Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518

DOI 10.1007/s10706-011-9399-8

ORIGINAL PAPER

Electro-Osmotic Consolidation Experiments

on an Organic Soil
Shenbaga R. Kaniraj • J. H. S. Yee

Received: 12 August 2010 / Accepted: 24 March 2011 / Published online: 5 April 2011
Ó Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Abstract A series of electro-osmotic consolidation Keywords Cement columns  Chemical

experiments were carried out on an organic soil from stabilization  Electrokinetic geosynthetics 
the central Sarawak region of Malaysia. Commer- Electro-osmosis  Lime columns  Organic soil 
cially available EVD was used to induce electro- Vertical drains
osmosis and drainage of pore water. The influence of
the method of drainage and pumping interval of List of symbols
drained water on electro-osmotic consolidation was aw Weight of dry binder/weight of dry soil, %
investigated. The combination of electro-osmotic A Gross cross-sectional area of flow, m2
consolidation and chemical stabilization techniques dc Distance from cathode end, mm
was investigated by installing lime or cement ie Electric field intensity or voltage gradient, DV/Dl
columns near the anode end of the test bed. The ih Hydraulic gradient, Dh/Dl
binder factor in the lime and cement columns was ke Electro-osmotic permeability, m2/sV
varied. The paper presents the experimental set-up, kh Hydraulic coefficient of permeability, m/s
test procedures, experimental program, results and PI Plasticity index, %
conclusions of the study. Electro-osmosis, using qh Rate of drainage of water, m3/s
EVDs, was effective in the electrokinetic treatment ue Excess pore water pressure, kPa
of the organic soil. The two types of drainage, namely wL Liquid limit, %
drainage at bottom and drainage tubes, were effec- wP Plastic limit, %
tive. Electro-osmotic consolidation improved with Dh Head loss, m
decrease in pumping interval. The lime and cement Dl Length of water or current flow path, m
columns, used in combination with electro-osmosis, DV Voltage drop, V
increased the undrained strength further. a Weight of dry binder mixed with soil/volume
of soil, kg/m3
aC Cement content in cement column
aL Lime content in lime column
Shenbaga R. Kaniraj—formerly Curtin University, Sarawak, cw Unit weight of water, kN/m3
Malaysia.
1 Introduction
S. R. Kaniraj (&)  J. H. S. Yee
Curtin University, CDT 250, 98009 Miri, Sarawak,
Malaysia Electro-osmosis is an established method of improv-
e-mail: kaniraj@hotmail.com ing soft fine grained soils. Several laboratory

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experiments and field trials, using electrokinetic
geosynthetics (EKG) such as prefabricated electric
vertical drains (EVD or ePVD) as electrodes, have
shown the potential of electro-osmotic consolidation
in strengthening of soft clays and increasing the
solids content of mining tailings and sludges. How-
ever, there are no studies reported on the effective-
ness of electro-osmosis in improvement of soft
organic soils and peat. The authors carried out
electro-osmotic consolidation studies on peat recently
(Kaniraj et al. 2010) in which the influence of voltage
gradient, organic content, initial water content,
anode–cathode configuration and presence of roots
on electro-osmotic consolidation was investigated.
This paper presents the details of the studies
conducted on an organic soil.
2 Objectives
The overall objective of the study is to investigate the
effectiveness of the electro-osmosis technique in
strengthening of soft organic soils and the influence
of selected parameters on the electro-osmosis phe-
nomenon. An organic soil from Sibu in the central
region of Sarawak was chosen for the study. A simple
experimental set up was designed for the electro-
osmosis tests. A commercially available EVD was
used to induce electro-osmosis and drainage of pore
water. The parameters of the study namely, voltage
gradient, initial water content and anode–cathode
configuration were chosen based on the authors’ study
on peat samples from North Sarawak (Kaniraj et al.
2010). The use of drainage tubes and pumping interval
of drained water on electro-osmotic consolidation were
investigated. The combination of electro-osmotic
consolidation and chemical stabilization techniques
was investigated by installing lime or cement columns
near the anode end of the test bed. Different binder
factors were used in the lime and cement columns.
3 Background
Electro-osmotic and electrokinetic treatment of soft
saturated soils involves applying a low direct current
(DC) or a low potential gradient across a pair of
positive (anode) and negative (cathode) electrodes
inserted into the soil. Figure 1 illustrates the reactions
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Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518
in the soil due to the application DC field. The
application of the DC field leads to electro-osmosis,
electrolysis, electrophoresis, and electro migration.
Electro-osmosis involves transport of water
through the voids in the soil. The important uses of
electro-osmosis in geotechnical engineering applica-
tions are in electro-osmotic dewatering and consol-
idation of soft soils. The hydrated ions in the pore
water are attracted to the oppositely charged elec-
trodes. They drag the surrounding free water mole-
cules along with them. The net water movement is
towards the cathode where the water drains out
causing consolidation of the soil. When there is no
recharge of water at the anode, it is known as the
anode closed-cathode open system. The rate of
drainage of water in electro-osmotic consolidation,
qe, is expressed by Eq. 1 (Mitchell 1993).
qe ¼ k e i e A ð1Þ
ke = electro-osmotic permeability, ie = DV/Dl, is the
electric field intensity or voltage gradient and DV is
the voltage drop over a current flow path of Dl.
Electro-osmosis induces a negative excess pore water
pressure, ue. In a uniform electric field and anode
closed-cathode open system ue is expressed by Eq. 2.
k e cw
ue ðxÞ ¼  ie x ð2Þ
kh
cw = unit weight of water, x = distance from the
cathode to the anode and kh = hydraulic coefficient
of permeability.
Electrolysis is the occurrence of oxidation and
release of oxygen at the anode and reduction and
V
+-
ue
GL
Electro-osmotic flow
L
Electrolysis Electrolysis
Acid front Base front
Anode Cathode
Fig. 1 Electrokinetic reactions in soil due to application of DC
field
Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518 507

generation of hydrogen at cathode. Electrolysis pro-
duces acidic and basic conditions at the anode and
cathode, respectively. Electrophoresis is the migration
of charged colloids in the solid–liquid medium. Elec-
trophoresis plays an important role in the sedimentation
of particles in high water content and low solids content
sludges. Electro migration or ion migration is the
movement of charged ions towards the oppositely
charged electrode relative to the solution. Electro
migration can occur potentially without any fluid flow.
respectively. The Atterberg limits of the soil were, liquid
limit wL = 245%, plastic limit wP = 155% and plas-
ticity index PI = 90%. Figure 2 shows the scanning
electron microscope (SEM) images of the organic soil.
The individual particles are generally somewhat elon-
gated and have a porous structure. The size of individual
soil particles is generally smaller than 150 lm and
thickness of the order of 40–50 lm. Based on the
Unified Soil Classification System, organic content, and
the SEM images, the soil is classified as organic silt, OH.

3.1 Past Electro-Osmotic Consolidation Studies

5 Electro-Osmotic Consolidation Experiments
Electro-osmotic consolidation studies on clay soils with Drainage Tube for Removal of Drained
have been carried out worldwide (Bergado et al. Water
2000; 2003; Bo et al. 2000; Casagrande 1952;
Casagrande et al. 1981; Chappel and Burton 1975; 5.1 Experimental Set Up
Chew et al. 2004; Eggestad and Foyn 1983; Fetzer
1967; Gray and Mitchell 1967; Karunaratne et al. The electro-osmosis experiments were conducted on
2002; Lo et al. 2000; Shang 1997a; Toh et al. 2001; tests beds prepared in rectangular glass tanks of inner
Transports Québec 2010; Wade 1976).
Electrokinetic geosynthetics (EKG) provide elec-
trokinetic function in addition to the traditional
filtration, drainage, separation, reinforcement and
impervious membrane functions of geosynthetics.
Metallic electrodes are liable to corrode due to
formation of acidic front at the anode. The EKG
electrodes are less susceptible to corrosion due to the
polymeric cover or treatment against corrosion.
Prefabricated electric vertical drains (EVD or ePVD)
with metallic electrode sandwiched between layers of
polymeric core or with exposed conductors are avail-
able. Electro-osmotic consolidation studies have been
carried out using EVDs on soft clays (Bergado et al.
2000, 2003; Chew et al. 2004; Hamir et al. 2001; Lee
and Douglas 2007; Lorenzo et al. 2004; Rittirong et al.
2008) and high water content materials mine tailings
and sludges (Fourie et al. 2007; Glendinning et al.
2007, 2008).

4 Soil Sample

An organic soil sample was collected from Sibu in the

central region of the Sarawak state of Malaysia.
Sufficient quantity of representative samples of the soil
was transported to the laboratory and stored in poly-
meric storage boxes. The organic content, N, and natural Fig. 2 Scanning electron micrographs of Sibu organic soil.
water content, wn, of the soil were 49 and 87%, a Magnification = 1,000 X and b Magnification = 200 X

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dimensions 250 9 110 9 250 mm. Figures 3 and 4a
show the test tank used by the authors in their study
on peats (Kaniraj et al. 2010) which had 96% organic
content compared to 49% organic content of the
organic soil from Sibu. A hole in the two end walls,
close to the floor of the test tank, facilitated the exit of
drained water from the test bed and maintained the
anode closed–cathode open condition. The drained
water was collected through drainage tubes connected
to these holes. Figure 4b shows another arrangement
used in the present study for collection and removal
of drained water. For the plan view in Fig. 4b, the
elevation is same as Fig. 3 without the bottom
drainage holes. In this arrangement, the water drained
into vertical perforated plastic pipes sheathed in
geotextile filter. These drainage pipes simulated the
ejector wells used in the field. While the water flowed
out continuously when drainage took place at the
bottom, in the experiments with vertical drainage
tubes the drained water was pumped out at predeter-
mined time intervals.
A prefabricated band-shaped EVD used in the
study on peats (Kaniraj et al. 2010) was used as
electrode. The EVD consisted of a conductive
polyethylene core profiled with rows of ribs along
its length and wrapped in a filter material. The
nominal width and nominal thickness of the EVD
were 100 ± 3 and 5.5 mm, respectively. The core
encapsulated a 90 mm wide copper foil perforated at
intervals to secure bond. The EVD covered the total
width of the test tank and therefore would induce a
two-dimensional electro-osmotic flow. The three-
dimensional flow between the discretely spaced
electrodes in field was simulated in the test beds by
using EVD strips. The EVD was cut to 15 mm wide
250 mm
Settlement plate
EVD
250 mm
Silty
clay/Peat
Hole
Fig. 3 Experimental set-up with drainage at the bottom of the
test bed
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Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518
(a)
250mm
110mm 55mm
Cathode Test bed Anode
(b) 250mm
110mm 55mm
Cathode Drainage pipe Anode
Test bed
Fig. 4 Plan of experimental set up showing the 2anodes-
1cathode configuration of electrodes: a test bed with drainage
at bottom, b test bed with drainage pipe
and 240 mm long strips, encased in geosynthetic
filter cover, and used in these experiments. Experi-
ments on peat beds (Kaniraj et al. 2010) showed that
the 2anodes-1cathode configuration was effective.
Figure 4 shows the 2anodes-1cathode configuration;
two 15 mm wide EVD strips spaced 55 mm centre-
to-centre apart as anode and one 15 mm wide EVD
strip as cathode.
5.2 Experimental Program
Experiments were carried out to investigate the
effectiveness of drainage tubes, pumping interval,
and polarity reversal on electro-osmotic consolida-
tion. Control tests called self weight consolidation
tests were also carried out on identical test beds
simultaneously. The purpose of these tests was to
distinguish the effects due to electro-osmosis from
consolidation due to self weight. No voltage gradient
was applied (ie = 0 V/m) and the test beds were
allowed to consolidate under self weight. Based on
literature and the authors’ study on peats (Kaniraj
et al. 2010), a constant voltage gradient of 80 V/m
was applied in the electro-osmotic consolidation
tests. The experimental program and test variables
are shown in Table 1 where each test is identified by
an alphanumeric code. The characters in the code
Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518 509

indicate the following sequentially: type of drainage
(P = pipe), test series number, voltage gradient in
V/m, pumping interval in h, and polarity reversal
(PR) interval in h. Thus, P3/80/3/PR12 is a test in the
third series of experiments with drainage pipe, which
was carried out at ie = 80 V/m and the drained water
was pumped out at 3 h intervals during day time. The
direction of voltage gradient was reversed at 12 h
intervals.
5.3 Experimental Procedure
The experimental procedure consisted of the follow-
ing steps.
1. Preparation of test material: The organic soil
was mixed with water in the bowl of a planetary
mixer and the required quantity of slurry was
collected. The entire slurry was mixed by hand to
make it uniform. The slurry was left standing for
about 24 h to reach moisture equilibrium.
2. Preparation of EVD: The full width EVD was
cut into 15 mm wide and 240 mm long EVD
strips. Two EVD strips, spaced 55 mm apart,
were encased in the geosynthetic filter and used
as anode. Similarly, a single EVD strip sheathed
in geosynthetic filter was used as cathode. A
small portion of the polyethylene core of the
EVD strips was removed at the top end to expose
the inner copper strip. The EVD strips were kept
immersed in water to saturate the geosynthetic
cover.
3. Preparation of drainage pipe: The drainage
pipes consisted of 17 mm internal diameter and
220 mm long PVC pipes, which were perforated
by punching tiny holes on the surface. The
surface and the bottom of the perforated pipe
were sheathed by a geotextile filter. The drainage
pipes were soaked in water to saturate the filter
before placing them in the test beds.
4. Preparation of test bed: Drainage pipes and the
anode and cathode EVD strips were placed at
each end of the test tank. Small quantities of the
soil slurry were placed and spread inside the
tank. The slurry was gently tapped with a
wooden bar to remove air in the slurry. The
slurry inside the tank was progressively built to a
thickness of about 200 mm. The initial moisture
content of the slurry was determined. Vane shear
tests were carried out at the top of the test bed.
The settlement plates were placed in position.
The top of the tank was closed with a polyeth-
ylene strip placed under a glass plate cover. The
test bed was left to stand overnight.
5. Self weight consolidation tests: In one test bed,
consolidation was allowed to take place only due
to self weight. The water collected in the
drainage pipes was pumped out at 12 h intervals.
The subsequent test procedure was the same as
for the electro-osmotic consolidation tests.

Table 1 Electro-osmotic consolidation test series with drainage pipes

No Test series Voltage Pumping Polarity reversal interval (h)
gradient (V/m) interval (h)

1 P1/0/12 0 12 No reversal
2 P1/80/12 80 12 No reversal
3 P2/0/12 0 12 No reversal
4 P2/80/3 80 3 No reversal
5 P2/80/6 80 6 No reversal
6 P3/80/3/PR8 80 3 8
7 P3/80/3/PR12 80 3 12
8 P3/80/3/PR24 80 3 24
2anodes-1cathode electrodes configuration was used in all electro-osmotic consolidation tests. Two 15 mm wide EVD strips were
used at the anode end and one 15 mm wide EVD strip was used at the cathode end during normal polarity. During polarity reversal, it
became 1anode-2cathode configuration
No electrodes were used in self weight consolidation (0 V/m) tests. Only drainage pipes were used at both ends of the test bed
In the tests with 3 and 6 h pumping intervals, water was pumped out at these intervals during day time, 6 am to 6 pm. Water was not
pumped out from 6 pm to 6 am

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6. Electro-osmotic consolidation tests: The exposed
copper strips were connected to the direct current
(DC) power supply and the voltage required for
ie = 80 V/m was developed. Hardly any water
flowed into the drainage pipe at the anode end.
The water collected in the drainage pipe at the
cathode end was pumped out at predetermined
time intervals. The effect of pumping interval
was investigated as it was deemed that the water
head in the drainage pipe could affect the electro-
osmotic flow. If sufficient quantity of water was
available, its pH was determined. The readings
for the depth of settlement plates from the top of
the test tank were also recorded. These observa-
tions were repeated at every 24 h intervals for
8 days. Then the self weight consolidation test
and electro-osmotic consolidation tests were
stopped simultaneously. Vane shear tests were
carried out on top of the consolidated beds at
selected locations. Three Shelby tubes were
pressed into the consolidated bed with their
centers at 70, 125 and 180 mm from the cathode
end. A vane shear test was performed on the
specimen at the bottom of the Shelby tube. The
specimen was extruded from the Shelby tube,
sliced into a few segments and their moisture
contents were determined.
5.3.1 Departure in the Experimental Procedure
in the Test Beds with Drainage at Bottom
The experimental procedure is explained elsewhere
(Kaniraj et al. 2010). In these test beds, the drainage
tubes were connected to the holes at the bottom and
kept closed until the beginning of the test. The
drained water was collected in measuring cups
continuously and measured at 24 h interval.
5.4 Results and Discussions
The results of changes in average water content (wav),
average undrained strength (Su-av), total volume of
drained water and its characteristics of color and pH
are summarized in Table 2 for all the tests. Unlike in
the tests with drainage at bottom, when drainage pipe
was used it was not possible to prevent drainage of
water into the drainage pipes due to self weight
consolidation during the time when the test beds were
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Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518
allowed to stabilize before the application of direct
current. The total volume of water drained including
this amount of initial volume of drained water is
shown inside the parentheses in Table 2. The volume
of water drained due to electro-osmotic consolidation
alone (i.e. total volume shown outside the parentheses
in Table 2) is considered in the analysis.
5.4.1 Effectiveness of Drainage Pipe
Figure 5 shows the variation of total volume of water
drained out from the test beds with time in tests P1/0/
12 and P1/80/12. Figure 5 and the results in Table 2
show that electro-osmotic consolidation was effective
in the organic soil. The 80 V/m voltage gradient
caused 320% additional drainage of water over the
self consolidation test. As there was no polarity
reversal, the post-consolidation water content
decreased from the cathode end to the anode end.
Consequently, the undrained strength increased from
the cathode end to the anode end.
Whereas in the self weight consolidation test the
average undrained strength at the anode increased by
about 26%, it increased by about 24 times in the test
at 80 V/m voltage gradient.
5.4.2 Influence of Pumping Interval
Figure 6 shows the variation of total volume of water
drained out from the test beds with time in tests P1/0/
12, P2/0/12, P2/80/3, P2/80/6 and P1/80/12. Shorter
pumping interval resulted in more volume of water
draining out, possibly due to reduction in water head
in the drainage pipe. Compared to the 12 h pumping
interval, the drained volume of water in the 3 and 6 h
pumping interval tests were more by 32 and 22%,
respectively. Shorter pumping interval also resulted
in reaching completion of electro-osmotic consolida-
tion or electro-osmotic flow diminishing to zero in
relatively shorter time. From the best fit second order
polynomial trend lines to the curves in Fig. 6, the
time for end of electro-osmotic osmotic flow for 3 h
pumping interval was determined as 6.7 days and for
6 and 12 h pumping intervals as 8 days. It should be
noted that in the tests with 3 and 6 h pumping
intervals, water was pumped out at these intervals
only during day time of 6 am to 6 pm. Water was not
pumped out from 6 pm to 6 am. Had only the same
pumping intervals been maintained throughout the
 Table 2 Characteristics of drained water and changes in water content and undrained strength
Test Test Characteristics of drained water wi wf-av (%) Sui Suf-av (kPa)
No. designation (%) (kPa)
Total Color pH range dc = 70 mm dc = 125 mm dc = 180 mm dc = 70 mm dc = 125 mm dc = 180 mm
volume
Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518

(ml)
à
1 P1/0/12 179 Dark brown 5.15 239 227 223 – 2.25 2.91 3.83
to light brown
2 P1/80/12 751 Dark brown to clear 11.56–12.16 239 197 177 169 2.12 13.59 36.30 52.49
3 P2/0/12 109 (138) Dark brown to clear – 221 205 211 209 2.12 2.78 2.25 2.52
à à à
4 P2/80/3 991 (1,014) Dark brown to light 9.85–10.67 221 167a 148b 130c 1.99
brown
à à à
5 P2/80/6 918 (941) Dark brown to clear 9.92–12.16 219 184d 166e 138f 2.65
6 P3/80/3/ 539 (608) Very dark brown – 254 211 223 211 1.33 10.16 4.81 6.14
PR8 to light brown
7 P3/80/3/ 539 (607) Very dark brown – 249 216 224 219 1.33 10.52 2.78 4.62
PR12 to light brown
8 P3/80/3/ 556 (623) Very dark brown – 254 208 212 211 1.60 6.90 7.54 11.38
PR24 to light brown
Total volume of water shown inside the parentheses includes also the volume of water drained due to self weight consolidation at the beginning of the test
Drainage tube was provided only at the cathode end in Test 2
Test 4: adc = 80 mm; bdc = 150 mm; cdc & 240 mm (anode end); Very close to the cathode wf-av = 197%
Test 5: ddc = 90 mm; edc = 150 mm; fdc = 200 mm; Very close to the cathode wf-av = 214%
à
Vane shear test was not performed only at top. Therefore, Suf-av could not be calculated
511

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512 Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518

800 1200
Volume of drained water, cc

Volume of drained water, cc

700
1000
600
P1/80/12 800
500
400 600
300
400
200 P2/80/3
P3/80/3/PR8
P1/0/12 200 P3/80/3/PR12
100
P3/80/3/PR24
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Elapsed time, days Elapsed time, days

Fig. 5 Variation of volume of drained water with time in tests Fig. 7 Influence of polarity reversal on the variation of
P1/0/12 and P1/80/12 volume of drained water with time

1200
Volume of drained water, cc

P2/0/12
1000
P1/0/12
P2/80/3
P2/80/6
800 P1/80/12
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3
Elapsed time, days
Fig. 6 Variation of volume of drained water with time and
pumping interval
duration of the test, shorter pumping intervals could
have produced still higher drained volume of water at
a still shorter time. Therefore, in field while using
ejector wells it is advisable to adopt shorter pumping
intervals, particularly during the initial stages of
electro-osmotic consolidation.
5.4.3 Influence of Polarity Reversal
Figure 7 shows the variation of total volume of water
drained out from the test beds with time in tests
P3/80/3/PR8, P3/80/3/PR12 and P3/80/3/PR24. The
curve for test P2/80/3 without polarity reversal is also
included in the figure in order to bring out the
influence of polarity reversal distinctly. Polarity
reversal resulted in significantly lesser electro-
osmotic flow and lesser increase in undrained shear
strength. Compared to test P2/80/3 without polarity
reversal, there was a 44–46% decrease in the drained
volume of water in the tests with polarity reversal.
The actual reduction could still be higher, because the
test beds in the polarity reversal tests had higher
initial water content than the test without polarity
reversal. The influence of polarity reversal on electro-
osmotic consolidation did not depend on the polarity
reversal interval. However, due to polarity reversal
the post-consolidation water content and undrained
strength distributions were more even throughout the
4 5 6 7 8 9 test beds as shown in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. In
the case of no polarity reversal, the water content
after electro-osmotic consolidation generally
decreased from the cathode end to the anode end
with the undrained strength increasing from the
cathode end to the anode end. If a minimum target
for strength gain is used as a criterion for electro-
osmotic treatment in the field, it appears it is
advisable to adopt electro-osmotic treatment without
polarity reversal and shorter pumping intervals.
Bjerrum et al. (1967) from their field study of
electro-osmotic consolidation of a Norwegian quick
clay deposit and Ou et al. (2009) from their field
study of electro-osmosis at Taipei also reported that
polarity reversal did not produce favorable effects in
terms of water discharged from the cathodes and
improvement in the undrained strength. The authors
attributed (Kaniraj et al. 2010) the unfavorable effect
of polarity reversal to the drying of soil near the
anode and the acidic conditions created at the anode.
When polarity is reversed, the dry soil near anode
needed to be saturated again to sustain the electro-
osmotic flow in the reverse direction. Acidic condi-
tions reduce the zeta potential (1) of the soil and
thereby the potential for electro-osmotic flow (Asadi

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(a) 220 cement or lime is mixed in situ either in dry or slurry

state by deep mixing method. The chemical stabil-
200 ization and improvement in the soil characteristics
P2/0/12
P2/80/3
P2/80/6
occurs through reactions such as hydration, hardening
180
and pozzolanic action. In this series of tests the
wf-av , %

objective of the study was to determine the effec-

160
tiveness of the combination of electro-osmotic con-
140 solidation and lime and cement columns in the
improvement of soft organic soils.
120
50 100 150 200 250
dc, mm 6.1 Experimental Procedure
(b) 230
Cement factor, a, is defined as a = Weight of dry
wf-av , %

220
binder mixed with the soil/Volume of the soil,
210
P3/80/3/PR8 P3/80/3/PR12 P3/80/3/PR24 expressed in kg/m3 (Bruce 2001). Another definition
200
50 100 150 200 of binder factor is aw = Weight of dry binder/Weight
dc, mm of dry soil, expressed in %. Lime and cement were
used in various quantities in the present study. Two
Fig. 8 Variation of water content in test beds: a tests P2 with
no polarity reversal and b tests P3 with polarity reversal vertical lime or cement columns of 38 mm diameter
(dc = distance from cathode end) were installed in the test bed, adjacent to the anode.
The lime and cement contents in the columns are
60 designated by aL and aC, respectively. The selection
of quantity of lime and cement in the columns were
50
based on the recommendations in literature (Bruce
2001; Moseley and Kirsch 1994). Bruce, for example,
Suf-av , kPa

40
P1/80/12
P3/80/3/PR8
has referred to studies in which cement factors of
30
P3/80/3/PR12 240–400 kg/m3 have been used in sludges and
20 P3/80/3/PR24 150–260 kg/m3 in organic silts and clays. In peat, a
high cement factor of 500 kg/m3 has been used.
10
According to Moseley and Kirsch (1994), for stabil-
0 ization of organic soils the amount of lime required
50 100 150 200
varies from 70 to 90 kg/m3 and the cement required
dc , mm
varies from 16 to 40% by dry weight.
Fig. 9 Variation of undrained strength in test beds with no Experiments were conducted in test tanks with
polarity reversal and with polarity reversal (dc = distance from drainage at bottom shown in Fig. 4a. The experi-
cathode end) mental procedure was by and large the same as
explained in Sect. 5.3 except for two aspects. One
et al. 2009; Sharma and Reddy 2004; Shang 1997b). was the installation of the lime and cement columns
Thus, the effectiveness of polarity reversal will be during the preparation of the test beds. Figure 10
affected by the reduced saturation and 1 of the soil shows the position of the lime or cement columns in
near the anode. the experimental set up. The second difference was
the additional determination of undrained strength
and moisture content at 6 and 13 days after the
6 Electro-Osmotic Consolidation Experiments completion of electro-osmotic consolidation.
Combined with Lime or Cement Columns
6.1.1 Installation of Lime and Cement Columns
Chemicals and additives such as cement, lime, fly ash
and gypsum and their combinations can be added to Lime or cement columns of 38 mm diameter were
stabilize soft soils. In high water content soft soils, installed to the full depth of the test bed. Based on the

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volume of column Vc and binder factor a, the amount of
binder to be mixed with the organic soil was deter-
mined as Wb = a Vc. The quantity of binder required
for two columns was mixed with the corresponding
volume of column material in a bowl. Two Shelby
tubes were positioned inside the tank close to the
anodes as shown in Fig. 10. The material mixed with
the binder was placed inside and tamped using a
wooden tamper and the column was built to a small
height. Then the test bed material was placed inside the
tank and around the Shelby tubes to a small height. The
Shelby tubes were withdrawn slightly up maintaining
the tip slightly below the surrounding test bed material.
The operations of building up the column and the test
bed in incremental heights were repeated until the
construction of the entire test bed and columns was
completed. The Shelby tubes were completely with-
drawn after construction of the columns.
6.2 Experimental Programme
Experiments were conducted for 3 different lime
contents and cement contents. A constant voltage
gradient of 80 V/m and the 2anodes-1cathode con-
figuration were used in all experiments. Each exper-
iment was conducted for 8 days. To study the
Lime or cement
(a) Geosynthetic
cover Test bed columns
possible time dependent curing effects due to lime
and cement, vane shear tests and moisture content
tests were continued at 14 and 21 days. Table 3
provides a summary of the test programme. Each test
is identified by an alphanumeric code. The characters
in the code indicate the following sequentially:
type of drainage (B = bottom), test series number,
voltage gradient in V/m, binder type (L = lime,
C = cement), and binder content, a, in kg/m3. Thus,
B2/80/C/190 is a test in the second series of
experiments with drainage at bottom, which was
carried out at ie = 80 V/m and the cement content in
the columns was 190 kg/m3. The tests B3/0 and B3/
80 are control tests without lime or cement columns
in the test bed, the former a self weight consolidation
test and the later an electro-osmotic consolidation
test.
6.3 Results and Discussions
The results of volume of water drained out during
electro-osmotic consolidation phase and the charac-
teristics of the drained water are summarised in
Table 4. The values of water content at the top of the
test beds at the end of electro-osmotic consolidation
and at days 14 and 21 are summarized in Table 5.
Similarly, the values of undrained strength at the top of
the test beds at the end of electro-osmotic consolidation
and at days 14 and 21 are summarized in Table 6.

6.3.1 Changes in Water Content

Figure 11 shows typical results of change in water

Cathode Anode
content with time in tests B1/80/L/185 and B2/80/C/

(b) 250 mm
Table 3 Electro-osmotic consolidation test series with lime
and cement columns and drainage at bottom (ie = 80 V/m)
Settlement
plate No Test Series Binder type Binder content
(a) (kg/m3)
EVD

1 B1/80/L/90 Lime 90
250 mm
Lime or cement 2 B1/80/L/185 Lime 185
columns
Silty
3 B1/80/L/275 Lime 275
clay/Peat 4 B2/80/C/95 Cement 95
5 B2/80/C/190 Cement 190
Hole
6 B2/80/C/290 Cement 290
7 B3/0 No binder 0
Fig. 10 Experimental set up for electro-osmotic consolidation 8 B3/80 No binder 0
tests beds with lime or cement columns, a plan and b elevation

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Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518 515

Table 4 Characteristics of
No Test designation Total volume (ml) Color pH range
drained water in electro-
osmotic consolidation tests 1 B1/80/L/90 682 Dark brown to clear 9.89–12.02
with lime and cement
columns 2 B1/80/L/185 734 Dark brown to clear 9.42–11.75
3 B1/80/L/275 840 Light brown to clear 9.44–11.43
4 B2/80/C/95 948 Light brown to clear 9.48–10.66
5 B2/80/C/190 1,033 Light brown to clear 9.36–11.10
6 B2/80/C/290 1,065 Dark brown to clear 9.81–11.28
7 B3/0 278 Light brown to clear –
8 B3/80 845 Dark brown to clear 8.98–10.46

Table 5 Water content in electro-osmotic consolidation tests with lime and cement columns
No Test designation wi (%) wf-top (%)
dc (mm) (t = 8 days) dc (mm) (t = 14 days) dc (mm) (t = 21 days)
70 125 180 70 125 180 70 125 180

1 B1/80/L/90 184 179 163 131 151 151 144 146 141 137
2 B1/80/L/185 201 200 185 140 192 165 145 165 152 140
3 B1/80/L/275 207 172 168 144 180 164 151 191 172 146
4 B2/80/C/95 235 177 167 153 180 170 160 180 170 160
5 B2/80/C/190 228 172 165 139 172 168 155 167 171 141
6 B2/80/C/290 231 167 157 122 167 161 * 163 159 123
7 B3/0 152 141 141 139 NA NA NA NA NA NA
8 B3/80 153 112 107 106 NA NA NA NA NA NA
* The measured values appear to be anomalous, probably due to experimental errors and not reported
NA not applicable. Tests without lime or cement columns

190. t = 0–8 days is the electro-osmotic consolida-
tion period and t [ 8 days is the post electro-osmotic
consolidation period. The reduction in water content
was more in test beds with cement columns compared
to those with lime columns. The post-consolidation
water content was not significantly affected by lime
content or cement content. After electro-osmotic
consolidation, the water content tended to change
with time. However, the trend was not consistent; the
water content increased or decreased or remained
nearly constant with time. In the case of lime
columns, the tendency for the water content was in
general to decrease with time at low binder factors.
The trend was opposite in the case of cement columns
where the water content tended to increase with time
or remain constant.
6.3.2 Changes Undrained Strength
Figure 12 shows typical results of change in
undrained strength with time in tests B1/80/L/185
and B2/80/C/190. A comparison of the undrained
strength values of Series B1 and B2 tests and the
B3/80 test, shows that the lime and cement columns
had an influence on the undrained strength. They
contributed to an increase in undrained strength. The
cement columns contributed to a greater increase in
undrained strength than the lime columns. In the case
of lime columns, the improvement in undrained
strength of the test bed happened nearer to the lime
columns, whereas in the case of cement columns
the undrained strength increased at all locations of the
test bed. In general, cement columns improved the
strength more than the lime columns. The undrained
strength too like water content changed with time
after electro-osmotic consolidation in different ways.
In the test beds with cement columns, there was some
reduction in undrained strength with time with water
content increasing or remaining nearly constant with
time. But in the test beds with lime columns, there
was some increase in undrained strength with time at
locations away from the lime columns. Close to the

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Table 6 Undrained strength in electro-osmotic consolidation tests with lime and cement columns
No Test designation Sui (kPa) Suf-top (kPa)
dc (mm) (t = 8 days) dc (mm) (t = 14 days) dc (mm) (t = 21 days)
70 125 180 70 125 180 70 125 180

1 B1/80/L/90 3.04 13.69 25.50 57.45 16.19 25.97 47.88 19.38 28.64 50.68
2 B1/80/L/185 3.18 16.60 18.75 44.13 16.39 23.71 38.47 17.65 23.27 43.62
3 B1/80/L/275 3.70 18.51 25.06 56.26 23.27 16.81 36.42 22.40 24.17 43.55
4 B2/80/C/95 2.77 24.17 42.64 [74* 26.85 37.17 51.47 28.64 34.23 63.60
5 B2/80/C/190 2.64 25.97 39.64 67.26 28.64 39.64 59.55 42.64 34.65 47.83
6 B2/80/C/290 3.45 56.19 64.04 [74* 40.06 58.99 [74* 34.65 54.05 [74*
7 B3/0 1.58 3.70 3.17 3.17 NA NA NA NA NA NA
8 B3/80 1.72 21.15 32.56 39.19 NA NA NA NA NA NA
* The undrained strength exceeded the capacity of the vane shear apparatus
NA not applicable. Tests without lime or cement columns

(a) 210 (a) 50

dc = 70 mm
dc = 125 mm 40
190 dc = 180 mm dc = 70 mm
Su ,kPa
30 dc = 125 mm
w, %

dc = 180 mm
170
20

150 10
B1/80/L/185
B1/80/L/185 0
130 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 5 10 15 20 25
t , days
t , days

(b) 240 (b) 80

dc = 70 mm
70
dc = 125 mm
220 dc = 70 mm dc = 180 mm
60
dc = 125 mm
200 dc = 180 mm 50
Su ,kPa
w, %

40
180
30
160
20

140 10
B2/80/C/190
B2/80/C/190
0
120 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 5 10 15 20 25
t , days
t , days
Fig. 12 Variation in the undrained strength of test beds with
Fig. 11 Variation in the water content of test beds with time:
time: a test B1/80/L/185 and b test B2/80/C/190
a test B1/80/L/185 and b test B2/80/C/190

lime columns, the undrained strength decreased with
time. It is not possible to explain the reason for the
decrease in strength with time from the current series
of tests. The results show that there are no time
dependent curing effects. The variation in the phys-
ical condition of the test bed material with time needs
to be investigated through scanning electron
microscopy.
Thus, the results of changes in water content and
undrained strength with time did not show a regular
trend. However, it is evident that much of the strength
gain is retained after electro-osmotic consolidation
also, particularly in the case of cement columns.
There appears to be no need for higher dosage of
cement or lime content. Smaller binder factors
produced good results comparable to larger binder

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Geotech Geol Eng (2011) 29:505–518 517

factors. However, the binder factor could have an (a) 0 day 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days
influence on the strength of the column itself, which 5 days 6 days 7 days 8 days
200
was not investigated in this study.

Thickness of bed, mm
195
6.3.3 Settlement of Test Beds and Surface Profiles
190

Figure 13 shows the variation in the surface profile of 185

the B3/80 test bed. The settlement near the cathode
was slightly more than at the anode, probably due to 180
faster reduction in water content near anode and the B1/80/L/90
175
associated stiffening of material. The effect of the 0 50 100 150 200 250
presence of lime and cement columns on settlement Distance from cathode, dc , mm
profile can be seen in Fig. 14. The tendency for
relatively smaller settlement near anode was (b) 0 day 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days
5 days 6 days 7 days 8 days
increased by the presence of lime and cement 190
columns near the anode. With increase in binder

Thickness of bed, mm
factor the tendency for reduction in settlement near 185
the lime and cement columns also increased.
180

175
7 Conclusions
170
B2/80/C/95
The following conclusions can be drawn from the 165
electro-osmotic consolidation experimental studies. 0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance from cathode, dc , mm
1. Electro-osmosis was effective in the improve-
ment of the soft organic soil. Both types of Fig. 14 Variation in the surface profile of test beds with time:
drainage, namely drainage at bottom and drain- a test B1/80/L/90 and b test B2/80/C/95
age tubes, were effective.
2. The pumping interval of water from the drainage
tube had an effect on electro-osmotic treatment. 3. Polarity reversal resulted in significantly lesser
Shorter pumping interval resulted in more and electro-osmotic flow and lesser increase in
faster electro-osmotic consolidation. undrained strength. However, due to polarity
reversal the post-consolidation water content and
0 day 1 day 2 days 3 days 4 days
undrained strength distributions were more even
5 days 6 days 7 days 8 days throughout the test beds.
185 4. When lime or cement columns were used in
Thickness of test bed, mm

combination with electro-osmosis, they increased

180
the undrained strength further. The cement
175 columns contributed to a greater increase in
undrained strength than the lime columns. The
170
reduction in water content was more in the test
165
beds with cement columns than in those with
B3/80 lime columns.
160 5. The settlement of the test bed was slightly more
0 50 100 150 200 250
near the cathode than at the anode. The settle-
Distance from cathode, dc , mm
ment near anode was decreased further by the
Fig. 13 Variation in the surface profile of test bed with time in presence of lime and cement columns near the
test B3/80 anode.

123
518
Acknowledgments The research grant from the Ministry of
Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia, to the research
project ‘‘Electro-osmosis and Electro-stabilization Experiments
on Soft Soils of North Sarawak’’ is acknowledged. The authors
thank Mr. R. S. Douglas, Emas Kiara Industries Bhd.,
Selangor, Malaysia, for providing the EVD for the
experiments and Mr H. L. Huong for assistance in conduct-
ing the experiments.
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