/min detection indicates live AC • LCD bargraph • 3.75 digit display
to read jumbo 4000 count added protection in the field. & temp probe. Great for stu- recording • Capacitance to 40mF. wiring. Includes test probes, • Mode assistance indicators.
screen. Includes test leads. Q 1126A dents! Q 1133A • Temperature with thermocouple. temperature probe & carry • Includes case, temp probe &
Q 1129 Q 1088 case. Q 0965A insulated test leads. Q 1068
SAVE $60
Battery
NEW! Health $ 139
Analyser Q 2120
Detects and analy-
ses voltage, cold
Q 3004 cranking amperes,
$12.95 $ 16.95 $13.95 $ 39.95 X 6015

resistance and cell
condition in 12V
lead acid cells.
Q 3001A Q 3000A
12V Alternator Tester Sheath Piercing Standard OBD II Bluetooth Scanner Easy connection
Provides quick and easy way to test Connects your car via Bluetooth to and operation.
alternator/charging system function in Handy Automotive Voltage Probes your smartphone to provide a wealth Ideal for vehicle
12V vehicles. Provides instantly whether A handy tool for troubleshooting wiring faults of diagnostic information. Monitor servicing or check-
your alternator output is the problem or in vehicles and wiring looms. 6-24VDC range. performance in real time! It works with a ing 12V SLA cells in
your battery is in poor condition. Standard probe or sheath piercing versions. number of OBDII compatible apps. backup systems.

Power up for Spring.
M 8193
SAVE $50
Table Lamp With
$ 199 Wireless Charger
A stylish glossy white table lamp
with adjustable dimming, colour
*Device shown for illustration purposes.

& USB charging!
Keeps devices charged with wireless temperature & wireless charging. M 8636A
Great for the desk or bedside table. Don’t get a
h
Powered by any USB wall charger - caught wit y! SAVE $10
flat batterwer
39.95
2A minimum (M 8862A $13.95).
Know your po
usage. $
NEW!
A great
Portable Battery Bank Jump Starter

$ 39 .95 bedside or
study lamp Powerhouse® Watt Meter 130A
Perfect for measuring input and output currents and wattage
An all round portable charging device - plus vehicle jump starter! X 4221 from solar panels or batteries. This digital wattmeter
Not just for car battery emergencies, this high capacity battery bank accurately measures DC power usage. Display measures
also wirelessly charges your phone, powers laptops and other devices. volts, watts and amps in real-time. Peak current 200A.
Jumpstarts most 4-6 cylinder vehicles.
N 2023 SAVE 20%
$ 63
SAVE $26 SAVE $54

SAVE $65
Pure AC $119 $215
Output
Power! $ 150
M 8010A 150VA
M 8534A
6/12V 4.5A
M 8536A
12V 10A
NEW:
Now suits LiFePo4,
lead acid & calcium
type batteries!
Get the most from your solar
Multi-Stage Vehicle Battery Chargers panels with an MPPT regulator
Power mains appliances on the road! Each model utilises a microprocessor to ensure your This MPPT regulator employs special circuitry
• Delivers pure AC power from your car battery • Ideal for tricky loads, such battery is maintained in tip-top condition whenever you need it. Helps to gain up to 20% additional charge from your
as laptops, & game consoles • USB charging output • 12V input to extend battery service life. Suitable for permanent connection. Great existing solar panels. Suits 12 or 24V sys-
• 300W surge rated, 170x108x60mm for caravans & seldom used vehicles. Weatherproof casing. tems. Easy to set up and connect yourself.
NEW!
Anderson Style
& Car Accessory
$42.95 Corner Mounts
P 8073
Plate
A handy connection
for 4WD &
NEW!
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campers.
60Wx75Hx
42Dmm.
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Pins Part ONLY HALF PRICE! P 7811
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95
2 Pin P 7892
$
IP67 Dust
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3 Pin P 7893 $11.95
L 1045 P 7869
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4 Pin P 7894 $17.95 Volt & Current Meter
Proof DC
Conectors 6 Pin P 7896 $19.95 for off-grid power.
NEW!
$ 26.95 P 8067 Side Mounts
55cm End Mounts
P 8069
Provides volts and amperes readout for $12 .95
Great for automotive wiring - requires no caravans, RVs and off-grid solar remote ABS ‘No Drill’ Solar Panel Mounts
special crimpers to terminate! Use a standard power installs. A 100A shunt box Easy Wire Anderson Style Plug These tough surface mount brackets offer a way to mount
automotive crimper, pliers or solder terminate. connects directly between the battery Simple screw connection - no need for solar panels without penetrating the roof of the caravan or
14A rated. and the load. 12V systems only. crimping lugs. 8AWG max cable size. boat. They can be attached using a silastic or similar adhesive.
Model Type NEW!

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P 2173 Single M8 Black $10.95 S 2750
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P 2176 Dual M8 Black $12.95 $ 27 $ 23
$59.95
P 2182 Single M10 Red $10.95 Bar Graph Dual Battery
DC Power Distribution Posts
P 0693 P 0692 3 Way Breaker & Switch Panel
High current DC power distribution
P 2183 Single M10 Black $10.95 LED Volt Meter Monitor Features 3 x 20A 12V DC rated switches
posts with reinforced nylon base (bolt P 2177 Dual M10 Red $14.95 5-15V DC range. Ideal for 6-30V DC range. Aux & with red illuminated with individual 15A
monitoring auxiliary batter- Primary battery displays. DC breakers. Dimensions:
head is encapsulated). 48V DC max. P 2179 Dual M10 Black $14.95 ies. 29mm mounting hole. 29mm mounting hole. 114W x 96H x 60Dmm.

More great gadgets.
Attach your S 9843B Upgrade your old
camera SAVE $30 battery bank to
anywhere! faster charging!
Great for phones,
GoPro cameras and
$ 169
small digital cameras,
HOT PRICE! this handy flexible
39.95
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D 0507B
Go Anywhere Tunes
D 2038 face - even wrap itself
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version also available
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Dynalink® BT5.0 Can Speaker D2213 $39.95.
Cable Free Wi-Fi Camera Ultra Slim QC3.0/USB C
ing This handy 1080p camera can be Power Bank
The outdoor entertainer! Pump up the tunes with Includes remote for tak installed just about anywhere indoors Offering both QuickCharge
this nifty little speaker offering 3-4 hours listening selfies & TikTok videos or out and has an in-built battery so you 3.0 charging and 18W USB-C
time with great audio quality thanks to Bluetooth don’t need to run any cables! Offers 4-6 PD output, this pocket size
5.0. Pairs to a second unit using True Wireless
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D 2212* via USB. Suits sheltered outdoor use.
el -
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wireless charger and portable S 9455A
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PRICE! Top up your batteries with solar power.
European adaptors, plus carry This compact 5W solar panel is designed for keeping your vehicle
case. *Phone for illustration batteries topped up when parked - ideal for seldom used vehicles.
purposes.
Croc clip or car accessory plug. Suits permanent outdoor install.
Weather
resistant!
Answer the door
C 9033A when you’re not home!
SAVE 24% Wi-Fi Video Doorbell with Tuya SAVE 20%
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smartphone app control and 2 way
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Take quick notes T 2237 your wi-fi and notifies your mobile phone The ultimate X 0225A
while you work Bargain True when a person arrives at your doorstep.
camping, fishing, anything light!
Write a reminder, take a phone message or Wireless Earbuds. Great for telling the postie where to put
Provides 5 hours use from a high performance lithium battery.
leave a note for your family with our handy Quality Bluetooth 5.0 sound and packages. • Security camera mode
Folds flat for easy storage and recharges from any USB mains or
eWriter LCD board. Ultra thin, portable de- range. Includes charging case with • Motion detect notification • Includes
car charger. It can even recharge your phone from its battery!
sign is also great for kids to draw on. digital power readout. Up to 3 hours power supply and indoor doorbell ringer unit.
10W, 1000 lumens.
Size: 226x146mm. listening time per charge.
ebay.com.au/str/altronicsaustralia
Shop with us on
+ Pay in 4 easy installments with AfterPay® on eBay.
Western Australia Victoria

» Perth: 174 Roe St 08 9428 2188 » Springvale: 891 Princes Hwy 03 9549 2188
» Joondalup: 2/182 Winton Rd 08 9428 2166 » Airport West: 5 Dromana Ave 03 9549 2121
» Balcatta: 7/58 Erindale Rd 08 9428 2167 New South Wales
Build It Yourself Electronics Centres » Cannington: 5/1326 Albany Hwy 08 9428 2168 » Auburn: 15 Short St 02 8748 5388
» Midland: 1/212 Gt Eastern Hwy 08 9428 2169 Queensland
Sale Ends August 31st 2021 » Myaree: 5A/116 N Lake Rd 08 9428 2170 » Virginia: 1870 Sandgate Rd 07 3441 2810
Phone: 1300 797 007 Fax: 1300 789 777 South Australia
Mail Orders: mailorder@altronics.com.au » Prospect: 316 Main Nth Rd 08 8164 3466
Find a local reseller at: altronics.com.au/storelocations/dealers/
Please Note: Resellers have to pay the cost of freight & insurance. Therefore the range of stocked products & prices charged by individual resellers may vary from our catalogue.
B 0092
© Altronics 2021. E&OE. Prices stated herein are only valid until date shown or until stocks run out. Prices include GST and exclude freight and insurance. See latest catalogue for freight rates.
*All smartphone devices pictured in this catalogue are for illustration purposes only. Not included with product.

PRODUCT SHOWCASE
Infrared dynamic gesture sensor from Maxim
The MAX25405 optical sensor from signal-to-noise ratio. The improved saving significant space.
Maxim uses infrared to recognise a performance doubles the sensing The MAX25405 IC and associated
variety of gestures (swipe, rotation range. This allows the other passengers MAX25405EVKIT# evaluation kit are
etc). The MAX25405 has a sensing in a car to use gesture-sensing enter- available now from Maxim Integrated
range up to 40cm, which makes it opti- tainment displays. and authorised distributors.
mal for use in automotive applications The MAX25405’s small 20-pin, For more information about Maxim
such as car head units. 4x4x1.35mm QFN package comes Integrated’s MAX25405 gesture sensor,
Along with integrated optics and together with four discrete LEDs, which visit http://bit.ly/MAX25405Product
a 6x10 infrared sensor array, the ends up 75% smaller than comparable
MAX25405 includes a glass lens which time-of-flight (ToF) camera-based solu- Maxim Integrated
increases sensitivity and improves the tions. It replaces multi-IC solutions, www.maximintegrated.com/en.html
Digi-Key launches myLists management system

Digi-Key Electronics announced Other features also include: • Move a part’s position on the list
that it has launched a consolidated • Organise column order and data, up and down or to a specific row
list management system, myLists, to and download it in a file Visit www.digikey.com/en/mylists/
streamline customers’ BOM Manager, • Differentiate lists and those shared to find out more.
price and availability, and favourites with the user into two views
into one. • Add tags to assist with list man- Digi-Key Electronics
Digi-Key is introducing myLists to agement Phone: 1800 285 719
make it easier for customers to manage • Request pricing on six different Web: www.digikey.com.au/
their lists all in one place. quantities per part
In addition to providing greater • Update filter options on the parts
convenience, myLists has over 15 list Free online courses for
features to benefit Digi-Key custom- • Define list preferences for part
ers. The most notable features are an packaging: CT/TR or DKR/TR
embedded control
attrition calculator to plan for overages • Set preferences to manage quanti- Microchip University offers free
that account for parts lost or damaged ties that do not meet requirements online courses for embedded con-
during manufacturing, upload up to • Access to new data such as ECCN, trol engineers. Learn about general
1000 line items per list, list view cus- HTSUS, country of origin and embedded control topics as well
tomisation, and alternatives suggested environmental information as Microchip, Atmel & Microsemi
in-line for parts when available. • Add notes to a part products.
Classes are taught by the same
New products from Mouser Electronics engineers who create the products.
Topics covered include:
In April, Mouser launched 3,069 temperatures and vibrations. Appli- • Using MPLAB® Code
new parts. Some of these new com- cations include wire-to-wire, panel/ Configurator (MCC)
ponents include: bulkhead mount, engine, chassis and • Embedded Linux®
Texas Instruments TMS570LS1227 automation. • Using Core Independent
16/32-Bit RISC flash micro ROHM semiconductor Peripherals (CIPs)
The TI TMS570LS1227 is ideal for BM6437xS-VA 600V IGBT modules • Motor Control
high-performance real-time control The BM6437xS-VA intelligent • Power Supply Design
applications where safety is critical. power modules (IPMs) integrate gate • Security
The microcontroller family provides drivers, bootstrap diodes, IGBTs and • IoT
advanced safety architecture that flywheel diodes. • FPGAs
includes dual CPUs in lockstep, CPU It has a collector current range of • Analog System Design
and memory BIST logic, ECC on both 15-35A and works as a 3-phase DC/ • Communication (USB,
the flash and the data SRAM, and many AC inverter. Bluetooth® and TCP/IP)
more features. To see more of New Product Insider New classes will be added every
TE Connectivity NTSEAL highlights, visit www.mouser.com/ month. Visit www.microchip.com/
20-position connectors newproductinsider/ mu to register.
TE’s NTSEAL 20-position connec-
tors provide flexible, robust wire-to- Mouser Electronics Inc. Microchip Technology Inc.
wire connectivity in a compact format Phone: (852) 3756 4700 www.microchip.com
for harsh environments with extreme Web: www.mouser.com

Using Cheap Asian Electronic Modules By Jim Rowe
USB-PD Triggers,
Decoys & Testers
Left-to-right: the FNC88, WITRN UPD005, ZY12PDN-1 & XY-WPDT
Following on from the article last month on USB-PD charging modules,

we shall now examine some of the many low-cost PD trigger/decoy and
tester modules that have appeared recently. These allow you to take full
advantage of the USB-PD chargers’ capabilities and use them as versatile
and efficient power supplies.
A PD trigger is an interface circuit

that can manage the negotiating
protocols necessary to request the
available in three versions, which dif-
fer only in their output connector or
lack thereof. Instead of the screw ter-
from the USB-C PD host, and an RGB
LED to indicate the selected voltage/
power level.
required voltage and current levels minal block of the ZY12PDN-3, the When the ZY12PDN is first con-
from a USB-PD supply, as described ZY12PDN-2 has a USB Type-A socket, nected to the PD host, the LED glows
last month. As soon as it is con- while the ZY12PDN-1 has no output red to indicate the default 5V supply
nected to a USB-PD compatible host, connector at all. voltage. If you then press the button,
it engages with the host via the CC1 The trigger circuitry on the PCB uses it will attempt to select a 9V supply. If
or CC2 channels to achieve the volt- two main chips: an STM32F030F4P6 the PD host has this voltage available,
age and current levels that are needed microcontroller and a PBAFH device, it will switch its output to 9V, and the
– assuming these are available. which is likely the USB physical layer LED will change to yellow.
Some of these modules are also interface. If you press the pushbutton again,
known as “decoy” or “poll detectors”. There’s also a small pushbutton this will attempt to change the sup-
These terms all seem to mean much switch that can be used to select the ply voltage to 12V. If the PD host has
the same thing as PD trigger. voltage and power level required this voltage available, it will switch its
Another variant combines the func-
tions of a trigger/decoy module with
those of a USB-PD digital meter, so it The ZY12PDN-3
PD trigger,
can display the available or selected
shown enlarged
voltage(s) and current(s). for clarity. There
We’ll start by looking at the small- are two other
est, simplest and cheapest of the trig- versions of this
ger modules. module with
either a USB
ZY12PDN-3 “naked” PD trigger Type-A socket
The ZY12PDN-3 module is tiny, as or no connector
you can see from the photos. Every- fitted instead
thing is mounted on a PCB measuring of the screw
terminal block.
just 30 x 15mm, with the USB-C input
socket at one end and a small two-way
screw terminal block at the other end
as the power output.
The ZY12PDN trigger module is

voltages you can request and has no plug at one end or the USB-C socket
provision for taking advantage of PPS at the other end as the power source,
‘fine tuning’. But if you just need the with the opposite end connected to
ability to manually select one of the the ‘sink’ device.
main PD voltage levels, it is a good This also means that the FNC88 can
choice. For example, you could use it be connected between a USB-C cable
in combination with a computer or USB and the USB-C connector of either a
charger as a very basic bench supply host or sink device.
to power something like a breadboard. On one side of the FNC88’s main
There are other ‘naked’ trigger mod- PCB, there’s a mini USB-C socket,
The WITRN ules available that are very similar to which extends its capabilities to mea-
UPD005 is an the ZY12PDN. One example is the suring the current drawn by devices
alternative to the WITRN UPD005 V20, available from with that type of USB connector. Then
ZY12PDN module. suppliers like Banggood for much the on the other (‘top’) side are three tiny
same price as the ZY12PDN. I obtained pushbutton switches, and an equally
output to 12V, and the LED will change one of these and tried it out, and it did small slider switch.
to green. Further button presses will the job just as well as the ZY12PDN. The slider switch is to enable or
change the voltage to 15V (light blue), disable the trigger’s USB-PD proto-
then 20V (dark blue) - assuming the FNC88 PD trigger col communicating ability, while the
host can supply these voltages. module & meter three pushbuttons are used to select
If the host doesn’t have one of the The FNC88 PD trigger is slightly the functions of the digital meter.
voltages you request, the LED will larger than the ZY12PDN, but not by The specified supply voltage range
glow purple, and the voltage will much, especially considering that it of the FNC88 is 4-24V, and its current
stay at the highest voltage which is also includes a digital meter. It mea- range extends from 0 to 5A, so it’s capa-
available. sures just 40 x 25 x 10mm, not includ- ble of dealing with all devices conform-
There’s also a ‘demo’ mode, where ing the USB-C input plug. And it’s not ing to the current USB-PD specification.
the LED glows white and the supply exactly ‘naked’ either, with a shield The voltage measurement resolution
voltage cycles through the available PCB mounted 3mm below the main and accuracy are specified as 0.1mV
levels at approximately 1Hz. PCB and a protective plastic sheet and ±(0.5% + 2LSD), while the current
If you plug the ZY12PDN into a host above the 24mm diagonal colour LCD measurement resolution and accuracy
port that does not support USB-PD screen. are specified as 0.1mA and ±(1% +
voltage and power negotiation, after It’s made by FNIRSI Technology in 2LSD). Quite impressive!
about four seconds, the LED will Shenzhen, China, and is available from Other features of the FNC88 include
flash blue to warn you that there is quite a few internet suppliers, includ- measurement and display of:
no USB-PD support. However, it will ing Banggood, for around US$25 plus • The power being drawn by the
still pass through the normal 5V VBUS delivery. sink device (0-150W, with a resolu-
power. It comes in a protective case with tion of 10mW).
So the ZY12PDN trigger module a clear window, measuring 90 x 62 • The charge delivered to a bat-
essentially provides the ability to man- x 18mm. This should make it sturdy tery over a known charging time
ually select the voltage from a USB-PD enough for portable use. (0-99,999.9mAh with a resolution of
power source. And it does this for a The FNC88 PD unit has USB-PD 0.1mAh).
cost of around $11-13, depending on bidirectional capability, and this also • The energy delivered to a battery
how many you order and from which applies to the built-in digital meter. or other sink device over a known
internet supplier. So PD triggering and measurements delivery time (0 - 9999.999Wh with a
So it’s a bit limited in terms of the can be made using either the USB-C resolution of 1mWh).
The front and rear view of the FNC88 module; you can just see the three function buttons at the bottom of the rear view,
along with the switch that connects the built-in PD chip to the CC1 pin.

front and rear panels around it using
the M2.5 screws and tapped spacers
provided.
When you complete the assembly,
the XY-WPDT measures a modest 61 x
25 x 11mm (not including the USB-C
plug protruding from its input end).
It’s only a little larger than the FNC88.
The main output is via a USB
Type-A socket at the opposite end
This side of the FNC88 module has a micro USB interface which is only used to
flash the firmware. of the unit to the USB-C input plug,
and the XY-WPDT comes with a
• The ability to record measure- A good example is the Riden TC66, 100mm-long output cable with a
ments over a period of 0-999 hours, 59 which is almost precisely the same Type-A plug at one end and a 2.5mm
minutes and 59 seconds with a reso- size as the FNC88 and very similar inner diameter concentric power con-
lution of one second and an accuracy in its functions and facilities. It’s nector at the other.
of 10 seconds/hour. available for much the same cost as There are also a couple of USB-C
The PD trigger section of the FNC88 the FNC88. sockets on the unit itself near the
supports these protocols: QC2.0, I have seen a suggestion on the USB-C input plug, one on each side,
QC3.0, FCP, SCP, AFC and PD 3.0. internet that the FNC88 might be a arranged so that the XY-WPDT can
Although the FNC88 does not come knock-off of the TC66, or vice versa. measure the voltage and current pass-
with any user operating manual, you See siliconchip.com.au/link/ab7m ing between them.
can download one as a PDF file from The specifications of the XY-WPDT
the FNIRSI website at siliconchip.com. The XY-WPDT trigger are not all that different from that of
au/link/ab7n unit & meter the FNC88. It can negotiate an output
I gave the FNC88 a quick rundown, Another USB-PD trigger/meter unit voltage between 4V and 20V using
comparing its voltage and current available from many internet sup- either PD 2.0 or PD 3.0 protocols. It can
readings with those from my Agi- pliers, including Banggood, is the adjust the voltage in either 1V, 100mV
lent U1251B DMM. This showed that XY-WPDT. At the time of writing, or 20mV increments or decrements if
the accuracy and resolution of the Banggood was selling it as a kit for only the PD host can respond to PPS nego-
FNC88’s digital meter were within $15 including delivery. It is made by tiation (like the XY-PDS100).
their claimed figures. the same firm in China which makes The meter function can measure
So overall, the FNC88 seems to be the XY-PDS100 ‘quick charger’ we the voltage with a rated resolution
a very capable and useful device. My looked at last month. of 10mV and a precision of 0.3%,
only real complaint is that you need Although the XY-WPDT comes as a and current with a rated resolution
either good eyesight or a strong mag- kit, assembling it is not difficult and of 1mA and a precision of 0.5%. Not
nifying glass to read the display on its doesn’t involve any soldering – just quite as good as the FNC88, but still
24mm diagonal LCD screen. the use of a very small Philips-head very useful.
There are several other USB-C PD screwdriver, which is included in the The readout of the XY-WPDT is a
trigger/DM devices available from kit. The PCB itself is already assem- 4-digit 7-segment LED display with
Banggood and other internet vendors. bled, so all that remains is fitting the 9mm high digits, so although it is not
The XY-WPDT is sold as a kit by Banggood, and only requires fitting the
components together with a screwdriver to assemble it; no soldering is necessary.

as fancy as that of the FNC88, it’s sig-
nificantly easier to read.
Function switching is done via two
tiny pushbutton switches (K1 and K2),
one on either side of the unit. There
are also four indicator LEDs; three
indicate the voltage steps in PPS mode
(1V/100mV/20mV), with the remain-
ing one indicating current measure-
ment mode.
Like the FNC88, the XY-WPDT does
not come with any operating manual,
nor could I find a manual on the inter-
net. The only information on using
it seemed to be in the XY-WPDT fol-
low-up info on the Banggood website,
The XY-PDS100 quick charger (detailed last month) is shown
which turned out to be rather terse and connected to the XY-WPDT trigger unit, displaying the output voltage.
not easy to follow.
I gave the XY-WPDT a quick check-
out coupled to the XY-PDS100 PD
charger, and the results were very
close to the rated figures for resolu-
tion and precision of both voltage
and current.
Overall then, the XY-WPDT PD trig-
ger/meter is quite a good performer,
and very good value for money. My
only real complaint is that the method
it uses to select the voltage mode using
the two tiny pushbuttons K1 and K2
is really tricky, with various short and
long presses on each button making it
not at all easy to set the XY-WPDT to
a particular voltage level, especially
in PPS mode.
This seems to be because both but-
tons have different functions accord-
ing to how long they’re pressed, so you
can easily flip things into a different
mode without meaning to.
In theory, the combination of the
XY-WPDT and the XY-PDS100 should
make a digitally adjustable DC power Here’s what the assembled XY-WPDT module looks like. The two extra USB-C
supply with its output variable to any sockets on either side allow the unit to operate in pass-through mode.
voltage between 4V and 20V, but this
isn’t all that easy in practice.
It would be a lot easier if the two
tiny pushbuttons were increased in
number, with a smaller number of
functions per individual button and
less dependence on the time they are
pressed.
But for applications where you want
to ‘set and forget’, it works acceptably
well and provides excellent value for
money. SC
Useful links From left-to-right we have the USB-C input, PPS mode LEDs (1V, 100mV & 20mV
steps), K1 switch, and current indicator LED. The USB-C input is used with the
USB-C: https://w.wiki/nto matching output connector on the opposite side to control and measure voltage
USB-PD: https://w.wiki/34dT or current. Pressing the K1 switch changes between displaying current or
siliconchip.com.au/link/ab7l voltage, while holding K1 just turns the screen and indicator LED off. Switch K2
siliconchip.com.au/link/ab7m is used in conjunction with K1 to change the voltage setting, and is a bit more
Quick Charge: https://w.wiki/34dU complicated to set, see: siliconchip.com.au/link/ab7o

Simple
MIDI Music
Keyboard
BY TIM BLYTHMAN
This MIDI Keyboard is a follow-up to our 64-key
MIDI Matrix. It is similarly flexible and offers a way to easily
make music, although it can be repurposed for many other uses.
W hile MIDI Matrix panels are pop- The Matrix ambiguous closures propagating
ular for being a compact way of The original Matrix is basically just through the Matrix. Our Matrix omits
controlling and interfacing to MIDI an array of pushbuttons that the Leon- these diodes in favour of simplicity
equipment, a linear keyboard arrange- ardo can scan to receive user input. In and compactness, and this linear Key-
ment like a piano is more ‘standard’ our MIDI software, each keypress is board is the same in that respect.
and, for many people, quite intuitive. converted to a musical note.
This is a modular add-on to the MIDI Each row or column of the Matrix is The new Keyboard
hardware we introduced in April and wired to a digital pin on the Leonardo. We considered a linear keyboard for
May this year (siliconchip.com.au/ By using the time-honoured technique our original design but could not work
Series/363). of scanning each row in turn, individ- out a way of making it both compact
Like the MIDI Matrix, it doesn’t have ual button presses can be detected. and functional.
to be used strictly for MIDI or musi- In our version of the software, the We have now formulated a modu-
cal purposes. rows are connected to pins configured lar design, so a useful Keyboard can
The MIDI Matrix was designed to be as inputs with weak pull-ups. Initially, be built that is still compact, or it can
used with an Arduino Leonardo board, all column pins are set to a high imped- be expanded to 64 keys, resulting in
as the Leonardo can easily provide a ance input mode too. a device that’s over a metre long! But
native USB MIDI interface through Each column is configured as an it still only needs 16 wires to connect
the versatile Arduino MIDI libraries. output in turn, and driven low. If any it to the Arduino.
We also demonstrated a few differ- button connected to that column is The basic unit of the Keyboard is a
ent program sketches that can run on pressed, its corresponding row pin single PCB with eight keys. Each key
the Leonardo to give various features, is pulled down through the switch is wired to the same row contact as
and showed some ways to interface contacts. By scanning the columns in the others and also to one of the eight
with software on both a PC and an turn, we can detect individual button column contacts. A single Keyboard
Android smartphone. presses. module is identical to one row of the
At the same time, we presented an While this system is simple, it can- Matrix.
Arduino shield that lets you inter- not detect multiple simultaneous key- Fig.1 shows the circuit. CON1 is
face the hardware to a great range of presses; for this, each switch needs wired to the columns, with each termi-
MIDI equipment using standard DIN to be fitted with a diode to prevent nal on CON1 wired to one side of each
connectors.
The Keyboard is intended to replace
the Matrix as part of a larger construc-
tion, as presented in the earlier parts
of this series. Refer to those articles,
particularly the first part, to under-
stand how the Matrix (and now Key-
board) can be used. At a minimum, you
Our prototype uses three of these PCBs, as
need an Arduino Leonardo board and a keyboard made from a full set of eight PCBs would be
some jumper wires to turn the Key- well over a metre wide. We’ve retained the CON1 and CON2 pads on some
board presented here into a minimal of the boards to demonstrate and test the different options. In practice, only one
MIDI Encoder. set is needed; note that connecting to CON3 and CON4 is equivalent.

Fig.1: this is the simple circuit of a single PCB with eight switches. The
offset between CON4 and CON6 is what makes it easily expandable up
to eight PCBs and 64 buttons.
of the tactile switches, S1-S8. Position Similarly, on the back of the PCB, mapped back to CON2 on the first PCB.
1 of CON2 is connected to the other CON4 on one PCB connects with CON1, CON3 and CON5 are all simply
side of switches S1-S8. CON6 on the next. CON4 is wired the wired in parallel and are not modified
At each end of the Keyboard mod- same as CON2, but the clever part is by this system.
ule PCB are connectors CON3-CON6, how we have wired CON6. Pin 1 of
which can be used to daisy-chain sub- CON6 is wired to pin 2 on CON4, and Other configurations
sequent PCBs to expand the Keyboard. so forth, all offset by one position. If you look closely at the PCB, you
These are eight-way surface-mount Say we wired up an array of eight can see that the little tab where CON1
pads spaced 2.54mm apart. of these modules, numbering them and CON2 jut out is scored for removal.
CON3 and CON5 (on the top side of 1-8 from left to right, with CON3 This lets you remove these tabs on all
the PCB) are wired in the same order and CON4 wired to CON5 and CON6 but one module.
as, and in parallel with CON1. Thus, respectively. Connecting to CON1 & In fact, since CON3 and CON4 are
the column signals can pass between CON2 on the first module, we would wired identically to CON1 and CON2,
the PCBs by joining their adjacent have the equivalent of a full 8x8 Matrix you can even remove the tab from all
CON3 and CON5. These are wired as only with the keys in a single row. boards and simply take the matrix
a parallel bus. Fig.2 shows how the ‘rows’ are connections from CON3 and CON4
Fig.2: this shows how multiple 8-button Keyboard PCBs are joined so that the Arduino can tell which key has been pressed.
Each PCB along the chain offsets where the connection is ultimately made at CON2, allowing for up to 64 keys to be sensed.

of the leftmost board instead.
If you don’t mind remapping the
What about the black keys?
pins in software (or changing how they You might be thinking that pianos actually have two rows of keys, white and black, and you would
are wired back to the Leonardo board), be right. Also, there are seven white keys per octave, not eight. We have kept this as a linear array of
the CON1 and CON2 connections do eight keys to make it simple and applicable to a wide range of applications.
not have to be made on the first board. We plan to produce a 12-key PCB at a later date which has the keys staggered and grouped like a
You could even take these connections piano. In the meantime, if you’re keen to use this board like a proper piano, you could build it in two
rows, with the top row offset horizontally 6mm from the bottom row and with gaps in the keys at the
from the middle of the array.
top to give the proper configuration. Both rows could be wired up in series (assuming they contain
We’ve designed the PCB to use large no more than 8 PCBs total).
12mm tactile switches, as these have The software could be modified relatively easily to remap the two rows of keys into the correct
a much nicer feel with a larger fin- sequence so that it can act as a keyboard piano. The restriction of only one keypress being detected
ger surface. You might find that some at a time would remain, though. Our planned future piano keyboard PCB would remove that restriction.
smaller switches can be made to fit by
bending their leads, although we hav- Fig.3, as a guide to fitting the compo- 8mm between adjacent switch bodies
en’t tried that. nents. on neighbouring PCBs, and typical pin
Since there is less space for routing Plan and lay out the modules before headers are around 11mm tall.
on this PCB than the Matrix, it lacks commencing construction. To keep You can halve the number of cuts by
the option to fit illuminated switches things compact, the connections shifting the pins in the plastic. Place
that the Matrix had. between the boards are a little tight, the PCB on a hard flat surface and rest
and it will be easier to join them before the 2x8 pin header in the CON1/CON2
Hardware fitting other components. holes. Push the plastic down firmly
Like the Matrix, the Keyboard If you want a different layout, just with a flat edge that fits between the
we are presenting has quite a basic about any method of wiring CON3 & pins. A steel ruler is ideal for this.
design, so that you can customise it CON5 and CON4 & CON6 respectively This will move the pins such that
to your requirements. The switches will work. You might even like to use only 1.6mm (the PCB thickness) of
are placed on 20mm centres, with header sockets on one and header each pin is proud. Now reverse the
four M3 mounting holes provided on pins on the other to allow the units to 2x8 pin header, and use the depth of
each PCB. be unplugged, although this will not the PCB as a jig to cut 1.6mm from the
Nominally, the mounting holes achieve a tight spacing. other side of the pins.
will be on 40mm centres, although To start the PCB assembly, snap off The pin stubs may fly off at speed, so
this depends on the accurate assem- any CON1/CON2 header tabs that are wear safety goggles and aim the header
bly of adjacent boards. The PCBs are not needed. Do this by scoring along while cutting so that they will fly away
20mm high, not counting the tab for the line with a sharp knife to cut the from you. See the photos opposite that
CON1 and CON2; 28mm with the tab copper traces, then carefully flex the show what the header should look like
in place. PCB with pliers to make a clean break. after being trimmed and then attached
We strongly recommend mounting You might like to clean up the rough to the PCBs.
the Keyboard to a sound backing so edge. As well as our usual warnings Soldering these headers is a little
that the PCBs do not flex when the about avoiding the inhalation of PCB tricky as they are not a snug fit. Treat
keys are pressed. The connections for dust (eg, by working outside and wear- them like a surface-mounted part,
CON3-CON6 will not provide much ing a mask), take care not to file away applying flux paste to the pads before
mechanical strength as they are effec- the traces which run close to the edge soldering. We recommend securing
tively surface-mounting pads, and are of the PCB, especially at the back. the parts during soldering with high-
only bonded to the PCB superficially. Each PCB is 158mm long, meaning temperature tape (eg, Kapton) so they
that there is 2mm of spare space for a don’t move around.
Construction joiner if the key spacing is to be kept Tack the ends in place and check
Most people will want to build a even. We used cut-down double-row that the pins do not foul the tactile
Keyboard with multiple PCBs laid pin headers. The plastic spacers are switch footprints. You might even
out as a continuous strip, so we will very close to 2mm deep, giving the like to test-fit the switches to confirm
describe what is needed to achieve necessary spacing. clearances.
this. The Keyboard is built on a PCB Start by cutting down the headers to Solder the remaining pins, and be
coded 23101213 that measures 158 x be used for joiners. This is fiddly but generous with the flux. It will help
28mm. Use the PCB overlay diagram, necessary, as there is no more than the solder to form clean beads that
Fig.3: there’s not much to get wrong during assembly, although we recommend fitting the PCB joiners first, as the tactile
switches will make access difficult when soldering them. The buttons should snap into place, so soldering them is easy.

Parts List – Full 64-key Keyboard
8 Keyboard Modules
7 2x8 male pin headers, trimmed in height (CON3-CON6)
1 2x8 pin header (male or female to suit Leonardo connections,
CON1 and CON2)
mounting hardware to suit usage (M3 tapped spacers, screws etc)
Keyboard Module
1 double-sided Keyboard PCB coded 23101213, 158 x 28mm
8 12mm tactile switches [eg, Diptronics DTS-21N-V or
Jaycar SP0608/SP0609, Altronics S1135 + S1138]
sit where they need to. Flip the board these are CON3 to CON5 on the front The cut-down header pins (shown
over and complete the headers on the of the PCB. above) measure around 7mm tall
back of the PCB. If none of the keys on a PCB work, so that they will fit between the end
Remove any excess flux using a flux then it may be a problem with the switches on adjacent PCBs (shown
cleaner, and test the exposed CON3- CON4 to CON6 row connections on below). The plastic part is 2mm tall,
so uniform board spacing is achieved
CON6 pads for continuity between the the back of the PCB. too.
ends of the strip. As you can see from
Fig.2, CON3 is wired straight through Conclusion
to CON5. But CON4 will be offset rela- Like the Matrix, the Keyboard is
tive to CON6 (unless you have the full designed to work with our MIDI hard-
complement of eight PCBs), so check ware and software. But we think that
that each pad on CON4 is connected readers will find other uses, especially
to one and only one pad on CON6. in cases where many buttons need to
It’s best to do this now, as it can be be connected to a microcontroller. SC
quite fiddly to rework these connec-
tions with the tactile switches in place.
Fit the switches next. They should With the set of Keyboard PCBs
snap neatly into place; just check that wired up to our MIDI shield,
they are sitting flush before soldering. we have a linear array of
Finally, solder headers for CON1 buttons that you can play like
and CON2. We used female headers a piano. But keep in mind
that by default, unlike a
to match the cables we had made up piano, multiple keys cannot
for the Matrix, but you can use what- be played at the same time.
ever works for your arrangement, even
soldering wires directly to the PCB.
Hooking it up
We tested our unit with the MIDI_
ENCODER sketch. If you haven’t done
so already, we recommend reading
the earlier parts of this series of arti-
cles, as they describe the software in
more detail.
Since the Keyboard is effectively
equivalent to a Matrix fitted with
non-illuminated switches, you can
transfer many of the ideas relating to
the Matrix to the Keyboard.
As with the Matrix, wire CON1 of
the Keyboard to CON2 of the MIDI
shield (or corresponding Leonardo
pins) and CON2 of the Keyboard to
CON1 on the MIDI shield, connecting
pin 1 to pin 1.
Check that all the buttons work as
expected, using the key notifications
that appear on the Arduino Serial
Monitor. If you find that some keys on a
PCB don’t work (but not all), check the
column connections for continuity;

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- Micromite LCD BackPack V3 kit (SC5082) $75.00 Includes PCB, programmed micros, 3.5in touchscreen LCD, UB3 lid, mounting hardware,
Mosfets for PWM backlight control and all other mandatory on-board parts $75.00
NANO TV PONG SHORT FORM KIT (CAT SC5885) (AUG 21)
Separate/Optional Components:
PCB and all onboard parts only (does not include controllers) $17.50
- 3.5-inch TFT LCD touchscreen (Cat SC5062) $30.00
MODEL RAILWAY LEVEL CROSSING (JUL 21) - DHT22 temp/humidity sensor (Cat SC4150) $7.50
- Pair of programmed PIC12F617-I/Ps $15.00 - BMP180 (Cat SC4343) OR BMP280 (Cat SC4595) temp/pressure sensor $5.00
- ISD1820P-based audio recording and playback module $5.00 - BME280 temperature/pressure/humidity sensor (Cat SC4608) $10.00
- DS3231 real-time clock SOIC-16 IC (Cat SC5103) $3.00
ADVANCED GPS COMPUTER (JUN 21) - 23LC1024 1MB RAM (SOIC-8) (Cat SC5104) $5.00
- Micromite LCD BackPack V3 kit (SC5082) $75.00 - AT25SF041 512KB flash (SOIC-8) (Cat SC5105) $1.50
- VK2828U7G5LF GPS module (SC5135) $25.00 - 10µF 16V X7R through-hole capacitor (Cat SC5106) $2.00
- MCP4251-502E/P IC (SC5052) $3.00
VARIOUS MODULES & PARTS
ARCADE PONG (CAT SC5834) (JUN 21) - Si4732 radio IC (Si473x FM/AM/SW Radio, Jul21) $7.50
Pair of Signetics-branded NE555Ns, for critical A9/B9 paddle ICs $12.50 - EA2-5NU relay (PIC Programming Helper, Jun21) $3.00
MINI ISOLATED SERIAL LINK COMPLETE KIT (CAT SC5750) (MAR 21) - VK2828U7G5LF GPS module (Advanced GPS Computer, Jun21) $25.00
All parts required to build the project including the PCB $10.00 - MCP4251-502E/P (PIC Programming Helper, Jun21) $3.00
- 2.8-inch touchscreen LCD module (Lab Supply, May21) $22.50
AM/FM/SW RADIO (JAN 21) - Spin FV-1 (Digital FX Unit, Apr21) $40.00
- PCB-mount right-angle SMA socket (SC4918) $2.50 - 15mW 3W SMD resistor (Battery Multi Logger / Arduino PSU, Feb21) $2.50
- Pulse-type rotary encoder with integral pushbutton (SC5601) $3.00 - DS3231(M) real-time clock SMD IC (Battery Multi Logger, Feb21) $3.00
- 16x2 LCD module (does not use I2C module) (SC4198) $7.50 - Pair of CSD18534 (Electronic Wind Chimes, Feb21) $6.00
- IPP80P03P4L04 (Dual Battery Lifesaver / Vintage Radio Supply, Dec20) $5.00
LED CHRISTMAS ORNAMENTS (CAT SC5579) (NOV 20) - 16x2 LCD module (Digital RF Power Meter, Aug20) $7.50
Complete kit including micro but no coin cell (specify PCB shape & colour) $14.00 - WS2812 8x8 RGB LED matrix module (Ol’ Timer II, Jul20) $15.00
RGB STACKABLE LED CHRISTMAS STAR (CAT SC5525) (NOV 20) - MAX038 function generator IC (H-Field Transanalyser, May20) $25.00
Complete kit including PCB, micro, diffused RGB LEDs and other parts $38.50 - MC1496P double-balanced mixer (H-Field Transanalyser, May20) $2.50
- AD8495 thermocouple interface (DIY Reflow Oven Controller, Apr20) $10.00
FLEXIBLE DIGITAL LIGHTING CONTROLLER PARTS (OCT 20) - Si8751AB 2.5kV isolated Mosfet driver IC (Charge Controller, Dec19) $5.00
4 x Si8751AB ICs, 8 x S1HB15N60E-GE3 Mosfets, switchmode converter module, - I/O expander modules (Nov19):
6N137 opto, high-voltage resistors and capacitors plus SMD LEDs. $100.00 PCA9685 – $6.00 ¦ PCF8574 – $3.00 ¦ MCP23017 – $3.00
- SMD 1206 LEDs, packets of 10 unless stated otherwise (Xmas Ornaments, Nov20):
COLOUR MAXIMITE 2 (JUL 20) yellow – $0.70 ¦ amber – $0.70 ¦ blue – $0.70 ¦ cyan – $1.00 ¦ pink (1 only) – $0.20
Short form kit: includes everything except the case, CPU module, power supply, - ISD1820-based voice recorder / playback module (Junk Mail, Aug19) $4.00
optional parts and cables (Cat SC5478) $80.00 - 23LCV1024-I/P SRAM & MCP73831T (UHF Repeater, May19) $11.50
Short Form kit (with CPU module): includes the programmed Waveshare CPU - MCP1700 3.3V LDO regulator (suitable for USB M&K Adapator, Feb19) $1.50
modue and everything included in the short form kit above (Cat SC5508) $140.00 - ESP-01 WiFi Module (El Cheapo Modules, Apr18) $5.00
*Prices valid for month of magazine issue only. All prices in Australian dollars and include GST where applicable. # P&P prices are within Australia. Overseas? Place an order on our website for a quote.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS & CASE PIECES For a complete list, go to siliconchip.com.au/Shop/8
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD TO SUIT PROJECT DATE PCB CODE Price PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD TO SUIT PROJECT DATE PCB CODE Price
BRAINWAVE MONITOR (EEG) AUG18 25107181 $10.00 ARDUINO DCC BASE STATION JAN20 09207181 $5.00
SUPER DIGITAL SOUND EFFECTS AUG18 01107181 $2.50 NUTUBE VALVE PREAMPLIFIER JAN20 01112191 $10.00
DOOR ALARM AUG18 03107181 $5.00 TUNEABLE HF PREAMPLIFIER JAN20 06110191 $2.50
STEAM WHISTLE / DIESEL HORN SEP18 09106181 $5.00 4G REMOTE MONITORING STATION FEB20 27111191 $5.00
DCC PROGRAMMER (INC. HEADERS) OCT18 SC4716 $7.50 LOW-DISTORTION DDS (SET OF 5 BOARDS) FEB20 01106192-6 $20.00
↳ WITHOUT HEADERS OCT18 09107181 $5.00 NUTUBE GUITAR DISTORTION / OVERDRIVE PEDAL MAR20 01102201 $7.50
OPTO-ISOLATED RELAY (INC. EXT. BOARDS) OCT18 10107181/2 $7.50 THERMAL REGULATOR INTERFACE SHIELD MAR20 21109181 $5.00
GPS-SYNCHED FREQUENCY REFERENCE NOV18 04107181 $7.50 ↳ PELTIER DRIVER SHIELD MAR20 21109182 $5.00
LED CHRISTMAS TREE NOV18 16107181 $5.00 DIY REFLOW OVEN CONTROLLER (SET OF 3 PCBS) APR20 01106193/5/6 $12.50
DIGITAL INTERFACE MODULE NOV18 16107182 $2.50 7-BAND MONO EQUALISER APR20 01104201 $7.50
TINNITUS/INSOMNIA KILLER (JAYCAR VERSION) NOV18 01110181 $5.00 ↳ STEREO EQUALISER APR20 01104202 $7.50
↳ ALTRONICS VERSION NOV18 01110182 $5.00 REFERENCE SIGNAL DISTRIBUTOR APR20 CSE200103 $7.50
HIGH-SENSITIVITY MAGNETOMETER DEC18 04101011 $12.50 H-FIELD TRANSANALYSER MAY20 06102201 $10.00
USELESS BOX DEC18 08111181 $7.50 CAR ALTIMETER MAY20 05105201 $5.00
FOUR-CHANNEL DC FAN & PUMP CONTROLLER DEC18 05108181 $5.00 RCL BOX RESISTOR BOARD JUN20 04104201 $7.50
ATtiny816 DEVELOPMENT/BREAKOUT PCB JAN19 24110181 $5.00 ↳ CAPACITOR / INDUCTOR BOARD JUN20 04104202 $7.50
ISOLATED SERIAL LINK JAN19 24107181 $5.00 ROADIES’ TEST GENERATOR SMD VERSION JUN20 01005201 $2.50
DAB+/FM/AM RADIO JAN19 06112181 $15.00 ↳ THROUGH-HOLE VERSION JUN20 01005202 $5.00
↳ CASE PIECES (CLEAR) JAN19 SC4849 $.00 COLOUR MAXIMITE 2 PCB (BLUE) JUL20 07107201 $10.00
REMOTE CONTROL DIMMER MAIN PCB FEB19 10111191 $10.00 ↳ FRONT & REAR PANELS (BLACK) JUL20 SC5500 $10.00
↳ MOUNTING PLATE FEB19 10111192 $10.00 OL’ TIMER II PCB (RED, BLUE OR BLACK) JUL20 19104201 $5.00
↳ EXTENSION PCB FEB19 10111193 $10.00 ↳ ACRYLIC CASE PIECES / SPACER (BLACK) JUL20 SC5448 $7.50
MOTION SENSING SWITCH (SMD) PCB FEB19 05102191 $2.50 IR REMOTE CONTROL ASSISTANT PCB (JAYCAR) JUL20 15005201 $5.00
USB MOUSE AND KEYBOARD ADAPTOR PCB FEB19 24311181 $5.00 ↳ ALTRONICS VERSION JUL20 15005202 $5.00
LOW-NOISE STEREO PREAMP MAIN PCB MAR19 01111119 $25.00 USB SUPERCODEC AUG20 01106201 $12.50
↳ INPUT SELECTOR PCB MAR19 01111112 $15.00 ↳ BALANCED ATTENUATOR NOV20 01106202 $7.50
↳ PUSHBUTTON PCB MAR19 01111113 $5.00 SWITCHMODE 78XX REPLACEMENT AUG20 18105201 $2.50
DIODE CURVE PLOTTER MAR19 04112181 $7.50 WIDEBAND DIGITAL RF POWER METER AUG20 04106201 $5.00
↳ UB3 LID (MATTE BLACK) MAR19 SC4927 $5.00 ULTRASONIC CLEANER MAIN PCB SEP20 04105201 $7.50
FLIP-DOT (SET OF ALL FOUR PCBs) APR19 SC4950 $17.50 ↳ FRONT PANEL SEP20 04105202 $5.00
↳ COIL PCB APR19 19111181 $5.00 NIGHT KEEPER LIGHTHOUSE SEP20 08110201 $5.00
↳ PIXEL PCB (16 PIXELS) APR19 19111182 $5.00 SHIRT POCKET AUDIO OSCILLATOR SEP20 01110201 $2.50
↳ FRAME PCB (8 FRAMES) APR19 19111183 $5.00 ↳ 8-PIN ATtiny PROGRAMMING ADAPTOR SEP20 01110202 $1.50
↳ DRIVER PCB APR19 19111184 $5.00 D1 MINI LCD WIFI BACKPACK OCT20 24106121 $5.00
iCESTICK VGA ADAPTOR APR19 02103191 $2.50 FLEXIBLE DIGITAL LIGHTING CONTROLLER SLAVE OCT20 16110202 $20.00
UHF DATA REPEATER MAY19 15004191 $10.00 ↳ FRONT PANEL (BLACK) OCT20 16110203 $20.00
AMPLIFIER BRIDGE ADAPTOR MAY19 01105191 $5.00 LED XMAS ORNAMENTS NOV20 16111191-9 $3.00
3.5-INCH LCD ADAPTOR FOR ARDUINO MAY19 24111181 $5.00 30 LED STACKABLE STAR NOV20 16109201 $12.50
DSP CROSSOVER (ALL PCBs – TWO DACs) MAY19 SC5023 $40.00 ↳ RGB VERSION (BLACK) NOV20 16109202 $12.50
↳ ADC PCB MAY19 01106191 $7.50 DIGITAL LIGHTING MICROMITE MASTER NOV20 16110201 $5.00
↳ DAC PCB MAY19 01106192 $7.50 ↳ CP2102 ADAPTOR NOV20 16110204 $2.50
↳ CPU PCB MAY19 01106193 $5.00 BATTERY VINTAGE RADIO POWER SUPPLY DEC20 11111201 $7.50
↳ PSU PCB MAY19 01106194 $7.50 DUAL BATTERY LIFESAVER DEC20 11111202 $2.50
↳ CONTROL PCB MAY19 01106195 $5.00 DIGITAL LIGHTING CONTROLLER LED SLAVE DEC20 16110205 $5.00
↳ LCD ADAPTOR MAY19 01106196 $2.50 BK1198 AM/FM/SW RADIO JAN21 CSE200902A $10.00
STEERING WHEEL CONTROL IR ADAPTOR JUN19 05105191 $5.00 MINIHEART HEARTBEAT SIMULATOR JAN21 01109201 $5.00
GPS SPEEDO/CLOCK/VOLUME CONTROL JUN19 01104191 $7.50 I’M BUSY GO AWAY (DOOR WARNING) JAN21 16112201 $2.50
↳ CASE PIECES (MATTE BLACK) JUN19 SC4987 $10.00 BATTERY MULTI LOGGER FEB21 11106201 $5.00
RF SIGNAL GENERATOR JUN19 04106191 $15.00 ELECTRONIC WIND CHIMES FEB21 23011201 $10.00
RASPBERRY PI SPEECH SYNTHESIS/AUDIO JUL19 01106191 $5.00 ARDUINO 0-14V POWER SUPPLY SHIELD FEB21 18106201 $5.00
BATTERY ISOLATOR CONTROL PCB JUL19 05106191 $7.50 HIGH-CURRENT BATTERY BALANCER (4-LAYERS) MAR21 14102211 $12.50
↳ MOSFET PCB (2oz) JUL19 05106192 $10.00 MINI ISOLATED SERIAL LINK MAR21 24102211 $2.50
MICROMITE LCD BACKPACK V3 AUG19 07106191 $7.50 REFINED FULL-WAVE MOTOR SPEED CONTROLLER APR21 10102211 $7.50
CAR RADIO DIMMER ADAPTOR AUG19 05107191 $5.00 DIGITAL FX UNIT PCB (POTENTIOMETER-BASED) APR21 01102211 $7.50
PSEUDO-RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR AUG19 16106191 $5.00 ↳ SWITCH-BASED APR21 01102212 $7.50
4DoF SIMULATION SEAT CONTROLLER PCB SEP19 11109191 $7.50 ARDUINO MIDI SHIELD APR21 23101211 $5.00
↳ HIGH-CURRENT H-BRIDGE MOTOR DRIVER SEP19 11109192 $2.50 ↳ 8X8 TACTILE PUSHBUTTON SWITCH MATRIX APR21 23101212 $10.00
MICROMITE EXPLORE-28 (4-LAYERS) SEP19 07108191 $5.00 HYBRID LAB POWER SUPPLY CONTROL PCB MAY21 18104211 $10.00
SIX INPUT AUDIO SELECTOR MAIN PCB SEP19 01110191 $7.50 ↳ REGULATOR PCB MAY21 18104212 $7.50
↳ PUSHBUTTON PCB SEP19 01110192 $5.00 VARIAC MAINS VOLTAGE REGULATION MAY21 10103211 $7.50
ULTRABRITE LED DRIVER SEP19 16109191 $2.50 ADVANCED GPS COMPUTER JUN21 05102211 $7.50
HIGH RESOLUTION AUDIO MILLIVOLTMETER OCT19 04108191 $10.00 PIC PROGRAMMING HELPER 8-PIN PCB JUN21 24106211 $5.00
PRECISION AUDIO SIGNAL AMPLIFIER OCT19 04107191 $5.00 ↳ 8/14/20-PIN PCB JUN21 24106212 $7.50
SUPER-9 FM RADIO PCB SET NOV19 06109181-5 $25.00 ARCADE MINI PONG JUN21 08105211 $35.00
↳ CASE PIECES & DIAL NOV19 SC5166 $25.00 Si473x FM/AM/SW DIGITAL RADIO JUL21 CSE210301C $7.50
TINY LED XMAS TREE (GREEN/RED/WHITE) NOV19 16111191 $2.50 20A DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROLLER JUL21 11006211 $7.50
HIGH POWER LINEAR BENCH SUPPLY NOV19 18111181 $10.00 MODEL RAILWAY LEVEL CROSSING JUL21 09108211 $5.00
↳ HEATSINK SPACER (BLACK) NOV19 SC5168 $5.00 NEW PCBs
DIGITAL PANEL METER / USB DISPLAY NOV19 18111182 $2.50 COLOUR MAXIMITE 2 GEN2 (4 LAYERS) AUG21 07108211 $15.00
↳ ACRYLIC BEZEL (BLACK) NOV19 SC5167 $2.50 BATTERY MANAGER SWITCH MODULE AUG21 11104211 $5.00
UNIVERSAL BATTERY CHARGE CONTROLLER DEC19 14107191 $10.00 ↳ I/O EXPANDER AUG21 11104212 $2.50
BOOKSHELF SPEAKER PASSIVE CROSSOVER JAN20 01101201 $10.00 NANO TV PONG AUG21 08105212 $2.50
↳ SUBWOOFER ACTIVE CROSSOVER JAN20 01101202 $7.50 LINEAR MIDI KEYBOARD (8 KEYS) AUG21 23101213 $5.00
We also sell an A2 Reactance Wallchart, RTV&H DVD, Vintage Radio DVD plus various books at siliconchip.com.au/Shop/3
Vintage Radio
1961-65
1961-65 Bush
Bush VTR103
VTR103 AM/FM
AM/FM Radio
Radio
By Ian Batty
The VTR103 was

manufactured by Bush
Radio, based in the
UK and founded by
former employees of
Graham Amplion.
This set incorporates
a complex circuit
design, utilising nine
transistors to provide
the AM and FM bands.
The set is shown here
with its partly-opaque
dial cover removed.
Bush Radio began in 1932, becom- on/off-tone controls sit in a well at the the lower right of the case at the back.
ing part of the Rank empire in 1945. top of the case. Bush seems to have anticipated this in
Along with the standout DAC90 and Placing a hand onto the set, one’s the TR82C, which carries a moulded
DAC10 valve radios, they released the fingers easily engage with the controls. dimple in precisely the same position.
distinctive TV22 television. The volume and on/off-tone knobs are The TR82C came in a variety of
The VTR103 case is based on that of well-knurled and easy to operate. The trims. The metal parts are chrome-
the TR82C from the early 1960s (see band change switches respond posi- plated, while the plastics are either
September 2013; siliconchip.com.au/ tively. Ergonomically, this is one of in original colours or “flashed” with
Article/4395). The TR82C was itself the most pleasant sets I have in my bright finishes. Control legends are
based on an earlier valve portable, the collection. recess-moulded and filled with dark
MB60, released in 1957. Designed by The dial cover/knobs, regrettably, paint.
the brilliant young David Ogle, this have hazed with age. That rather dims The earlier TR82C used a combi-
case just screams ‘retro’ (although the bright red anodising of the tun- nation of alloyed-junction OC44/45
it would have been considered very ing scale. transistors in the RF/IF end and
modern at the time!). OC71/OC81-class transistors in the
It is such a popular design that the Face-off: VTR103 vs TR82C audio end, offered longwave (LW)
same case was re-used for the modern Given the visual appeal and ease- and medium wave (MW, ie, broad-
Bush TR82DAB radio, also reviewed of-use established by the TR82C, why cast) reception, and was a creditable
in our September 2013 issue. You change anything? That seems to be the performer.
can’t really blame them as it’s such approach Bush designers took. Side- Frequency modulation (FM) broad-
a classic shape, evoking the era of by-side on a shelf, differences are the casting was introduced in the United
Rock ‘n Roll. necessary minimum: three pushbut- Kingdom by the BBC in 1955, followed
The elegant moulded cabinet has ton switches for band changing (LW/ by commercial broadcasters in the early
clear, bold lines. The large dial domi- MW/VHF), and a dial with three wave- 1970s. BBC transmissions were in the
nates the front, its anodised red scale bands. range 88~94.6MHz, with commercial
set back in a well behind the tuning The only other clear difference is stations taking up 94.6~97.6MHz. This
knob. The volume, band change and the “output to tape recorder” socket at explains the VTR103’s restricted FM

tuning range of just 88~100MHz.
General description
The Bush VTR103 is an LW/MW
AM/FM radio using nine PNP tran-
sistors and three diodes. FM reception
is monophonic; there is no provision
for FM stereo. The AM sections of the
VTR103 are similar to those of the
TR82C, including the use of double-
tuned IF transformers. The audio sec-
tion is also much the same.
Frequency coverage is 158~280kHz
(LW), 526~1605kHz (MW) and
87.5~100MHz (FM). The AM inter-
mediate frequency (IF) is 470kHz,
while the FM IF is 10.7MHz. It looks fantastic and has fantastic sound quality. The VTR103 is shown at right,
The long wave/medium wave sec- next to the LW/MW-only TR82C.
tion is a conventional design with
a converter, two IF stages and a
four-transistor three-stage audio sec-
tion using a Class-B push-pull audio
output stage. All transistors are made
of germanium; the RF transistors are
alloy-diffused types, while the audio
transistors are junction types.
Band changing is managed by one of
three pushbuttons setting a multi-sec-
tion rotary switch to the appropriate
position. S2A removes power from
the two AF114s in the VHF front end
for the AM bands, leaving it inactive
except for FM operation.
The dual-frequency IF design ampli- The top view of the case shows the volume control (which doubles as the power
fies either IF signal frequency pre- switch), band change selector, tone control, and the telescopic aerial.
sented to it without needing switching
or other intervention. Dual, separate
demodulators are used: a peak detec-
tor for AM and a ratio detector for FM.
Readers may be familiar with the
passband characteristics of a typical
intermediate frequency amplifier: a
single ‘hump’ at the design frequency.
The VTR103’s passband responds to
signals at both intermediate frequen-
cies, as shown in Fig.1.
Would it be possible to receive an
AM and an FM broadcast simultane-
ously? The IF channel is capable of
this, but the front end/tuned design
ensures that only one signal (either
Fig.1: graph of the VTR103’s passband The rear of the set has a socket for an external aerial and a connector for a tape
response at the AM (470kHz) and FM recorder. There is a socket on the left-hand (right from this angle) side of the set
(10.7MHz) IF frequencies. which is used to connect a pair of earphones.

Tuning is by a cord-driven mecha-
nism that adjusts the position of tun-
ing slugs in the RF transformer and
LO tuning coil. Both coils are wound
from copper straps that provide low
RF resistance, and thus high Q and
low losses at the operating frequency.
Although trimmers CT1 and CT2 are
provided, as is an adjustable slug in
antenna coil L1/L2, the manufacturer
describes all of these as factory-set and
advises against user or service adjust-
ment. Aligning of this section is con-
fined to adjusting of the dial mecha-
nism to give correct tuning near mid-
band, at 94MHz.
Circuit diagram
The full circuit of the set is shown in
Fig.2. Unusually, the circuit diagram
for this set is drawn with a negative
Celestion speaker ground. Emitters connect to the posi-
tive supply and collectors to ground.
While this does not affect its opera-
The VTR103 uses an aluminium chassis, with the germanium transistors
mounted via insulated pins. The chassis is held in placed by four screws along tion, most PNP sets were drawn with
the outside edge, and the tuning knob a positive ground, so you need to be
aware of this when reading the cir-
AM or FM) is converted at a time. voltages, and easy replacement by cuit diagram.
The following description will make desoldering/resoldering. Of course, most modern circuits use
this clear. The FM VHF tuner sits in a sepa- a negative ground, so interpreting this
rate metal case. This allows all VHF one should not be too difficult for most
Construction components to be shielded, reducing readers. Additionally, the original cir-
Like the TR82, the VTR103 uses a the likelihood of radiation interfer- cuit diagrams show chassis returns
conventional aluminium chassis with ing with other services. The parts are either to a common ground rail (thick
transistors mounted to it via insulated mounted on a printed circuit board common bar in the diagram), or to
pins. The transistors are mounted on (PCB), making the assembly compact individual earth symbols for illustra-
the exposed side of the chassis, allow- and controlling circuit inductances tion clarity.
ing easy access for measuring electrode and capacitances. I drew Fig.2 because both schemat-
ics I found online were hard to follow.
The Trader 1549 version is a dog’s
breakfast; the band change switch is
broken out into individual make/break
contacts, demanding that you get out
VHF VHF the pencil and try to work out what is
LO coil antenna coil on (or off) for each band. Pity the poor
service technician!
The Engineering Report’s circuit at
least seems to have had the service
department looking on, but the erratic
and inconsistent placement (for exam-
ple) of biasing and tuning components
in the IF strip is frustrating. I trust
that my efforts will be more readily
understood.
1st FM IFT VHF converter VHF RF amplifier Circuit operation

(IFT1; L6-7) (Q2; AF114) (Q1; AF114) Taking the LW/MW section first, Q3
operates as a self-excited converter
with collector-emitter feedback. The
ferrite rod antenna receives external
signals from the antenna socket via
A close-up of the FM VHF tuner which sits in a separate metal case for shielding primary winding L8.
and is mounted on a PCB. All band switching is done by just

Band change switch
Tone control Volume control
IFT3 IFT2 L13-15
IFT4
IFT5
IFT7 IFT6
VHF tuner AM tuning gang

►
Output transformer
The transistors on the chassis rear have not been labelled due to their small size. You can find an overlay
diagram, along with the original circuit, for this set at: www.radiomuseum.org/r/bush_vtr103vtr_10.html
The front of the chassis doesn’t showcase anything new compared to the rear, apart from the markings on the AM tuning
gang and the sockets used by the transistors. You can also see the two OA79 diodes, used for FM demodulation, at the
bottom in clear tubes with a white stripe.
►
FM demodulator AM tuning gang

diodes (D2-3)

one switch assembly. The original Converter Q3’s emitter connects to IFT2’s secondary L17 is tuned and
diagram labels it as S1A, S1B, S2A, the positive supply via oscillator coil tapped, with the tap feeding signal
S2B, S3A and S3B, according to the feedback winding L13, then emitter to first IF amplifier, Q4. Band change
positions of the three separate wafer resistor R9 (bypassed by C15). The switch S1B shorts the primary of
sections on the common shaft. I have oscillator coil’s L15 tuned winding the first FM IF transformer (IFT3) to
omitted the usual dotted “common con- connects, via band change switch S3B, ground, preventing IFT3 from affect-
trol” lines (such as those I have used for to LW padder C17 and LW oscillator ing AM operation.
the tuning capacitors and inductors) to trimmer CT5.
avoid cluttering the drawing. Capacitor C17 adds enough capac- MW converter operation
For LW operation, the antenna sec- itance to the oscillator tuned circuit Returning to the converter, for MW
tion of the LW/MW gang (CV1/CV2) to force it to cover the lower LO fre- operation, S1A connects the MW
connects to the LW antenna tuned quency range of 628~750kHz for long- tuned winding L11 and associated
winding L9 on the ferrite rod. The sig- wave reception. trimmer CT3 in parallel with the LW
nal is derived from antenna secondary Q3’s collector connects, via band tuned winding L9 and antenna tuning
winding L10 and fed to the base of the change switch S2B, to oscillator coil capacitor CV1. Paralleling L11 and L9
converter via band change switch S3A L14’s primary, and thence to the L16 reduces the total circuit inductance,
and coupling capacitor C14. Antenna primary of the first AM IF transformer allowing the circuit to tune over the
padder capacitor C13 and LW trimmer (IFT2) primary, then to signal and sup- 535~1605 kHz broadcast band range.
CT4 are connected in parallel with ply ground. This primary is tuned and Signal pickup from the ferrite
CV1 via band change switch S1A. tapped. antenna is derived from the MW

Fig.2: the relatively complex circuit diagram for the Bush
VTR103 AM/FM radio. The switches have been marked in
red for clarity.
secondary L12, and switched to the As with LW operation, S2B connects low input impedance of Q1’s emitter.
converter base via S3A and C14. the output from the converter (via L14 Q1 uses combination bias.
In the oscillator circuit, S3B dis- oscillator coil primary) to the L16 Since this is a common-base stage,
connects the LW capacitors C17 and tuned, tapped primary of AM IF trans- Q1’s emitter is unbypassed (to allow
trimmer CT5, connecting MW trimmer former IFT2 and thence to ground. signal coupling), but C4 bypasses its
CT6 and damping resistor R11 into the base to RF ground. As with the rest of
circuit, in parallel with oscillator tun- FM tuner operation the set, Q1’s emitter returns (via emit-
ing capacitor CV2 and the L15 tuned FM tuning is done using movable ter resistor R1) to the positive supply/
winding of the oscillator coil. slugs. This method is more compact RF ground, while its collector returns,
Note that, for both AM bands, 556pF than capacitor tuning (as we need the via RF tuned circuit L3/CT1, to DC
capacitor C22 is in series with gang coils anyway), and less liable to dete- ground (the negative supply).
section CV2; you could call C22 the rioration over time due to vibration or The amplified signal from Q1’s col-
“master” padder. contamination. lector is coupled to the converter’s
Band change section S2B maintains In the FM position, S2A connects input via C5. Converter Q2 uses a
the connection from the converter’s power to the VHF tuner module. This self-oscillating design, and operates
collector to the L14 primary of the uses Q1 as a common-base RF ampli- in common-base mode both for con-
oscillator coil. S1B maintains the short fier. The input circuit is broadly fixed- version and for oscillation. Like the
across the L18 primary of first FM IF tuned, with capacitive voltage divider RF amplifier, Q2’s unbypassed emit-
transformer IFT3 to prevent it affect- C2/C3 tuning antenna secondary L2 ter returns to the positive supply via
ing LW/MW operation. and matching the tuned circuit to the RF choke L4 and emitter resistor R4.

L4’s high reactance improves the At 10.7MHz, we also have the enough to appear as a near short-cir-
converter stage’s input impedance, to 10.7MHz tuned circuit in RF series cuit at 470kHz, allowing the AM IF sig-
ensure successful oscillator operation. with IFT2’s secondary. A quick cal- nal at Q5’s collector to develop across
Local oscillator (LO) feedback, from culation shows that C20’s reactance IFT7’s tuned, tapped primary L27.
Q2’s collector to emitter, is provided at 10.7MHz is around 50W, creating Q5 would usually operate with
by capacitor C7. Notice that there is no signal loss at 10.7MHz. The solution “starvation” bias so that it would eas-
phase inversion in this circuit; since is 3.3nF capacitor C23; at 10.7MHz, ily overload in FM operation. This is
a common-base circuit has a gain of its reactance is only about 4.5W, put- a limiting action, and is the principal
around +1, collector-emitter feed- ting the ‘cold’ end of L19 close to IF reason for FM’s outstanding impulse
back has a 0° phase shift, and thus is ground. noise rejection (of car ignition noise,
positive feedback that will provoke It may appear that C23, with a lightning etc). The designers have
oscillation. 470kHz reactance of only about 105W, not taken this course though, relying
Converter Q2’s collector connects to would severely shunt the AM signal at instead on the noise rejection inher-
ground via oscillator tuning coil L5. Q4’s base to emitter, ie, to IF ground. ent to the ratio detector (described
The converter’s FM IF signal is picked This would severely limit the AM IF below).
off via the series-tuned primary circuit channel’s potential gain. As with Q4’s input circuitry, 3.3nF
of the first FM IF transformer, L6/L7. However, C23, connected to a tap- capacitor C30 resonates with the AM
While there’s no ‘law’ against this, ping on L17, forms a tuned circuit with IF transformer’s secondary, allowing
it’s unusual. As a series-tuned circuit L17’s tapped section, and thus devel- the AM circuitry to operate at full gain
has very high impedance away from ops maximum AM IF signal. This is while (when in FM operation) effec-
resonance, the C11/L6 combination confirmed by the VTR103’s stage-by- tively shorting out the AM circuitry
will present virtually zero loading at stage AM gains being pretty much the at the FM intermediate frequency of
LO frequencies of 98.2~110.7MHz. same as its predecessor, the TR82. 10.7MHz.
This allows Q2 to act as a converter, In AM operation, Q4’s bias is sup- Untuned, untapped secondary L28
providing simultaneous LO oscillation plied by series resistor R21 from the feeds demodulator diode D1. This
and extraction of the 10.7MHz IF sig- negative supply; more on that below. develops the demodulated audio
nal from its collector. Ground is negative with respect to across C38 and feeds it, via R19, to
Secondary L7’s tap connects to Q4’s base, and thus it acts as a con- band change switch S1C on AM bands.
switch S3A. This disconnects the AM ventional series-bias circuit. This bias
tuned circuits from the converter cir- is also acted on by the AM automatic AM band AGC
cuitry and conveys the 10.7MHz FM gain control (AGC) circuit, which will The DC component of the 470kHz
IF signal to the base of Q3. be described shortly. AM IF signal, filtered by R20 and C39,
Band change switch S3B discon- Q4’s emitter returns, via bypassed is applied to the biasing circuit of first
nects some of the AM tuning circuitry emitter resistor R12, to the positive AM IF amplifier Q4 as the AGC con-
from AM LO coil set L13~L15. More supply, and its collector connects via trol voltage. The AGC voltage is posi-
importantly, S2B disconnects Q3’s the primaries of third FM IF trans- tive, and this counteracts the forward,
collector from AM LO primary L14, former ITF5 and second AM IF trans- negative bias applied to Q4 via R21.
while S1B removes the short across former IFT4 to ground. As these two Stronger signals reduce the for-
the second FM IF transformer IFT3 and windings are in DC and RF series, it’s ward bias on Q4, reducing its gain and
allows signals from converter Q3’s col- vital that neither affects the resonance allowing the set to deliver a relatively
lector to pass directly to second IFT3’s of the other; interaction would com- constant audio output with varying
tuned, untapped primary L18. Thus, promise the stage gain. received signal strength.
Q3 acts as the first FM IF amplifier. Considering the third FM IF trans- This set does not use an AGC exten-
Q3’s AM LO circuitry is disabled former IFT4’s primary L20, its reac- sion diode, despite the provision of
by S3C’s shorting of the AM LO trans- tance at 470kHz is very low, and thus it dropping resistor R13 in the first AM
former’s L13 feedback winding. appears as a near short-circuit, allow- IF amplifier’s collector circuit. So
ing maximum AM IF signal to develop expect AM AGC to be only moder-
IF operation for AM across the tuned, tapped primary L22 ately effective.
For AM operation, IF signals are fed of second AM IF transformer IFT5.
to first AM IF transformer IFT2 from Its tapped, tuned secondary L23 con- FM IF operation
the converter’s collector into tapped, nects, via the third FM IFT4’s tapped AM band converter Q3 is switched
tuned primary L16, and are coupled to tuned secondary L21, to the base of to operate as the first FM IF amplifier,
tapped, tuned secondary L17. second AM IF amplifier Q5. as described above. S3A connects the
L17’s tapped winding feeds the Second AM IF amplifier Q5 oper- L7 output of the VHF FM tuner module
470kHz AM IF signal to the base of ates with fixed combination bias via to Q3’s base via C14. S3C and S3B dis-
first AM IF amplifier Q4; however, this R16/R17 and bypassed emitter resistor able the AM LO circuits while S2B and
winding is (for DC) in series with sec- R15. The emitter returns to the posi- S1B connect Q3’s collector directly to
ond FM IF transformer IFT3’s second- tive supply while its collector returns the tuned, untapped primary of second
ary, L19. Since L19 and C21 resonate via fourth FM IF transformer IFT6’s IF transformer IFT3’s primary L18, and
at 10.7MHz, they present very little coil L24 and third AM IF transformer thus to ground.
impedance at 470kHz, thus allowing IFT7’s coil L27 to ground. Biasing conditions remain
the 470kHz AM IF signal from L17’s As with previous stages, the FM unchanged from AM operation.
tap to be conveyed to the base of Q4. IF transformer’s inductance is low IFT3’s tuned, tapped secondary L19

delivers the 10.7MHz IF signal to the For an IF signal that deviates above the collector of Q9, via C53/R32, to the
base of second FM IF amplifier Q4. To and below 10.7MHz, circuit action collector of Q6/base of Q7 to reduce
prevent first AM IF transformer IFT2’s delivers unequal signals to D2 and D3. audio distortion.
L17 secondary from affecting FM oper- The output voltage at C36 will vary in Two single-pin jacks (SKT3/4) allow
ation, it is bypassed by capacitor C23 sympathy with the variations in the IF audio pick-off for tape recording. While
as previously stated above. The signal signal’s frequency above and below this is useful, standard practice would
from Q3 is coupled from the second 10.7MHz, to produce the demodulated see this connection taken off before the
FM IF transformer’s L18 primary to audio signal. output stage, averting the likely cross-
its L19 secondary, and is delivered to But, for a constant amplitude signal, over and other distortion products com-
the base Q4. the DC voltage across C46 will remain mon to Class-B output stages.
Although Q4’s series biasing (R21) constant; C46 will neither charge nor The battery supply is bypassed for
is potentially affected by the AM cir- discharge. So far, this is a conventional stability by C57, and the audio pre-
cuitry’s AGC loop (via R20/C39), no FM demodulator. amp, AM converter and all IF stages
AM signal will appear at the cathode of Should the IF signal amplitude are decoupled by R31/C44. The FM
AM demodulator D1 in FM operation. increase or decrease, however, the section’s VHF tuner module supply is
There is no AGC action with this set DC voltage across C46 will decrease applied via S2A (FM only) and decou-
for FM operation, and Q4 operates at or increase correspondingly. This pled by R10/C16.
constant, maximum gain without the charges or discharges C46 to some
need to disable the AM AGC circuit. extent. The resulting extra loading – or Cleaning up the set
Q4’s collector connects to ground reduction of loading – acts to suppress Despite being sold “as is”, this set
via third FM IF transformer IFT4 and any AM component in the received was in tip-top working condition. A bit
second AM IF transformer IFT5 (L20 signal, such as car ignition noise or of contact cleaner and a quick tweak
and L22 respectively). As with Q3’s other interference. of the alignment had it going just fine.
collector circuit, the AM IF trans- Demodulated audio has deemphasis The band change pushbuttons had lost
former primary presents very little applied by R18/C40 to remove the pre- much of their labelling, but this was
impedance at 10.7MHz, allowing emphasis from the transmitted signal. restored using a fine-tipped marker.
Q4’s 10.7MHz signal to be developed The resulting audio signal is coupled Oh, for the days of Letraset!
across L20. to band change switch S1C via 250nF The case responded well to polish.
Q4’s circuitry is decoupled from capacitor C42. Deemphasised audio As for the electrical restoration, it only
other parts of the circuit by dropping is selected by S1C and routed to vol- needed contact cleaning and a quick
resistor R13 and bypass capacitor C27. ume control RV2 and via R23 to the alignment.
IFT4’s tuned, tapped secondary L21 audio section.
couples to the base of third FM IF How good is it?
amplifier Q5. Although this secondary Audio section Very good. In a typical British under-
is in series with second AM IF trans- The audio section operates identi- statement, a 1963 British Broadcasting
former IFT5’s secondary L23, capaci- cally for all bands. It is a conventional Corporation Engineering Report stated
tor C30 bypasses L23 for 10.7MHz sig- three-stage design with preamplifier, “the quality of reproduction is pleas-
nals, allowing the FM IF signal from driver and push-pull Class-B output. ing” (see the references below).
L21 to appear at Q5’s base. Q5 operates Preamplifier Q6 operates with com- Its AM performance is as good as its
with fixed combination bias via R16/ bination bias. It amplifies the demodu- predecessor, the TR82, rivalling Sony’s
R17, and emitter resistor R15, which lated audio from volume control RV2 outstanding TR-712 (see March 2017;
returns to the positive supply. and delivers it to driver stage Q7. Q7 siliconchip.com.au/Article/10588).
Q5’s collector connects to ground also uses combination bias, and deliv- FM performance is also excellent,
via fourth FM IF transformer IFT6’s ers its amplified signal to driver trans- achieving 40dB of quieting with just
primary L24 and third AM IF transformer T1’s primary winding. As with over 20µV at the input, as shown in
former IFT7’s primary, L27. The all other stages, Q7’s collector connects Fig.3, and hitting 60dB+ well before
10.7MHz IF signal developed across to ground via its load – in this case, the accepted standard of 500µV.
L24 is coupled to centre-tapped sec- T1’s primary. AM performance is also plotted for
ondary L26 and tertiary winding A variable top-cut tone control comparison. Yes, FM radio really is
L25. AM IFT7 has no circuit effect at (RV3/C52) is connected between Q7’s better than AM.
10.7MHz. collector and ground.
The FM demodulator circuit is a T1’s secondary provides antiphase Test results
conventional ratio detector compris- signals to the bases of Q8 and Q9. AM performance saw the standard
ing, mainly, fourth FM IF transform- These operate with a small amount of 50mW output for 3.4µV at 600kHz,
er’s secondary L26/tertiary L25, diodes forward bias applied by divider R34/ 2.4µV at 1400kHz, but for (signal+
D2 and D3, resistors R22/R24/RV1 and R35. There is no bias adjustment, and noise)-to-noise (S+N/N) figures of
capacitor C46. there is no temperature compensation 18dB and 12dB respectively. For the
At exactly 10.7MHz, signals at the in this circuit. Q8/Q9 drive push-pull standard 20dB figures, the input lev-
two diodes are of equal amplitude output transformer T2’s centre-tapped els were 3.8µV and 5.3µV.
and phase, so they deliver a constant primary. T2’s secondary connects, via Off-air sensitivity was 100µV/m at
DC voltage to capacitor C46, and the earphone socket JK1, to the internal 600kHz and 90µV/m, for S+N/N ratios
intended audio voltage at C36 is a con- speaker. of 21dB and 16dB. At 20dB S+N/N, the
stant DC value. Negative feedback is applied from set needed 120µV/m. Its RF bandwidth

was ±1.7kHz for -3dB, ±14kHz at -60dB. VTR103 provides an S+N/N ratio of a S+N/N ratio of 60dB or better for a
Lacking an AGC extension diode 40dB with about 30µV at the input, +54dBµV (500µV) signal, and a fre-
(as did the TR82), AGC action is only and the standard 60dB with about quency response of 20Hz~15kHz.
adequate with a 30dB range. AM audio 60µV at the input. Measuring the frequency response
response is 40Hz~1.8kHz at -3dB from Audio response from the antenna to is complicated by the receiver’s
the antenna to the speaker; from the the speaker is 40Hz to around 8kHz. deemphasis circuitry that compen-
volume control to the speaker, it is While it doesn’t meet the full 20Hz to sates the high-frequency preempha-
55Hz~4.2kHz. 15kHz broadcast specification, it does sis introduced by the transmitter. Its
Total harmonic distortion (THD) sound very good. My preferences, clas- purpose is to improve the system’s
is commendably low, with less than sical music and metal (both of which high-frequency noise figures.
0.5% at 50mW and at 10mW (where demand the full audio spectrum for Fig.4 shows the VTR103’s actual
crossover distortion would usually good reproduction) come through response versus the standard response
worsen performance). well. due to deemphasis. Notice the excess
The set goes into clipping around An external speaker really does loss of high frequencies after about
150mW. At low battery voltages, it show off this set, and points to the 5kHz, caused by top cut components
clips at about 35mW, with 2.8% THD, outstanding audio performance that such as C56 and confirmed by the “vol-
and noticeable crossover distortion. FM broadcast offers. ume control-to-speaker” figures. This
FM performance, as noted above, drop-off confirms my opinion that the
is excellent. At 88MHz, an input of Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) tape recorder output would have given
7.5µV gives an S+N/N figure of 16dB FM broadcasting was introduced better fidelity if picked off before the
for 50mW output. More usefully, the as a high-quality service. We expect speaker connection.
Collectability
Fig.3: The one I bought had been used
AM and by a video/film production company
FM SNR as set dressing – something to put
+60dB response. in the shot for a “sixties vibe”. As it
worked just fine, I am pleased with
the purchase.
+50dB
As mentioned in the intro, modern
(Signal + Noise) to Noise Ratio (S+N)/N
FM band
reproductions are available. While
+40dB
they look superficially similar, I
wouldn’t spend maybe $100 when I
AM band
could get an original online for less.
+30dB Let me put it this way: I am not a fan
of DAB+ radio.
+20dB VTR103 versions

As with the TR82, the VTR103 came
in several different colours. Like my
+10dB
TR82C, my VTR103C has blue trim.
There’s also one in brown, and one
0dB
with an entirely brown case.
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200
Signal Level in microvolts (mV)
Special handling
+10dB Fig.4: FM
As with the TR82C, the VTR103’s
frequency tuning knob is a press fit. Bush’s servic-
response. ing manual recommends using a suc-
0 dB
tion cup (such as a “plumber’s helper”)
to draw the knob off. The Bush manual
clearly advises against attempting to
OUTPUT (dB ref 50mW)
Standard apply pressure “from screwdrivers or

–10dB
other levers”. Sound advice.
Measured
Another method is to wrap string
around the centre boss to make a lift-
–20dB
ing rig. Take your time.
Further reading
–30dB
As usual, Ernst Erb’s site is the
go-to: www.radiomuseum.org/r/bush_
vtr103vtr_10.html
–40dB
10Hz 20 40 50 100Hz 200 500 1kHz 2kHz 5kHz 10kHz 20k Engineering report: www.bbc.co.uk/
FREQUENCY rd/publications/rdreport_1963_42 SC

ASK SILICON CHIP
Got a technical problem? Can’t understand a piece of jargon or some technical principle? Drop us a line
and we’ll answer your question. Send your email to silicon@siliconchip.com.au
Advanced GPS did not have a specified maximum

charge current, hence the 100mA
ratings at 80A and 30V, and its gate-
source voltage on-threshold is low
Computer cable length setting, which is quite conservative. enough.
I am thinking of building the Lower charging currents will be better
Advanced GPS Computer (June & July
2021; siliconchip.com.au/Series/366).
for long-term cell longevity too.
If you are confident that your battery
Short circuit on
Could you advise whether a 2m can handle a higher charging current, Mini BackPack PCB
length of cable between the GPS mod- then the 10kW PROG resistor can be I built your D1 Mini BackPack with
ule and the Micromite would be pos- reduced as far as 2kW. That will give a WiFi (October 2020; siliconchip.com.
sible? I note that your photos only 500mA nominal charge current, which au/Article/14599) and was able to
show a cable approximately 50cm is the limit of the MCP73831 charge load the demo software into it. When
long. I also wonder what sort of accu- controller IC. A 4.7kW resistor should I power it up, the screen for entering
racy one can expect if the unit was in give around 212mA, as you suggest. a location appears on the LCD but the
a car doing, say, 100km/h. Keep up the touch function is not working. Can you
good work. (D. B. S., Artarmon, NSW) USB socket suggest a solution? (J. L., Tauranga, NZ)
• 2m is a bit long for a cable car- part code query • You most likely have a short circuit
rying TTL serial signals. It might or somewhere on the SD card socket. The
might not work; it could be flaky. As What type of mini USB socket have SPI pins used to communicate with the
the GPS serial is usually only 9600 you used in the Battery Multi Logger touch controller are also used for SD
baud, you might get away with it. (February & March 2021; siliconchip. card socket communications. As the
Still, you would be better off using a com.au/Series/355)? The parts list only screen display is working, most likely,
GPS module with an external antenna describes it as an “SMD mini-USB the MISO line is shorted since that line
socket, mounting it near the Advanced socket”. (B. C., Bray Park, Qld) is necessary for the touch controller
GPS Computer and then running a 2m • We aren’t sure who originated this to work but not the screen displays.
shielded antenna cable to an appropri- design but it seems that virtually Have a close look at the pins on the
ate antenna mount. everyone has copied it. While there SD card socket and possibly remove
If you did want to extend the data are surely incompatible SMD Mini the SD socket if it looks as though
cable, we suggest you use a shielded Type-B sockets available, many of the something could be shorting out
cable. parts you can find will fit this same underneath.
The speed accuracy is down to the footprint. One part we know is suit- The reader followed up to confirm
GPS module. The data for the VK2828 able is the EDAC Inc. 690-005-299- that this was the problem.
module we used suggests a speed error 043, available from Digi-Key (Cat 151-
of less than 0.1m/s (around 0.3km/h).
In our experience, the readings are
1206-1-ND) and Mouser (Cat 587-690-
005-299-043).
Reflow Oven wiring
usually within 1km/h, with the update diagram error
lag introducing more noticeable errors
than the speed accuracy itself. That is
Substitute Mosfet for I’m building Phil Prosser’s DIY Sol-
der Reflow Oven (April & May 2020;
because many GPS modules only pro- Ultrasonic Cleaner siliconchip.com.au/Series/343). The
duce data once per second, plus there I’m thinking of building your High wiring diagram, Fig.11 on page 90 of
is a processing delay. Power Ultrasonic Cleaner (Septem- the May 2020 issue, shows the rib-
ber & October 2020; siliconchip.com. bon cable arrangement from CON8 to
GPS Computer au/Series/350), but I’m finding most
suppliers of the SUP53P06-20 Mosfet
the LCD module, but pin 1 of CON8
appears to go to pin 20 of the LCD.
battery charging are out of stock. The photo on page 89 appears cor-
I built the Advanced GPS Computer, Jaycar seems to still have a few (Cat rect, although I think the ribbon cable
and everything seems to be working ZT2464), but if I can’t get those, can I cannot be folded neatly. Also, care
OK, but the battery takes forever to use the IPP80P03P4L-04 that you sell needs to be taken to prevent the LCD
charge. Could I lower the value of the in your Online Shop (siliconchip. Adaptor board from shorting out on
10kW resistor between pin 5 of IC4 com.au/Shop/7/4318)? (E. Z., Turra- the display cover mounting clips. I’d
and ground to say 4.7kW? It will draw murra, NSW) suggest some stand-offs or insulation
an extra 100mA or so from the power • Yes, the IPP80P03P4L-04 should here. Could I have some clarification?
source, but I don’t see why that would be a suitable substitute for the (I. T., Duncraig, WA)
matter. (P. C., Balgal Beach, Qld) SUP53P06-20 in this circuit. It has • Phil Prosser responds: You are cor-
• The battery we used in our prototype high enough current and voltage rect; Fig.11 shows the cable from the

controller to the LCD with pins 1 & one ear of a pair of earphones (caus- change, still the fault light is flashing.
20 swapped. The drawing probably ing the ears to hear anti-phase) could I’ve covered each high-voltage part
should have had pin 1 indicated on produce clean dialog, but I have had and under the crystal with conformal
the ribbon cable. I should have picked no success with this. Any other sug- coating to make sure it does not short
that up. Yes, the photo is correct. gestions would be most welcome. (B. on the board.
It is possible to fold ribbon cable to H., Cornubia, Qld) I tried adding a 470W 1W resistor
‘neatly’ swap over the pins. It is a little • That is a great idea. While we don’t between the drain and source of the Q5
like origami, and it takes a little more have the technical details of the Aus- Mosfet, as you’ve suggested in the past
cable, but it does work. You need to tralian TV broadcast standards, chan- to fix similar faults, but that didn’t help
‘squish’ it pretty hard, but a clean bend nels use either MPEG2/4 digital com- either. I also replaced the 2200μF 25V
is possible. You bend the cable 90° in pression and encapsulation. MPEG2 capacitors that came with the kit with
the opposite direction you want the supports up to 16 audio programs, Rubycon 25ZLH2200MEFC16X20
corner to go in, then fold it back 180° while MPEG4 supports an essentially capacitors but still get the same fault
on top of itself. unlimited number. light. Does it matter that it does not
This error was corrected in the So we think there is no technical say “low ESR” on the packet? (T. S.,
online version, with errata published reason why your suggestion couldn’t United Kingdom)
in the June 2021 issue of Silicon Chip. be implemented, as long as the TVs • Those Rubycon caps are suitable;
We have not had trouble with the decoding the streams can handle more they are listed as low-impedance. As
LCD adaptor board, although think- than one or two audio programs (and it seems the capacitors are not leaky,
ing of the problem you describe, we surely they should). we think that Mosfet Q5 isn’t charging
wonder if you are trying to mount the You would have to convince the the capacitors. Check this Mosfet and
adaptor close to flush with the LCD. We broadcasters to add those channels, whether it is being driven at its gate
generally use standard 2.54mm header however. Even people with reason- when power is switched on.
pins to connect the LCD adaptor board ably good hearing can have trouble There should be a square wave at
to the screen, which gives 5mm+ of understanding dialog in TV programs pin 6 of IC1, and the gate voltage of
separation between them. with loud background music or sound Q5 should start to increase above
effects. Some programs seem to have the source. Over a few seconds, this
Idea to help the hard- especially muted-sounding dialog.
You are right that 5.1/7.1 encoded
voltage should go above 3V, and the
2200μF capacitor should begin to
of-hearing watch TV transmission usually have the cen- charge. Read the section entitled “Soft
Is there an unused audio channel tre channel carrying speech and little start facility” in the instructions, and
on the Australian TV broadcast stan- else. This is a good reason to have a check if this is happening with your
dards? I have searched the internet for surround sound system with a centre Anti-Fouling unit.
an answer without success. channel (even if you don’t need the
Recently, TV channels have been
broadcasting a secondary audio chan-
rear channels), as it can make dialog
significantly more intelligible. Not
Running SC200 from a
nel for the vision-impaired. I wonder all broadcasts have surround sound 35-0-35V transformer
if another similar facility is vacant and encoding, though. I have a quick question concerning
could be made available for the hear- the SC200 Power Amplifier modules
ing impaired. Such an audio chan-
nel could exclude the background or
Ultrasonic Anti-Fouling (January-March 2017; siliconchip.
com.au/Series/308). I’ve read in your
effects sounds that make it so difficult fault LED flashing articles that for the lower power ver-
for many hearing-impaired people to I have built your Ultrasonic sion, using a 160VA transformer with
understand TV dialog. Anti-Fouling MkII (May & June 2017; 30-0-30V secondaries, you suggest
This would enable Australian pro- siliconchip.com.au/Series/312) from changing the 22kW resistor between
grams such as current affairs to be a Jaycar kit. During the testing step, the collector of Q7 and ground to 15kW,
heard with ‘clean’ dialog. It seems that without the transformers installed, I and the two 6.8kW resistors at the col-
once background and effects audio are adjusted and measured the following lector of Q6 to 4.7kW.
mixed in, there is no way of unscram- voltages: As I’m using the Ferguson trans-
bling the combination. Input: 14.3V formers from my old ETI500 with
As an afterthought, is the primary Between pins 5 & 14 of IC1 35-0-35V secondaries, should I change
TV broadcast audio a multichannel socket: 4.95V those resistors to 18kW and 5.6kW,
system so that viewers with 5.1 or 7.1 TP1: 1.155V respectively? (T. B., Bumberrah, Vic)
home theatre receivers can produce TP2: 0.5V • The values you have suggested are
this effect? If so, maybe a cooperative 2200μF capacitor: 0V about right.
TV broadcaster could have one audio When power is applied, the green
channel (perhaps the centre channel)
free of background/effects so that hard-
LED comes on for about three sec-
onds, then goes off, and the fault LED
MMBasic and
of-hearing viewers could connect to flashes. I tested all the resistors with a PRINT USING
that audio and hear ‘clean’ monau- multimeter before fitting and have now I have looked in all the MMBasic
ral dialog. removed and replaced them with new Manuals (versions 4.5 to 5.05.03) and
Some years ago, one of your readers resistors, a new 20MHz crystal and on Geoff Graham’s Maximite website,
suggested changing the connections to even a couple of the capacitors. No but I cannot find any reference to the

PRINT USING command. Is there a
workaround? I have several BASIC
40-0-40 secondary will need to handle
up to 300VA continuously. It should
Faulty batch of
programs I want to convert to MMBa- preferably have a silicone steel core, transistors
sic from the Amiga, Amstrad, Commo- and the lowest practical winding resis- I purchased several Ultra-LD
dore 128 and TRS-80. tance using copper, not aluminium. (J. Mk.4 Amplifier PCBs from your
Also, could you let me know how G., Christchurch, NZ) Online Shop, along with the required
many articles are in the series “Getting • As far as we know, all the parts to HN3A51F and HN3C51F transistors.
Started with the Maximite”, which I build those modules are still avail- This project was published in the
believe started in February 2017? (R. able. There are a few parts that you July-October 2015 issues (siliconchip.
M., Melville, WA) will probably have to order from us. com.au/Series/289).
• Geoff Graham responds: As you That includes the PCBs plus the front- Following the 12-step setup pro-
have discovered, PRINT USING is not end transistors for the Ultra-LD Mk.4 cedure in the third article, steps 1 to
implemented in MMBasic. Use the amplifier modules, we sell these at: 11 were successful, but I could not
Str$() function instead, which pro- siliconchip.com.au/Shop/7/3400 achieve the desired offset voltage (step
vides a lot of the same functionality The PCBs and other parts can 12) on any of the six amplifiers I assem-
(although the syntax is different). be found at: siliconchip.com.au/ bled. The voltage across the amplifier
The “Getting Started with the Shop/?article=8959 outputs is far too high. My under-
Micromite” articles were published As for the less commonly available standing is that it should be almost
in the February, March, May & June parts, it depends on which suppli- 0V. VR2 has practically no effect on
2017 issues. See siliconchip.com.au/ er(s) suit you best. We suggest you try the DC level.
Series/311 Mouser or Digi-Key first, as they are The voltages across the 68W emitter
likely to have the largest proportion resistors of Q2a & Q2b measure 60mV
Sourcing parts for of the components you need, and you
will be ordering enough to get free
rather than the 135mV specified; the
voltage across the 12kW resistor in
Ultra-LD Mk.4 Amp delivery. series with LED1 is 20V, not 24V; and
I would very much like to build the They send out orders pretty fast; the voltage across the 330W resistor
Ultra-LD Mk.4 200W amplifier, power usually, we receive parts from those at the emitter of Q3a is 580mV rather
supply and Mk.3 speaker protector two suppliers within a week of order- than 600mV.
(July-October 2015; siliconchip.com. ing. For the remainder of the compo- When I feed a signal generator into
au/Series/289). nents, especially for ‘generic’ things the amplifier, the amplifier goes into
I’m starting to investigate the like capacitors and through-hole resis- distortion for all frequencies above
availability of parts before deciding tors, try your local Jaycar store. 1kHz. Interestingly, all six modules
whether to proceed. Are there any Altronics have a good selection too, are performing (faulting) precisely
parts in those designs that will likely and if you will be ordering the power the same.
be hard to find? supply kit from them, you can get I think the fault is with the HN3C51F
Also, this would be my first Sili- many of the other parts delivered at transistors (Q2). I am confident that the
con Chip build, and I don’t have any the same time. output stage is stable and is operating
preferred suppliers. I see your refer- As for the transformer, you are cor- correctly. (I. P. V., Karrinyup, WA)
ences to suppliers such as element14, rect that the Altronics part we used • We tested several of the HN3C51F
Rockby, Altronics, Mouser, Digi-Key has been discontinued and it’s diffi- transistors that we have in stock, and
and Jaycar. I also see that Altronics cult to find a replacement. You could it seems that we have received a batch
have a kit for the power supply, and I have a transformer made, but also of duds.
can obtain the circuit boards plus the consider using two separate toroidal It isn’t that they are out-of-spec tran-
SMD parts for the Speaker Protector transformers, one around 300VA with sistors; they do not behave like tran-
Mk.3 from Silicon Chip. two 40V secondaries and one smaller sistors at all, and different samples we
Does anyone supply more complete 2x15V (say 30VA). Both are available tested all behave differently. So it must
kits for the amplifier at all? As you can off-the-shelf. be a manufacturing failure.
understand, shipping costs will be sig- The only real disadvantage of this Luckily, we were able to find and
nificant if I need to source lots of par- configuration is the extra space and a source a reasonable number of the
tial shipments (to New Zealand) from bit more wiring. There are some advan- only compatible substitute part, also
different suppliers. tages - you might get a bit more power now discontinued, the IMX8-7-F. We
Sourcing the correct transformer is for the main amplifier modules since have tested several of the devices that
a problem. I haven’t found any sup- you won’t have the preamp draw on we received, and they seem to be fine.
pliers that list a version with 2x40V that transformer. So from now on, we will sup-
plus 2x15V secondaries. The power Your suggestions for the transformer ply IMX8-7-F transistors instead
supply kit available from Altronics specifications seem sound, although of HN3C51F (siliconchip.com.au/
doesn’t appear to include the trans- you didn’t mention it being toroidal, Shop/7/3400) and we will send you
former. I have had discussions with which we strongly recommend as they replacements for the faulty transistors
a transformer manufacturer here in have lower external magnetic fields. If you received.
Christchurch, but I’d need more detail you do have to get one made, see if you Luckily, Q2 acts as the current mir-
on its specifications before proceeding. can get it with an outer electrostatic ror for the input pair, so the perfor-
If I need to have a transformer shield layer. That helps to reduce the mance of these transistors is nowhere
built, can I assume the following? The hum field. near as critical as the HN3A51Fs. We

still have a reasonable number of those loads like computers or computer- siliconchip.com.au/Series/25) from an
in stock. controlled equipment from a genera- Altronics kit (Cat K6032) for use on
By the way, it looks like the origi- tor without a pure sinewave output. my pool pump, as per the instructions
nal circuit diagram (Fig.1 on p34-35 of Their waveform can be very distorted, included with the kit. The pump starts
the August 2015 issue) had an error. and the amplitude and frequency can and runs as described, but the control-
The 135mV specified for the 68W emit- vary considerably. That is probably ler is emitting RFI that interferes with
ter resistors of Q2a & Q2b should be what you are referring to when you our AM radio reception. The interfer-
closer to 68mV as the 2mA from Q3a mention stationary computers, wash- ence is quite evident and disturbing.
is split between these two resistors in ing machines and fridges. Our AM radio uses a loop antenna
the quiescent condition. mounted in the ceiling and gives excel-
Hence, your voltage measurements
were all close enough to be consid-
Easy way to calibrate lent interference-free reception, unless
the controller is running. The control-
ered correct. multimeters ler is located in the pool shed, which
I have seven multimeters. Many of is about 10 metres from the house in
Operating hydronic them are not used regularly, so I have
stored them without batteries in the
the corner of our yard, so I cannot
increase the physical separation. I am
heating during blackout original boxes, and they remain in also concerned that I will be causing a
Last Wednesday, a storm broke hun- good condition. nuisance to my neighbours.
dreds of trees near our home, and this It would be expensive to get them The pump being controlled is an
is the sixth day without power. professionally recalibrated, so I am 860W Davey Silensor which, accord-
We have hydronic heating and plenty building the Precision 10V DC Refer- ing to my power meter, is drawing
of gas, but we can’t run it because the ence for Checking DMMs (March 2014; around 990W without the controller
installer says that Bosch boilers are not siliconchip.com.au/Article/6729) and and about 330W with it. So it should be
compatible with generators. They gave have ordered 10W, 100W, 1kW, 10kW & well within the controller’s capacity.
no technical explanation for why this 100kW ±0.1% resistors. I plan to put The controller and pump leads are
is the case, nor any solution. all these in an enclosure. both around 1.8m long and cannot be
A local electrician said to connect I know this will not be the same as shortened significantly. The Altronics
Neutral to the generator ground, which getting them professional calibrated; kit came with a plastic case, as per your
sounds dangerous to me. I have also it is only to check that they are still article. The pool shed is metal and is
heard about difficulties powering sta- within their manufacturer’s specs so not Earthed in any way (I’m not sure
tionary computers, washing machines that I can use them with confidence. if that is required). The radio and pool
and some fridges from generators. I have ordered the AD587JNZ and shed are on the same mains circuit.
Is it possible to run the hydronic the resistors from element14. Do you Please give me suggestions on how
heating controller from a generator? have any comments on this? (R. M., I can reduce this interference. (J. M.,
(V. K., Mt Dandenong, Vic) Melville, WA) via email)
• It’s difficult to answer your ques- • That sounds like a reasonable • We tested whether the IMSC inter-
tion without knowing what sort of approach. You will probably find that fered with AM radio reception during
generator you have. Generator out- many of your multimeters are still spot the development phase. We did this
puts vary considerably depending on on. They can drift over time, but don’t while it was connected to a pool pump
whether they are electronically syn- always do so. and operating. Bringing a portable AM
thesised (inverter generator) or not, You could also use such a setup to radio close to the IMSC only resulted
and whether they have a pure sine- calibrate the lower current ranges, in in a small amount of hash pickup at a
wave output, modified sinewave, combination with a variable bench range of about 1m. With the radio more
square wave etc. supply, ideally with an adjustable than 2m away from the controller, very
If you have an inverter generator current limit. You would need to cal- little to no interference was apparent.
with a pure sinewave output, virtually ibrate one meter’s voltage ranges first. So your controller appears to be cre-
any equipment should be able to run Connect the meter in series with ating a great deal more EMI/RFI than
from it the same as it does from the one of the lower-value precision resis- our prototype. We therefore suspect
mains. Just make sure that the gener- tors, with the calibrated meter across that your problem is related to noise
ator has sufficient peak and continu- the resistor. Adjust the supply voltage coupled onto the mains wiring, rather
ous current/power capability for the until you get very close to 10mV across than direct radiation from the unit or
load(s) attached. The pure sinewave the 10W resistor. its wiring.
output would be cleaner than the typ- You then know that the current is First, check your mains Earthing.
ical mains waveforms! very close to 100mA. The resistor dis- The effectiveness of the line filtering
The primary power consumption in sipation will be 100mW in this case, is only as good as the Earthing. This
a hydronic heating system will be the so keep in mind the resistor’s power could be a problem if the controller is
water pump. If the pump is modestly rating. at the end of a long cable run, and the
sized, it will probably not draw more Earth impedance is on the high side,
than a few amps, so even a modest
pure sinewave inverter running from
Induction Motor Speed or if your domestic Earth connection
is not good. You might need to have
a reasonably-sized lead-acid battery Controller radiates EMI an electrician install an Earth stake in
should be able to run it. I have built your Induction Motor the pool shed.
We do not suggest running sensitive Speed Controller (April & May 2012; continued on page 112

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WARNING!
Silicon Chip magazine regularly describes projects which employ a mains power supply or produce high voltage. All such
projects should be considered dangerous or even lethal if not used safely. Readers are warned that high voltage wiring
should be carried out according to the instructions in the articles.
When working on these projects use extreme care to ensure that you do not accidentally come into contact with mains
AC voltages or high voltage DC. If you are not confident about working with projects employing mains voltages or other high
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If the Earth is solid, then it would a Jaycar kit (Cat KC5464). Can it be
be worthwhile trying a bigger mains modified to run from a 24V supply?
filter. This could be as simple as wind- (J. S., via email) Advertising Index
ing the mains wires through a toroidal • You need to change the relay to a
ferrite core. compatible type with a 24V DC coil, AEE ElectroneX.......................... 7
the 470μF capacitor to a 35V rated
Altronics...............................83-86
Speaker Protector not type, and the 1kW LED current-limit-
ing resistor to 2.2kW.
sensing AC Ampec Technologies................. 25
I have built the October 2011 Loud-
speaker Protector module (siliconchip.
Incorrect component in Control Devices..................... OBC
com.au/Article/1178) from an Altron- low ohms meter
Dave Thompson...................... 111
ics kit (Cat K5167). I have built the Low Ohms Tester by
I configured it for my supply rail John Clarke from the June 1996 issue Digi-Key Electronics.................... 3
voltage and tested it with the pre- (siliconchip.com.au/Article/4987), but
scribed method, and it seemed fine. I can’t get it working. The text says that Emona Instruments................. IBC
However, as soon as I connect the AC the voltage at pin 2 of IC1 should be
sense lines from my transformer, it the same as pin 3. Hare & Forbes............................. 9
refuses to work. Adjusting VR1, I can get 2.4V on
Connecting AC sense to the positive pin 3, so it appears REF1 is working Jaycar............................ IFC,53-60
rail as detailed in the instructions and OK. But the voltage at pin 2 is 1.64V. I
performing all other tests shows the have replaced IC1 and Q1 to no avail. Keith Rippon Kit Assembly...... 111
module to be working. (N. L., Christchurch, NZ)
Can you enlighten me as to the likely • Since you have replaced IC1 and Lazer Security......................... 111
cause of this problem? (D. J., Man- Q1, that seems to rule out either com-
durah, WA) ponent being faulty (which would LD Electronics......................... 111
• The first thing to do is check that explain what you are seeing).
LEDsales................................. 111
you have wired up the transformer to However, if Q1 is the wrong type
the AC sense terminals correctly. Typi- or orientated incorrectly, that would
cally, you would have a centre-tapped cause this sort of fault. The only other Microchip Technology.................. 5
winding with the centre tap Earthed possibilities are a lack of continuity or
and the other connections going to incorrect value with the 2.4kW resis- Ocean Controls......................... 11
both your bridge rectifier AC termi- tor, trimpot VR2 or the 200W resistor.
PMD Way................................ 111
nals, and the terminals of CON2 on Try changing range switch S2 to see
the Speaker Protector. if that has any effect; if it does, it is Silicon Chip Shop...............96-97
Assuming the connections are cor- likely one of the latter three compo-
rect, verify that the base voltage of Q2 nents at fault. Note that if this part of Switchmode Power Supplies....... 6
is low (below 0.2V) when the AC volt- the circuit is operating normally, pin
age is present at the AC sense input. If 6 of IC1 should be around one diode The Loudspeaker Kit.com......... 10
that is incorrect, then check diodes D2 drop (approximately 0.6V) below the
and D3 and the transistor Q1 to ensure voltage at pins 2 & 3. Tronixlabs................................ 111
they are orientated correctly, have
good solder joints and are not faulty.
That it worked with a DC test sug-
Pulse generator circuit Vintage Radio Repairs............ 111
gests transistor Q1 is working OK and wanted Wagner Electronics................... 63

that at least one of diodes D2 & D3 is I’m interested in building a pulse
functioning correctly. generator. I found a pulse generator
It could be a problem with the resis- design in Practical Electronics, Febru-
tor or capacitor values around Q1. If ary 1979. Can you suggest a circuit as Notes & Errata
the 470nF capacitor is not soldered simple as that one, but up to date with
correctly or has the wrong value, the similar specifications and features? (R. Ultra-LD Mk.4 Amplifier, July-August
circuit will work with DC voltage M., Melville, WA) 2015: the circuit diagram (Fig.1)
applied but not AC. Similarly, if the • We published a pulse generator incorrectly specifies 135mV across
resistor values are wrong, the circuit circuit in the Circuit Notebook section the 68W emitter resistors of Q2a
might not hold up through dips in the of the November 1997 issue, which has & Q2b, the correct value should be
AC voltage. similar features to the one you refer around 68mV.
to (siliconchip.com.au/Article/5833). The September 2021 issue is due
Flexitimer with higher However, there was no PCB design to
accompany that circuit.
on sale in newsagents by Thursday,
supply voltage You could also build up the Practi-
August 26th. Expect postal delivery
of subscription copies in Australia
Many years ago, I built the PIC- cal Electronics design as there is noth-
Based Flexitimer Mk.4 (June 2008; ing wrong with it. All the parts used in between August 25th and September
siliconchip.com.au/Article/1847) from that circuit are still available. 10th.
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AUGUST 2021

Looking Through The Body

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Relays handle up to 10A current and are not suited for

SKILL LEVEL: Beginner

FROM ONLY Aerosol

1800 022 888

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Features & Reviews

Your Favourite Columns Op amps are used in a huge variety

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2 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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4 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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POWER to the eight-yearly cycle of telcos.

Specialisation program delivery by quoting percentage changes in the

6 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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In Association with Supporting Publication Organised by

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8 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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Metric Hex Key Set

ACP-155 Metric Precision Imperial Precision PP-13C

UNIQUE PROMO CODE COMPETITIVE *DELIVERED Simple & Quick

FREIGHT RATES! TO YOUR DOOR Rate Check!

Vintage electronics and electric blanket hazards

10 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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With several ordinary blankets on top, the temperature SKU: EEI-200

siliconchip.com.au Australia’s electronics magazine August 2021 11

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M any imaging technologies have

Fig.2: a Crookes tube, shown

12 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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Fig.4: a typical X-ray emission spectrum with a tungsten target.

siliconchip.com.au Australia’s electronics magazine August 2021 13

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How are X-rays recorded?

end station, where experiments are performed. To give an idea of

14 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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Medical computed tomogra-

siliconchip.com.au Australia’s electronics magazine August 2021 15

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16 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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MRI machines generate a power-

siliconchip.com.au Australia’s electronics magazine August 2021 17

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18 Silicon Chip Australia’s electronics magazine siliconchip.com.au

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siliconchip.com.au Australia’s electronics magazine August 2021 19

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Fig.29 (above): a whole-body bone

Fig.32: the imaging principle of PET.

Cable Assembly * Box Build * System Assembly