LUNAR SATELLITE BOX-SHAPED

(SATÉLITE LUNAR CÚBICO)

Statement
The following simplified thermal model is to be analysed for the thermal control of a small spacecraft
orbiting the Moon in a circular orbit at 300 km altitude in the Moon’s orbital plane. The satellite is 3-axes
stabilised, with a cubic main body of 0.5 m side, with four protruding flaps protecting from sunlit the face
pointing to the Moon (Fig. 1). All walls are made of aluminium 1 mm thick, and the three faces exposed to
sunlit are covered with thin solar cells with an effective area of 90% and an electrical efficiency of 20%.
Inside the box, there is a 2 mm thick aluminium plate at mid height, with an electronics box of 40·40·20
cm3 and 10 kg at each side, centred, with an averaged thermal capacity of 1000 J/(kg·K), holding batteries
and a control system to deliver a constant electrical power all the time. For the thermal model, the following
nodes are to be considered: one at each of the six faces of the main box (1,2,3,4,5,6), one at each flap
(7,8,9,10), and another one for the internal assembly of e-boxes and instrument support plate (11). Thermo-
optical properties of surfaces should be adequately selected. To do:
a) Find the relative eclipse duration, and the minimum extent of the flaps to guarantee that the Sun
rays never fall on the face pointing to the Moon.
b) Find the external heat loads (solar, albedo and infrared) as a function of orbit position.
c) Find the thermal conductance and radiative couplings between nodes.
d) Establish the node equations.
e) Find the steady temperatures at the sub-solar and at the opposition points.
f) Find the orbital mean temperatures at the nodes.
g) Find the temperature evolution along the orbit, in the periodic state.

Fig. 1. Lunar satellite geometry.

Lunar satellite box-shaped 1
 Para el estudio térmico preliminar de un pequeño satélite en órbita circular alrededor de la Luna, a 300
km de altitud y en el plano de su órbita alrededor de la Tierra, se propone el siguiente modelo. Se trata de
un satélite estabilizado en tres ejes, de cuerpo cúbico de 50 cm de lado, con cuatro paneles laterales
sobresaliendo de la cara que mira siempre a la Luna (Fig. 1). Todas las paredes del satélite son de aluminio
de 1 mm de espesor, y sobre las tres laterales expuestas al Sol se han colocado células solares de silicio de
0,5 mm de espesor cubriendo toda el área, con una relación de área efectiva del 90% para la producción de
electricidad, que se realiza con un rendimiento energético del 20%. En el interior hay una bandeja de
aluminio de 2 mm de espesor y sendas cajas de electrónica a cada lado de 40·40·20 cm3, que forman un
conjunto centrado como se muestra en la figura. Cada caja tiene una masa de 10 kg y una capacidad térmica
media de 1000 J/(kg/·K), con un sistema de baterías y controladores en su interior que se encargan de
mantener un consumo eléctrico constante en todo momento. Para el análisis térmico se van a considerar los
siguientes nodos: cada una de las seis caras cuadradas exteriores (1,2,3,4,5,6), los paneles que sobresalen
(7,8.9,10), y el conjunto de las cajas interiores y la bandeja porta-instrumentos (11). Las características
termo-ópticas de las superficies no especificadas se elegirán adecuadamente. Se pide:
a) Determinar la duración relativa de los eclipses y la anchura mínima de los paneles que sobresalen
para evitar que la cara que mira a la Luna pueda estar iluminada por el Sol.
b) Determinar las cargas térmicas (solar, de albedo e infrarroja) en función de la posición orbital.
c) Determinar la conductancia térmica y los acoplamientos radiativos entre cada nodo.
d) Establecer las ecuaciones nodales.
e) Determinar las temperaturas que se alcanzarían con la nave en el punto subsolar, y en el opuesto,
suponiendo régimen estacionario.
f) Determinar los valores medios orbitales de las temperaturas de cada nodo.
g) Determinar la evolución de las temperaturas a lo largo de la órbita en el estado periódico.

Solution
We start by making a compilation of relevant data for the lunar orbit (do not mix up lunar orbit of a
spacecraft around the Moon, with Moon’s orbit around the Earth). Most values (with the main exception of
thermo-optical properties) are accurate to three significant figures (we try to carry out the 3-figures accuracy
down to the results: node temperatures, which have lower uncertainties than thermo-optical properties.

Table 1. Data for the lunar orbit and Moon’s orbit.

Parameter Symbol and value Comments
Sun-to-Moon RSM=150·109 m (1 AU) Sat to Moon and Moon to Earth distances are much smaller.
mean distance Perihelion 147·109 m, aphelion 152·109 m.
6
Moon-to-Earth RME=385·10 m (60 Earth diameters). Perigee 363·106 m, apogee 406·106 m.
mean distance
Moon radius RM=1737 km (0.273 RE). Equatorial 1738 km, Polar 1736 km. g=1.62 m/s2.
Moon orbit period TM=27.3 d Synodic period (from full-moon to full-moon) is TM=29.5 d.
Moon orbit i=5.1º to ecliptic Between 18º and 29º to Earth’s equator.
inclination
Moon axis tilt iM=1.54º to ecliptic 6.7º to Moon’s orbit plane.
Moon surface TM=274 K Tmax=390 K at subsolar point (equatorial noon), falling as
temperature (cosφ)1/4 towards the terminator, with quasi-uniform Tdark=100
Lunar satellite box-shaped 2
 K on the whole dark hemisphere. Tmin=26 K at one polar
crater (the minimum in the solar system), and Tmean=274 K.
Moon emissivity εM=0.94 From energy balance (1−ρ)EπR2=4πR2εσTp4. M=εσTp4=300
W/m2.
Solar irradiance E=1360 W/m2 With <2% annual oscillation due to Earth orbit eccentricity.
Albedo ρ=0.12 Bolometric; normal albedo is 0.07.
Solar beta angle β≈0 Sat orbit is almost in the ecliptic plane since it is in Moon’s
orbit plane, with an inclination to the ecliptic of β=i=5.1º.
Relative altitude h=H/R=300/1737=0.173 The Moon has no atmosphere (the Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter altitude was 30..70 km)
Sat orbit period T=8470 s (2.4 h) T=2π[(Rp+H)3/(GMp)]1/2, Rp=RM, G=6.674·10--11 N·m2/kg2,
Mp=73.5·1021 kg.
Eclipse fraction Te/T=0.325 Te/T=(1/π)arcsin(1/(1+h)), Te=46 min.
Eclipse start angle φe=2.12 rad (121.5º). φe=π−arcsin(1/(1+h)).

The Moon differs from most satellites of other planets in that its orbit is close to the plane of the ecliptic,
and not to its planet’s equatorial plane (Fig. 2). The Moon crosses the ecliptic about twice per month. If this
happens during new moon a solar eclipse occurs, and a lunar eclipse if during full moon. This was the way
the ancients could trace the ecliptic along the sky; they marked the places where eclipses could occur.

Fig. 2. a) Frontal sketch view along the ecliptic plane of Moon’s orbit, not to scale (Earth-Moon
barycentre is at 4641 km from Earth’s centre). b) Earth–Moon system to scale. Wiki.

We have chosen for the origin of angular positions along the orbit, φ, the sub-solar point (recall we have
approximated β=5.1º≈0; see Fig. 3, which is an upside-down view; compare it with the frontal view in Figs.
1 and 2.

Fig. 3 . Orbit view from the North Ecliptic Pole, to show the angular position origin, φ=0, along the
orbit, the eclipse period (from φ=φe=121.5º, to φ=238.5º), and the panel protrusion to avoid the
nadir face being sunlit.

Lunar satellite box-shaped 3

We can compute and compile relevant physical parameters (geometrical and thermal) for the spacecraft.

Table 2. Data for the spacecraft.

Parameter Symbol and value Comments
Main cube side L=0.50 m One axis pointing nadir (i.e. to Moon’s centre),
another to ecliptic north (appr.), and the third
one along the path direction.
Extra panel length Lp=0.31 m Lp/L=tan(φe−π)=0.613 (see Fig. 3).
Aluminium plate thickness δ=0.001 m Cover panels.
Cube face area (each) A=0.25 m2 A=L2.
Extra panel area (each) Ap=0.155 m2 Ap=LLp=0.5·0.31=0.155 m2.
Solar cell packaging factor Fpq=90% Fraction of panel area with solar cells.
Solar panel efficiency η=20%
Solar panel absorptance α=0.7 From Tables.
Solar panel emissivity ε=0.7 From Tables.
Instrument plate thickness δA=0.002 m
E-box size (each) 0.4·0.4·0.2 m3
E-box mass (each) mEB=10 kg
E-box thermal capacity cp=1000 J/(kg·K)
Aluminium density ρ=2700 kg/m3
Aluminium thermal conduct. k=200 W/(m·K) Depends a lot on type of aluminium alloy.
Aluminium thermal capacity c=900 J/(kg·K)

Notice that we neglect the mass and consequently thermal inertia of solar cells (thin technology) and other
possible coatings (e.g. MLI).

a) Find the relative eclipse duration, and the minimum extent of the flaps to guarantee that the Sun
rays never fall on the face pointing to the Moon.
Relative to the nadir-pointing face, the Sun is going around the full 360º circumference with centre at the
face, so that the field of view cannot include any background space but the Moon; thence, the unobstructed
viewing angle from the edge of face 2 (Fig. 5), arctan(L/Lp), must equal the limb-to-centre angle of the
Moon from the satellite, arcsin(1/(1+h))=1.02 rad (58.5º), and therefore L/Lp=tan(1.02)=1.63 and
Lp=0.5/1.63=0.306 m (see Fig. 3).

On the other hand, we know that, unlike solar eclipses on Earth, which can only last a few minutes (a total
solar eclipse can last a maximum of 7 minutes and 31 seconds, moving eastward at 470 m/s along a track
that is up to 250 km wide), lunar eclipses may last several hours, with totality itself usually averaging
anywhere in between 30..90 minutes (the rest being partial eclipse and penumbral eclipse, Fig. 4). With the
parallel ray approximation, Te/T=(1/π)arcsin(1/(1+h)), which, with h=RME/RE=385/6.37=60 and T=28 days
gives Te=3.5 h. But with finite Sun distances and spherical bodies, when the occluding object is smaller
than the star, the length of the umbra's cone-shaped shadow, LU, is also finite and given by
LU=RSERE/(RS−RE)=(1.5·109·6.37·106/(0.7·109−6.37·106)=1.4·109 m, so that at Moon’s distance the radius
of the cone section has dropped to RU=RE(1−RME/LU)=6.37·106(1−385·106/(1.4·109))=4.6·106 m. The Sun-
Earth Lagrangian rear point, L2, where Planck and Herschel space observatories were located (and James
Lunar satellite box-shaped 4
Webb Space Telescope will go too), is slightly beyond the reach of Earth's umbra (1.5·109 m against 1.4·109
m), so that solar radiation is not completely blocked (besides, spacecraft usually follow large-departure
Lissajous orbits around the Lagrangian points), so that solar panels are used to power them.

Fig. 4 . Umbra, penumbra and antumbra cast by Earth on the Moon, and solar irradiation fraction.

There are zero to three partial or total lunar eclipses per year (although possibly not all visible from the
same location on Earth), and not one per month, because Moon's orbit is tilted 5 degrees from Earth's orbit.
During lunar totality, the colour of the Moon takes on a dark red hue due to light scattering at the Earth’s
atmosphere. In 2010 there were only one partial lunar eclipse (on 25-Jun, of 2 h 43 m total duration), and
one total lunar eclipse, on 21-Dec, with 3 h 29 m total duration (1 h 13 m total eclipse);
(http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/LEdecade/LEdecade2001.html).

We are not taking account of Moon eclipses on the thermal design of our lunar satellite because they are
rare events that we assume to occur outside the intended spacecraft life (less than one year for this kind of
small lunar satellites).

b) Find the external heat loads (solar, albedo and infrared) as a function of orbit position.
The objective is to solve the energy balance of every part of the spacecraft, here performed by a finite
difference scheme of non-regular isothermal elements (nodes), to find the temperature evolution at each
point in the satellite along the orbit.

If we start with the isothermal-satellite model, i.e. one single node representative of the whole spacecraft,
Tmean(t), the energy balance per unit time (for a constant mass) can be set as:

dTmean dEele
mcmean + = Wnet + Q net = Q s,in + Q a,in + Q p,in − Q out (1)
dt dt

where m is the total spacecraft (SC) mass, cmean and Tmean are the averaged specific thermal capacity and
temperature of the SC at time t, Eele is the non-thermal energy store (we only consider electrochemical
batteries), Wnet is the net electrical and electromagnetic work rate received (no mechanical work
considered), and Q net the net heat input rate. We recall that solar radiation is thermal radiation (only
dependent on Sun temperature), but its temperature is so high (5800 K) that it can be taken as work input
(i.e. pure exergy input), as we do here; thus, Q s,in is the total solar energy absorbed, including the part that
generates electricity in the PV panels, but not including the reflected part; and similarly for the planet albedo
input (this does not apply to planet emission input and own radiation output, both in the IR). In this global
Lunar satellite box-shaped 5
 analysis (whole SC) electrical dissipation does not appear (it is internal, does not go through the envelop),
and radioelectric exchanges for communication are neglected in the energy balance.

The total solar input power (thermal plus electrical), Q s,in , is:

Q s,in ( t ) = α mean EAfrontal-lit ( t ) (2)

depending on time due to changes in sunlit frontal projected area and eclipse shadowing. Solar irradiance
E can be considered constant for a satellite, but not so for a deep probe.

Power input on the SC from albedo is modelled as follows:

= mean Ap Fp,SC ( t ) ρ p EFa ( t )

Q a,in ( t ) α= α mean ASC FSC,p ( t ) ρ p EFa ( t ) (3)

i.e., assuming a planetary reflectance ρp to solar irradiance E, the maximum power reflected per unit area
of the planet (in this problem the Moon) is ρpE, and the average from a point of view moving along the
orbit can be taken as ρpE,Fa(t), where the albedo factor usually approximated by a modified parabolic law
from the subsolar point to the entrance into eclipse like Fa(φ)=[1−(φ/φe)2](1+cosφ)2/4 (see Effect of planet
albedo, in Spacecraft thermal modelling and testing). Thence, the fraction of that solar reflected power that
impinges on the SC is ρpE,Fa(t) multiplied by the area of the planet, the view factor from the planet to the
SC, and the SC average solar absorptance, namely αmeanApFp,SC; finally, the reciprocity relation,
ApFp,SC=ASCFSC,p is applied to get (3).

Power input on the SC from planet own emission (subindex ‘p’), assuming an average planet temperature
Tp is modelled as follows:

=Q p,in ( t ) α=
IR,mean Ap Fp,SC ( t ) ε pσ Tp
4
ε mean ASC FSC,p ( t ) ε pσ Tp4 (4)

where, as before, the fraction of total power emitted by the planet (εpσTp4Ap) that impinges on the SC, is
εpσTp4ApFp,SC(t), and the view-factor’s reciprocity relation is applied again. Notice that we are taking an
averaged value for Moon surface temperature (274 K), but there is a great contrast with non-negligible
thermal effects on the satellite since, from the 2.4 h orbit period, 1.6 h is flying over the lit face at up to 350
K, and another 0.8 h is flying over the unlit face (46 min eclipse, Table 1) at about 100 K.

Finally, the power emitted by the SC itself is:

Q out ( t ) = ASCε meanσ Tmean

4
(t ) (5)

where ASC is the total envelop area of the spacecraft and Tmean its average temperature. Notice that here the
whole emission of the SC is considered, not its heat exchange with the environment, because the heat input
from the planet/moon was accounted separately. Notice also that the effect of the microwave background
radiation at 2.7 K has been neglected. Substituting all these developments in the energy balance (1), yields

Lunar satellite box-shaped 6

an ordinary differential equation in Tmean(t), which can be solved if an initial condition is known (for a
periodic state, any input is valid because its effects disappear after some periods of simulation (a few orbits).

When more than one node is chosen, one has to account for heat and work exchanges with the other nodes,
and the energy balance (1) takes the form:

dTi dEele,i  
mi ci + = Wele,in,i − Wele,out,i + Q s,in,i + Q a,in,i + Q p,in,i +  ∑ Q cond,j ,i + ∑ Q conv,j ,i + ∑ Q rad,j ,i  − Q out,i (6)
dt dt  j j j 

where Eele is the non-thermal energy store (only for batteries), Wele,in,i − Wele,out,i ≡ Wele,dis,i is the electrical
dissipation in the node (all active nodes have electrical input, but only two have electrical output: solar
panels and batteries. Notice that Q s,in,i in (6) is the total solar absorptance, including the part used to generate
Wele,out,i in the solar cells; and the same for the albedo contribution; however, it is usual to decouple the
whole energy balance in an electrical part and a thermal part, and then Q s,in,i may refer just to the latter, as
done below.

With the node notation shown in Fig. 5, face 2 is permanently facing the Moon (nadir) and hidden from the
Sun. Faces 5 (North) and 6 (South) are assumed to be parallel to Sun rays (no sunlit) on the approximation
of ecliptic orbit (really the Sun rays would be between −5.1º and +5.1º due to orbit inclination to the ecliptic,
i=5.1º). The relation between orbit angle φ and time t (from subsolar point) is:

t φ
= = , with T 8470 s (7)
T 2π

Fig. 5. Node notation.

Node 1. It gets direct solar radiation at its external face when looking at the Sun, and never gets albedo nor
infrared emission from the Moon. We decouple the general energy balance (6) into:
• Electrical energy balance:

−Wele,out,1 + η Fpq EAfrontal,1

0= (8)

Lunar satellite box-shaped 7

 • Thermal energy balance (we only detail solar input):

dT1  
m1c1 =(α1 − η Fpq ) EA1 cos φ + Q a,in,1 + Q p,in,1 +  ∑ Q cond,j ,1 + ∑ Q conv,j ,1 + ∑ Q rad,j ,1  − Q out,1 (9)
dt  j j j 

with the following solar, albedo, and planet inputs (only the thermal part):

= (α1 − η Fpq ) EA1 cos φ 

Q s ,1,th π π
Q s ,1 α1 EA1 cos φ  =  if − < φ < ( 0 otherwise) (10)
Ws ,1,out = η Fpq EA1 cos φ  2 2
Q a ,1 = 0 (11)
Q = 0
p ,1 (12)

with peak values of Q s ,1,th =(0.7−0.2·0.9)·1360·0.25=177 W and Ws ,1,out =62 W, and where the electrical
efficiency of solar cells, defined by η≡(VI)max/(EA), and the packaging factor for the cells, Fpq (cell area
divided by panel area A) have been introduced. The orbit averaged external heat input and electrical input
are:
π
=
 (α1 −η Fpq ) EA
Q s ,1,th,mean = 57 W
1 2
α1 EA  π
= Q s ,1,mean =
2π π ∫ α1 EA cos φ dφ
π 

η F EA 0.2 ⋅ 0.9 ⋅ 1370 ⋅ 0.25
(13)
 pq
−
2 W=1,out,mean = = 20 W
π π

Node 2. Always pointing nadir, it gets no direct solar radiation, but gets albedo when not under eclipse, and
infrared from the Moon all along the orbit. Notice that from the centre of face 2 one can only see a large
‘square’ of the Moon surface (no background), but from the centre of each of its four borders, the opposite
Moon limb is just in the limit of the field of view.

Q s ,2 = 0 (14)

 1 + cos φ 
2   φ 2 
=Q a ,2 α 2 A
=M FM,2 M aM α=
2 A2 F2,M M a α 2 A2 F2,M ρ M E   1 −    (15)
 2    φe  
=Q α= A F M
p,2 ε A F ε σT 4
IR ,2 M M,2 M 2 2 2,M M M (16)

where a modified parabolic dependence with orbit angle of albedo input is assumed (from maximum at
subsolar point to 0 at the start of eclipse, see Effect of planet albedo).

The view factor from face 2 to the Moon, approximated as the view factor from face 2 to a virtual closing
panel at the rim of the protruding panels can be found from Table of view factors (view factor between two
identical parallel square plates of side L and separation H, with a=L/H):

1  x4  a
=F12 2 
ln + 4ay  , with x ≡ 1 + a 2 and y ≡ x arctan − arctan a (17)
π a  1 + 2a 2
 x
Lunar satellite box-shaped 8
 which, for a=0.5/0.31=1.6, yields x=1.9, y=0.33, and F2M=0.35. The view factor from face 2 to the
protruding panels, due to symmetry, are all equal: F2i=(1−F2M)/4=0.16. Notice the shielding effect of the
shroud of panels; without it, the view factor from 2 to the planet/moon would be more than double,
F12=1/h2=0.72.

The orbit peak input values in (15) and (16) are Q a ,2,m =14 W and Q p ,2,m =26 W, and the averaged external
heat input:
 1 + cos φ    φ  
φ 2 2
1 e
2π −∫φe
 α AF2,M ρ M E  =
= Qa ,2,mean  1 −   dφ 4.4 W
 2    φe  
Q p,2,mean =
ε A2 F2,Mε Mσ TM4 = 1 ⋅ 0.25 ⋅ 0.36 ⋅ 0.94 ⋅ 5.67 ⋅10−8 ⋅ 2744 =
26 W

Node 3.
Node 3 has solar panels that work with direct solar radiation and planet-reflected (albedo):

= (α 3 − η Fpq ) EA3 sin φ 

Q s ,3,th
Q s ,3 α 3 EA3 sin φ =  if 0 < φ < φe ( 0 otherwise) (18)
W = η F EA sin φ
 s ,3,out pq 3 

 1 + cos φ    φ  
2 2

(α3 −η Fpq ) A3 F3,M ρM E  2  1 −  φ  

Q a ,3,th =
   e  
=Q a ,3 α=
3 AM FM,3 M a α 3 A3 F3,M M a  (19)
2  2

  1 + cos φ   φ 
= Wa ,3,out η Fpq A3 F3,M ρ M E   1 −   
  2    φe  
=Q α= A F M
p,3 IR ε A F ε σT 4
M M,3 M 3 3 3,M M M (20)

The view factor from face 3 to the Moon can be found from Table of view factors (view factor from a small
planar plate at an altitude H, tilted an angle β=π/2, to a sphere of radius R, with h≡H/R):

1 1 x 
 arctan − 2  with x ≡ h − 1 (21)
2
=F12
π x h 

so that, with h=1.173 (Table 1), x=0.613, and F12=F3,M=0.18.

Node 3 has then the peak and mean values collected in Table 3:

Table 3. Node 3 peak and mean values.

Peak Mean
Solar thermal input 178 43
Solar electr. output 62 15
Albedo thermal input 3.9 0.6
Albedo electr. output 1.4 0.2
Planetary input 9.6* 9.6
*We do not account for Moon’s surface temperature variation.

Lunar satellite box-shaped 9

Node 4
Node 4 is similar to node 3, changing the domain 0<φ<φe to φe<φ<2π. Results are those in Table 3.

Nodes 5 and 6
With our approximation of solar beta angle β=5.1º≈0, they have no direct solar input, since node 5 is facing
Ecliptic Nord, and node 6 is facing Ecliptic South. Albedo input may be approximated as being the same
as for node 3 or 4, with planet/moon infrared input being the same (Table 3).

Node 7 and 8
Node 7 is exactly as node 3 (same equations) except for the smaller area, and node 8 is like 4 except for the
smaller area.

Nodes 9 and 10
Nodes 9 and 10 are like nodes 5 and 6 except for the smaller area.

Node 11
Node 11 contains the batteries, which receive a time-dependent electrical input from the solar panels placed
in other nodes, and delivers a constant electrical power that we assume to be consumed all within the same
node 11. We decouple the general energy balance (6) into:
• Electrical energy balance:

dEele,11
= Wele,out,1 + Wele,out,3 + Wele,out,4 + Wele,out,7 + Wele,out,8 − Wele,dis,11 (22)
dt

• Thermal energy balance:

dT11
m11c11 Wdis ,11 + ∑ Q cond,j ,11 + ∑ Q rad,j ,11
= (23)
dt j j

1
From the electrical balance (assumed periodic) one
= gets Wdis ,11
2π ∫
= ∑Wele,out,i 69 W , and, integrating
(22):

Fig. 6. Accumulated electrical energy (in [kJ]), and comparison with net input rate (in [W]).

A summary of external inputs is compiled in Table 4.

Lunar satellite box-shaped 10

 Table 4. Summary of external inputs (peak, mean) values [W].
Node Solar thermal Solar electr. Albedo thermal Albedo electr. Planetary
1 178, 57 62, 20 (zenith) (zenith) (zenith)
2 (nadir+shield) (nadir+shield) 14, 4.4 (no solar cells) 26, 26
3 178, 43 62, 15 3.9, 0.6 1.4, 0.2 10, 10
4 178, 43 62, 15 3.9, 0.6 1.4, 0.2 10, 10
5 (North) (North) 3.9, 0.6 (no solar cells) 10, 10
6 (South) (South) 3.9, 0.6 (no solar cells) 10, 10
7 109, 35 38, 9 2.5, 0.6 0.9, 0.2 6, 6
8 109, 35 38, 9 2.5, 0.6 0.9, 0.2 6, 6
9 (North) (North) 2.5, 0.6 (no solar cells) 6, 6
10 (South) (South) 2.5, 0.6 (no solar cells) 6, 6
11 (interior) 120, 69 (interior) (see Solar electr.) (interior)
(alb. added)
Whole SC 340, 196 51 (−69), 0 37, 24 (see Solar electr.) 88, 88
(alb. added)

The global mean external input is then 196+(69)+24+88=376 W, which must be balanced by outgoing
thermal radiation towards the 4π steradians (i.e. including planet and Sun directions).

c) Find the thermal conductance and radiative couplings between nodes.

Conductive couplings
We want now the conductive couplings Gj,i that enter into the heat input to node i from node j:

Q=
cond,j ,i G j ,i (T j − Ti ) (24)

which can be computed using a quasi-one-dimensional model of heat conduction along two materials of
different geometrical and material properties (generic nodes 1 and 2) in series:

T1 − Tjoint Tjoint − T2 T1 − T2 1
=Q k1 A1 = k2 A2 = G12
⇒= (25)
L1 L2 L1 L L1 L
+ 2 + 2
k1 A1 k2 A2 k1 A1 k2 A2

where A stands for areas transversal to the heat flow, and L for the characteristic lengths along the flow
path, for each material. The procedure in (25) can be extended to accommodate other more involved
configurations, e.g. to add a thermal joint resistance for un-welded metal unions, to add a thermal path
through supporting screws, or to consider several heat paths in parallel.

Node 1 is conductively connected to nodes 3, 4, 5, 6, and 11, with the first four, the conductive couplings
Gj,1 are the same: Gj,1=kAlAC/L=0.2 W/K, with thermal conductivity kAl=200 W/(m·K) for aluminium alloys,
the contact area AC=Lδ, with L=0.5 m plate edge, and δ=1 mm plate thickness, and L=0.5 m the total node-
to-node thermal path. We neglect the thermal effect of the solar cells, typically several tenths of millimetre
thin, either made of silicon (ρ=2330 kg/m3, cp=703 J/(kg·K), k=150 W/(m·K)), of gallium arsenide (ρ=5300

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kg/m3, cp=330 J/(kg·K), k=55 W/(m·K)), or a combination of both as in new multijunction solar cells. As
for G11,1, the material is the same, but the contact area is double (δ=2 mm plate thickness), and the distance
between node 1 and node 11 is L/2, so that G11,1=0.8 W/K.

Node 2 is conductively connected to nodes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11. With the first four, the conductive
couplings Gj,2 are (see above) Gj,2=kAlAC/L=0.2 W/K. With the second four, the conductive couplings Gj,2
change because now the two half-paths are not equal to L/2, but one is L/2 and the other Lp/2, what yields
Gj,2=kAlAC/(L/2+Lp/2)=0.25 W/K. Finally, G11,2=0.8 W/K as before.

Node 3 is conductively connected to nodes 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 11. With the first four, the conductive couplings
are (see above) Gj,3=0.2 W/K. With node 7 is G7,3=0.25 W/K. Finally, G11,3=0.8 W/K as before.

Node 4 is conductively connected to nodes 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, and 11. With the first four, the conductive couplings
are (see above) Gj,4=0.2 W/K. With node 8 is G8,4=0.25 W/K. Finally, G11,4=0.8 W/K as before.

Node 5 is conductively connected to nodes 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, and 11. With the first four, the conductive couplings
are (see above) Gj,5=0.2 W/K. With node 9 is G9,5=0.25 W/K. Finally, G11,5=0.8 W/K as before.

Node 6 is conductively connected to nodes 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, and 11. With the first four, the conductive
couplings are (see above) Gj,6=0.2 W/K. With node 10 is G10,6=0.25 W/K. Finally, G11,6=0.8 W/K as before.

Node 7 is conductively connected to nodes 2, 3, 9, and 10. With the first two, the conductive couplings are
(see above, L/2+Lp/2) Gj,7=0.25 W/K. With the second two (Lp/2+Lp/2), Gj,7=0.32 W/K.

Node 8 is conductively connected to nodes 2, 4, 9, and 10. With the first two, the conductive couplings are
(see above, L/2+Lp/2), Gj,8=0.25 W/K. With the second two (Lp/2+Lp/2), Gj,8=0.32 W/K.

Node 9 is conductively connected to nodes 2, 5, 7, and 8. With the first two, the conductive couplings are
(see above, L/2+Lp/2), Gj,9=0.25 W/K. With the second two (Lp/2+Lp/2), Gj,9=0.32 W/K.

Node 10 is conductively connected to nodes 2, 6, 7, and 8. With the first two, the conductive couplings are
(see above, L/2+Lp/2), Gj,10=0.25 W/K. With the second two (Lp/2+Lp/2), Gj,10=0.32 W/K.

Node 11 is conductively connected to nodes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, all of them with Gj,11=0.2 W/K.

Table 5. Conductive couplings between nodes, Gji in [W/K].

Nodes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 - - 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 - - - - 0.8
2 - - 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.8
3 0.2 0.2 - - 0.2 0.2 0.25 - - - 0.8
4 0.2 0.2 - - 0.2 0.2 - 0.25 - - 0.8
5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 - - - - 0.25 - 0.8
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 6 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 - - - - - 0.25 0.8
7 - 0.25 0.25 - - - - - 0.32 0.32 -
8 - 0.25 - 0.25 - - - - 0.32 0.32 -
9 - 0.25 - - 0.25 - 0.32 0.32 - - -
10 - 0.25 - - - 0.25 0.32 0.32 - - -
11 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 - - - - -

Radiative couplings
We want to find now the radiative couplings Rj,i that enter into the heat input from node j to node i:

Q rad,j ,i σ R j ,i (T j4 − Ti 4 )
= (26)

which, in the restricted case where surfaces are isothermal, opaque, and radiating as blackbodies, can be
worked out analytically in terms of view factors:

Q rad=
, j ,i (
Ai Fi , jσ T j4 − Ti 4 ) Ri , j Ai Fi , j
→ = (27)

The internal face of node 1 can be approximated as a planar surface of area A1=0.52=0.25 m2 facing an
equal planar area at node 11 at a separation of 50 mm; in fact, one face of node 11 has A11=0.42=0.16 m2,
and the internal side of node 1 also sees the supporting aluminium plate in the middle (2 mm thick), and a
slant view of part of the internal faces of nodes 3, 4, 5, and 6, but we think the simplification is good for
the purpose of this simulation.

Thus, we only have to deal with the nodal faces exposed to the space environment.
• The external faces of nodes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, all have a view factor of unity towards the
background envelop; the temperature of the latter, 2.7 K, will be neglected in the analysis.
• The external face of node 2 has a view factor F2,∞=0.35 (obtained above when computing its planet
input), and, since the other four lateral faces (7,8,9,10) are all equal and complete an enclosure,
F2,7=F2,8=F2,9=F2,10=(1−F2,∞)/4=0.16.
• The ‘internal’ face of each of the panel nodes (7,8,9,10) present three different view factors. Taken
node 7 as wild-card node:
o With their lateral square sections: F7,∞=F7,2=0.27 (from A7F7,2=A2F2,7).
o With their lateral nodes: F7,9=F7,10=0.16 (from view factor data).
o With its frontal node: F7,8=0.14 (from view factor data). One may check that
2·0.266+2·0.164+0.138=1. Table 6 summarise all these values.
Table 6. Non-trivial view factors from node i to node j.
Nodes j=2 7 8 9 10 Env.
i=2 - 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.35
7 0.27 - 0.14 0.16 0.16 0.27
8 0.27 0.14 - 0.16 0.16 0.14
9 0.27 0.16 0.16 - 0.14 0.14
10 0.27 0.16 0.16 0.14 - 0.14
Env. 0.35 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 -

Lunar satellite box-shaped 13

Notice that a nodal matrix containing all thermal couplings might be established by taking advantage of the
symmetry in node interaction. For instance:
• Radiative couplings between node i and node j in the upper triangular side of the matrix.
• Thermal capacities of each node i in the diagonal of the matrix.
• Conductive couplings between node i and node j in the lower triangular side of the matrix.

d) Establish the node equations.

The nodal equations are:

dTi dEele,i  
mi ci + = Wele,in,i − Wele,out,i + Q s,in,i + Q a,in,i + Q p,in,i +  ∑ Q cond,j ,i + ∑ Q rad,j ,i  − Q out,i (28)
dt dt  j j 

Thermal capacities of nodal plates 1, 3 and 4 are the same: mc=ρAlL2δAlcAl+ρSiL2δSicSi=

2700·0.52·0.001·900+2300·0.52·0.0005·700=810 J/K. Those of nodes 2, 5, and 6 have no solar cells, and
their thermal capacities are just mc=ρAlL2δAlcAl=2700·0.52·0.001·900=610 J/K. Nodes 7 and 8 have
mc=ρAlLLpδAlcAl+ρSiLLpδSicSi=2700·0.5·0.31·0.001·900+2300·0.5·0.31·0.0005·700=510 J/K., Nodes 9
and 10 have mc=ρAlLLpδAlcAl=2700·0.5·0.31·0.001·900=380 J/K. Finally, for node 11 we have to add the
two electronic boxes and the 2 mm supporting plate: m11c11=2mc+ρAlL2δAlcAl=
2·10·1000+2700·0.52·0.002·900=21 200 J/K.

All terms in (28) have been worked out before, except the last one, which is simply Q out,i = Aiε iσ Ti 4 for the
external faces of nodes 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.

e) Find the steady temperatures at the sub-solar and at the opposition points.
This point is solved using the full dynamic routine to be developed later at point g), fixing the orbital angle
but letting the time run until a steady state is reached. We might try to solve it analytically, i.e. by solving
the 11 node temperatures from the set of 11 nodal steady energy balances (i.e. all d()/dt=0), but the system
is non-linear due to the T- and T4-terms, and numerical solution is required anyway. The results are in Table
7, below.

f) Find the orbital mean temperatures at the nodes.

The intention here was to take the orbit-average of every term in (28) and solve for the 11
mean-temperatures unknowns, but, as in the previous point, it yields a set of 11 non-linear equations, and
this point is better solved using the full dynamic routine, as before. The results are in Table 7, below.

g) Find the temperature evolution along the orbit, in the periodic state.
A numeric code has been set, using Matlab, for solving the 11 nodal equations (28) as a function of time
(orbit angle, really, just to avoid large numbers); for academic purpose, it is more instructive to develop a
personal code than to use a closed-package (of course, for routine analysis of complex ever-changing

Lunar satellite box-shaped 14

geometries one has to resort to standard professional programs like ESATAN). The transients after an
artificial choice for initial conditions (we choose Ti=300 K for all nodes), is presented in Fig. 7 (first 5
orbits), and the steady periodic solution edited in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7. Transient temperature, Ti in [K], evolution along orbit angle, φ in [rad], for the first five orbits from
an arbitrary start at Ti=300 K.

Fig. 8. Periodic temperature evolution at nodes 1 to 11, vs. orbit angle φ in [rad] (origin at the subsolar
point). Eclipse period marked.

With the same numerical code, but now fixing the orbit angle at φ=0 or at φ=π, and letting time to run freely
instead of as t=8470φ/(2π) [s], we solve question e) above, completing Table 7.

Table 7. Summary of steady-point and orbit-averaged temperatures [K].

Node Steady subsolar Steady opposite Orbit-max Orbit-mean Orbit-min
1 282 231 291 260 241
2 219 268 279 265 244
3 238 236 294 259 245
4 237 236 292 259 245
5 238 239 253 251 248
6 238 239 253 251 248
7 226 260 267 259 246

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 8 224 260 267 259 246
9 226 262 269 260 247
10 226 262 269 260 247
11 254 253 270 268 265

Notice that the periodic maximum in temperatures goes over the values found in the steady subsolar case,
in spite of the smoothing due to thermal inertia; the reason is that a cube box gets more solar radiation when
skewed than when frontal to the Sun.

The internal sides of the flaps (nodes 7,8,9,10) may be covered with a low-emissivity coating (e.g. a material
with α=0.2, ε=0.1) to minimise thermal inputs to face 2.

The thermal modelling of the satellite interior with just one node is a very crude approach. In reality,
concentrated heat sources may force to implement specific heat paths (e.g. heat pipes).

Conclusion: the thermal design must be improved (e.g. by using low emissivity coatings on surfaces 5 and
6), to decrease emission and get internal temperatures (T11) around 10 ºC or 15 ºC, instead of around the −5
ºC seen in Fig. 7.

Back to Spacecraft thermal control

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