HEAT TRANSFER COURSE MATERIAL (A36C2)

UNIT-I

The science of thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another, and makes no reference to how long
the process will take. But in engineering, we are often interested in the rate of heat transfer,
which is the topic of the science of heat transfer. The study of heat transfer has become an
increasingly intense concern in modern technology. In the fields of refrigeration and air
conditioning, computer hardware, electrical engineering civil engineering, geothermal
engineering and in electronic equipment cooling, chemical technology etc… there is a need to
understand and predict how heat energy is carried, distributed and diffused in and by different
materials. This is possible only if we have knowledge of heat transfer. The study of heat transfer
includes the physical process where thermal energy is transferred as a result of a temperature
difference. There are basically two distinct processes for the transport of heat energy viz.,
Conduction and Radiation. If conduction occurs in a medium where there is a relative motion of
particles it is called Convection. Therefore the study of heat transfer requires the knowledge of
the three modes of heat transfer conduction, convection and radiation.

1.1 CONDUCTION

This is the mode of heat transfer, which occurs in a medium with out any relative motion
of particles, though it is impermeable to any other kind of radiation.

This mode is dominant in solids. This

is more effective in metals than in non-
metals. In liquids and gases also we can have
this mode but dominated by the motion of
molecules i.e. mostly by convection.
The rate of heat conduction through a
solid material in a fluid where there is no
relative motion is proportional to temperature
difference across the material. i.e more the
temperature difference we can have more
amount of heat transfer. The rate is also
proportional to the area normal to the
direction of heat flow and inversely
proportional to the thickness of the material.

This dependence was established by Fourier’s law of conduction which states that
Q dT A.T
 or Q
A dx x
The rate of heat transfer per unit area is directly proportional to the temperature gradient. The
proportionality is removed by a constant denoted by ‘k’ known as Thermal conductivity.
 dT T
Q = kA  kA (Watts)
dx L
The negative sign is introduced since the heat always flows from higher temperature to lower
temperature i.e., opposite to the temperature gradient. The above equation is called Fourier rate
equation.
The value kA/L is known as “conductance” of the plate. And Q /A is known as Heat flux denoted
by ‘q’. From above equation it follows that the rate of heat flow will be the rate along the lines
normal to isothermal surface. If this flow of heat is considered in different directions x,y,z in a
solid we have
dT dT dT
q x  -k x , q y  -k y and q z  -k z
dx dy dz
Where Kx, Kyand Kz represent thermal conductivities in x,y,z directions.
Thermal conductivity is a physical parameter of the substance indicating the substance
capacity to conduct heat.
Q. x
From Fourier equation k =
A. T
When  x =1, A= 1,  T= 1 unit, k = Q. so we can define the thermal conductivity of a substance
as the quantity of heat it can transfer by conduction per unit area of the isothermal surface per
unit time at a unit temperature gradient. Higher the value of k higher the substance ability to
conduct heat. In general k depends on temperature, pressure and nature of the substance and is
determined experimentally.
1.2 CONVECTION
This is delivered from the latin word ‘convehere’ means bring in or to carry. This is the mode
of heat transfer, which occurs due to the motion of molecules carrying heat from one zone to
another zone. For example if we keep a hot cup of coffee in a stream of air, it gets cooled and we
say heat is convected away by air. The molecules of air while moving over the hot coffee surface
pickup heat and release in a low temperature zone. When we pour the coffee in saucer and
expose it to the same stream of air it gets cooled more quickly because the exposed surface area
of hot fluid increases. Thus convective heat transfer is directly proportional to the exposed
surface area and it is also proportional to the temperature difference between the surface and
stream.
 Q  A.T
This is known as Newton’s law of
cooling, which states that the rate of heat
transfer by convection is proportional to
exposed surface area and temperature
difference.
If the proportionality is removed we have to
introduce a constant ‘h’ known as convective
heat transfer coefficient.
 Q  h. As.T   h. As.Ts  T  Watts
Q
h  W / m2 K
AS .T
1.3 Radiation:
Radiation is an electromagnetic phenomenon in which heat energy is carried by the
waves in quantum. This can happen between bodies without any presence of medium as earth
receiving heat from sun through space. For conduction and convection to transfer heat we need
temperature difference (driving potential which cause heat flow from high temperature to low
temperature) where as in radiation when ever a body is at a temperature greater than 0 K .i.e., -
273 0C it experience molecular motion vibration & collision which result in emitting energy at
various wave lengths. This heat emitted by a body through electromagnetic waves is known as
radiation. Thus all objects will continue to emit radiant heat energy in all directions when their
temperature is above 0K and is governed by Stefan Boltzman law. It states that the amount of
heat energy emitted by a black body is directly proportional to fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
Q b  AT 4
or Q b   AT 4 Watts
 is called Stefan Boltzman constant and is given as 5.67  10 8 W/m 2 K 4
Black body is an ideal body, which is a perfect emitter and perfect absorber. Real body
surfaces are not ideal and they emit less energy than a black body. The ratio of energy emitted by
a real body to that of a black body is known as emissivity denoted by .
E E
  real  real4
Eblack T
Qreal    AT 4 Watts
If a black body at temperature T1 having area A1 is completely surrounded by an environment
(black body) at temperature T2 then the net Heat Exchange between them is given by
 
Qb12   A1  T14  T24 watts.
Since the value of  is very low, radiation heat is dominant only when the bodies are at
high temperature. More detailed discussion on radiation is presented in chapter on Radiation.

1.4 COMBINED MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

So far we have discussed the three fundamental modes of heat transfer treating them
separately. However in practice must of the devices experience more than one mode. From a hot
surface convention & radiation are both common. If we consider a car radiator heat transfer from
hot water to outer surface of tubes is by conduction & from the tubes surface to cold stream of
air is by convection. Not only that the hot tube emitter radiation heat into surrounding. Same
thing in the case of an IC engine cylinder. How ever the entry of heat energy from a hot surface
into fluid through the stagnant film at its surface is by conduction only. So there is need to
analyze these three modes combinedly rather than dealing them separately. The following
example illustrates the combined analysis.
1.5 General Conduction equation in – Cartesian System.
Let us consider a volume element as
shown in figure 3 having dimensions x, y
and z. We assume that the element has an
internal heat generation of qG W/m3 due to
chemical reaction or electrical resistance
heating or nuclear reaction etc…
We further consider the conduction
heat transfer in 3directions x, y, z as Qx, Qy
and Qzentering the element and Qx  dx , Q y  dy
and Q z  dz as leaving. From the Fourier’s law
of conduction

T
Q x  - k x . y.z  - (2.1)
x
T
Q y  - k y . x.z 
y
T
Q z  - k z . y.x 
z
Further the heat leaving in x direction at x + x is mathematically expressed as

Q x Δ x  Q x  Q x .x
x
Similarly in y and z directions

Q y  y  Q y  Q y .y
y

Q z  z  Q z  Q z .z
z
The amount of total heat generated in the elemental volume = qG  vol
= qG  x  y  z
If we assume the density of the element ρ then the mass of the element m  x.y .z

Now applying law of Conservation of energy

Heat energy entering + Heat generated = Heat energy leaving

+Accumulation rate of energy in the element

The energy accumulated is responsible for increasing the internal heat capacity of the
T
element given by m.C. Where ‘C’ is the specific heat of the material in J/kg k and ‘t’
t
represents time.
 T
Q x  Q y  Q z  qG .x.y.z  Q x  dx  Q y  dy  Q z  dz  m.C.
t
Substituting equations 2.4, 2.5, 2.6 in (2.9) we get
   T
 Qx x  Q y y  Qz z  qG .x.y.z  m . C .
x y z t
Substituting 2.1, 2.3 and 2.7 and treating ‘k’ as independent of Temp
 2T  2T  2T T
k x x.y.z 2  k y x.y.z 2  k z x.y.z 2  qG x.y.z  ρ .x.y.z.C .
x y z t
 2T  2T  2T T
kx  k  k  qG  ρ .C
x y z t
2 y 2 z 2

Assuming isotropic behavior k x  k y  k z then the above equation can be written as

 2T  2T  2T qG ρ .C T
    .
x 2 y 2 z 2 k k t
k
Where is known as thermal diffusivity in units m2/s.
ρ .C
Thermal diffusivity is a property of the material and indicates the rate at which the heat
energy is distributed in a material. Higher the ‘k’ value of material the faster is the ‘spreading’ of
heat energy and equalization of temperature through out the substance is faster. A value of c i.e.
heat storage capacity represent sluggish nature of distribution of heat. Metals have large
diffusivity compared to non-metals. Liquids exhibit a very small diffusivity. Gasses have high
value of thermal diffusivity and hence metals and gases respond quickly to temperature changes
in the surroundings when compared to non-metals and liquids.

1.6. General conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates

In certain geometries viz discs, rods and tubes and so on it is advantageous to adopt
cylindrical coordinate system to analyze the rate of heat transfer and temperature distribution. In
this coordinate system x = r cos and z = z.From first principles considering an element as
shown in figure 4 we derive the expression as follows

The volume of the element

considered  dr.rd .dz
Heat entering at radius r as
per Fourier’s law
T
Q r  -k.rdθ dΖ
r
Heat entering in  direction
T
Q θ  -k.dr dΖ 
rθ
Heat entering in z direction
T
Q Z  -k.rdθ dr 
Z
 
Heat leaving at r  dr  in radial direction is Q r  dr = Q r + (Q r ) dr
r

At   d  in tangential direction is Qθ  dθ = Qθ + (Qθ ) rdθ
rθ

At z  dz  in axial direction is Q Z dZ  Q Z + (Q Z ) dZ
Z
Total heat generated in the control volume = q G . rdθ . dr . dZ
Applying the energy balance
Heat entering into the element + internal heat generation
= heat leaving + Rate of change of energy in the element
Accumulated rate of energy will lead to increase the
dT dT
Heat capacity and is equal to  m .C.  ρ .(dr . rdθ . dZ)
dt dt
Substituting the quantities in the above energy equation
 
 Q r dr  Q θ .rdθ   (Q Z ) dZ  q G . rdθ . dr . dZ  m.C. dT
r rdθ Z dt
  T   T    T
   k . rdθd Z  dr    k . dr . dZ . . rdθ    k . rdθd r  q G . rdθ . dr . dZ
r  r  rdθ  rθ Z  Z 
T
 ρ.rdθ.dr.dZ.C.
t
Canceling d .dr.dZ on both sides.
  T   T    T T
 k .r    k.  . r  k . r q G . r  ρ .C. r .
r   r  rdθ  r  θ   Z   Z t
Assuming k is independent of T we get
  2T T  k  2T  2T T
k r. 2     kr.  qG r  ρCr.
 r r  r θ 2
Z 2
t
dividing the entire equation with r ,k
  2T 1 T  1  2T  2T qG ρC T
 2      .
 r r r  r 2  θ 2 Z 2 k k t
which is the general conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates.

1.7. General conduction equation in spherical co-ordinates

This equation is useful to solve the problems on sphere. The differential element is
considered as shown in fig.5. Where
x  r sin  sin φ
y  rsin  cosφ
z  r cos
 The volume of the element dv  rd dr r sin  d φ
T
Heat entering in r direction Qr  k rdθ .r sinθ d.
t
T
Heat entering in  direction Q   kdr.r sin θ d.
r
T
Heat entering in  direction Q  k dr.rd.
r sin .

Heat leaving in r direction Q r  dr = Q r + (Q r ) dr
r

Heat leaving in  direction Qθ  dθ = Qθ + (Qθ ) rdθ
rθ

Heat leaving in  direction Q  d = Q + (Q ).rsin  .d
r sin  .
Heat generated by the volume = qG . dr . rdθ .r sin  d 
dT
Heat accumulated rate in the element = m . c .
dt
T
 (ρ . dr . rdθ .r sin  d  )C .
t

Substituting the above quantities in the energy balance equation

Heat

 Qr dr 
r

rdθ r sin θ.
 
Q .rdθ   Q .r sin θ d  qG .dr.rdθ.r sin d  m .C. dT entering
dt +
Internal
heat generation = Heat leaving + Heat accumulation rate we get

  T
Now Qr dr   k .rdθ .r sin d .dr.
r r r 
   2 T 
 k .dθ . sin d r .dr.
r  r 
  2 T 
=  k.d.dr. sin d r
r  r 

Q rd    k .dr.r sin d T .r d.
r r  r  
  T 
 k .dr.d.d sin  
   

Q .r sin .d    k .dr .rd. sin  T d r sin d.
r sin  r sin   r sin  
k .dr .d.d   T 

sin     
Substituting these in the above equations

  2 T   T dr .d.d   T 
k .dr .dθ .d sin   r   k .dr .d.d  sin    k .    qG . dr . dθ .d.r 2 sin 
r  r      sin     

T
 ρ . dr . rdθ .r sin .d.C .
t
dividing the above equation with k .r 2 . sin . dr . dθ .d we get
1  r 2 T  .dr  1   T  1   T  q G C T
sin   2  
r 2 r  r  r sin 
2
 
   r sin     
 2
 k k t

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  qG 1 T
.dr  2 sin    2   .
  r sin      k
 r  
r r  r 
2
r sin    2
 t

Which is the general heat conduction equation in spherical coordinate system.

For steady state unidirectional heat conduction in radial direction without heat generation the
above equation simplifies to

1   2 T 
. r 0
r 2 r  r 

In general one dimensional conduction equation can be written as

1   n T  T
 r .k .   qG  C .
r r 
2
r  t
Where, n = 0 for Cartesian system
n = 1 for Cylindrical system
n = 2 for Spherical system
1.8. Simplification and forms of field equation: The simplifications forms of field equation are
given below.

 2T  2T  2T qG 1 T
    .
x 2 y 2 z 2 k  t

qG 1 T
or  2T   . where  is Laplace operator.
k  t
When the temperature is not varying w.r.t time i.e. under steady state condition the above
equation reduces to
 2T  2T  2T q G
+ + + =0
x 2 y 2 z 2 k
T
 =0
t
q
Or  2T  G and is known as Poisson’s equation.
k

In the absence of any internal heat generation qG  0 it reduces to

 2T  2T  2T
+ + =0
x 2 y 2 z 2
 2T  0 and is known as Laplaceequation.
In the absence of heat generation but under unsteady state it reduces to
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
+ 2 + 2 =
x 2
y z  t
and is known as Fourierconductionequation.

Finally for one dimensional, steady state without heat generation it reduces to

 2T
0
x 2

  T 
If k is treated as a function of temperature we get  k x  = 0
x

Solution of these equations subject to the boundary conditions will yield the temperature
distribution in the solid. Then by using Fourier law we can find the heat transfer in any direction.
1.9. Initial and Boundary Conditions

To determine the temperature distribution in a medium, it is necessary to solve the

appropriate form of the heat equation. However, such a solution depends on the physical
conditions existing at the boundaries of the medium and, if the situation is time dependent, on
conditions existing in the medium at some initial time. With regard to the boundary conditions,
there are several common possibilities that are simply expressed in mathematical form. Because
the heat equation is second order in the spatial coordinates, two boundary conditions must be
expressed for each coordinate to describe the system. Because the equation is first order in time,
however, only one condition, termed the initial condition, must be specified.

The conditions are specified at the surface x =0 for a one-dimensional system. Heat
transfer is in the positive x direction with the temperature distribution, which may be time
dependent, designated as T( x, t ) . The first condition corresponds to a situation for which the
surface is maintained at a fixed temperature Ts. It is commonly termed a Dirichlet condition, or a
boundary condition of the first kind. It is closely approximated, for example, when the surface is
in contact with a melting solid or a boiling liquid. In both cases there is heat transfer at the
surface, while the surface remains at the temperature of the phase change process. The second
condition corresponds to the existence of a fixed or constant heat flux at the surface. This
heat flux is related to the temperature gradient at the surface by Fourier's Law, which may be
expressed as

It is termed as Neumann condition, or a boundary condition of the second kind, and may be
realized by bonding a thin film or patch electric heater to the surface. A special case of this
condition corresponds to the perfectly insulated, or adiabatic, surface for which. The boundary
condition of the third kind corresponds to the existence of convection heating (or cooling) at the
surface and is obtained from the surface energy balance.
 HEAT TRANSFER COURSE MATERIAL (A36C2)

UNIT-II

2.1. One dimensional heat conduction through a plane wall

Consider one dimensional steady state heat conduction through a plane wall (isotropic)
with constant thermal conductivity as shown in figure 6
The governing equation is
  T 
k. 0
x  x 

 2T T
0   C1
x 2 x
T  C1x  C2

to find the constants C1 and C2 the boundary

conditions are applied. They are
at x  0, T  T1
since the faces are maintained at T1 and T2.
at x  L, T  T2

T2  T1
 T1  C2 and  C1
L

 T  T1 
Substituting we get T  2  x  T1
 L 

This shows that temperature varies linearly with x.

This will gives us the temperature at any point in the wall in x direction. Since heat transfer in Y
and Z direction is neglected the value is same all along the Y-axis and Z-axis at any given
location. This equation is a linear equation and hence temperature variation is linear in a slab,
with constant thermal conductivity.

The rate of heat transfer is measured by using Fourier’s law

dT
 kA C1 x  C 2 
d
Q  kA
dx dx
 kA.C1 
 kAT2  T1  kAT1  T2 
Q
L (or) Q  L
T1  T2 
We can express the above equation as Q  L
 kA
Which indicates that for the same driving potential (Temperature difference) increase in value of
L decreases the rate of heat transfer and thus L is known as Thermal Resistance of a
kA kA
slab.
Rslab  L
kA
If the thermal conductivity of the slab is high resistance will be low and is known as better
thermal conductor. Reciprocal of the resistance is known as thermal conductance and is exposed
in W/m2K.

2.2. One dimensional heat conduction through a hollowcylinder

Most of the engineering device involves the flow of fluids through pipes or the
objects having cylindrical shape. It is assumed that heat flows through the pipe in a radial
direction only and there is no heat transfer along axis. i.e. at any radius along the axis the
temperature is uniform through out the cylinder. Let the inner surface temperature of the cylinder
at radius ri is Ti and the outer surface temperature at radius ro is To. The thermal conductivity of
material is K and heat is assumed to flow from Ti to To . According to Fourier law of conduction,
the area normal to the direction of heat flow increases from 2πri L to 2πro L .
The problem is treated as variable area point of view.

Consider an elemental ring of ‘ dr ’ thickness at radius r from the center. The area of the
strip perpendicular to the direction of heat flow is 2πr L and dr is so small that r  dr  r .
Now applying Fourier law.
dT
Q  kA. where A  2πr.L and dx  dr
dx
dT
Q   k .2πrL 
dr
Temperature distribution in a hollow cylinder
  T 
The one dimensional conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates is r 0
r  r 
T T C 1
On integration r C 1  
r r r
Again integrating we get T  C1 ln r  C2 .
The solution of this can be obtained by specifying boundary conditions as
At r  ri , T  Ti and at r  ro , T  To as substitution

C1 
Ti  To  Ti ln ro  To ln ri 
and C 2 
ri r
ln ln o
ro ri
Hence the temperature distribution in a hallow cylinder is logarithmic in nature
r r
Ti ln  To ln i
ro r
T
r
ln i
ro

2.3. One dimensional heat conduction through a hollow sphere

Consider a hollow sphere of inner radius ri and outer radius ro having thermal
conductivity k. the inner surface temperature is at Ti and outer surface temperature T0 (Ti> T0).
The heat transfer from inner surface to outer surface is by conduction and is governed by the
dT
Fourier law Q   k .A. since it is assumed that heat flows only in one direction and is in
dr
radial direction. As the radius increases from ri to ro the area of heat transfer also increases or A
is a function of r i.e. f(r). Hence let us take an elemental strip of dr thickness at a radius r through
temperature difference is dT.Applying Fourier law.
dT
Q   k .A. Where A  4r 2
dr
dT
Q  k .4r 2 .
dr
Temperature distribution in a hollow sphere
One dimensional heat conduction for spherical system is
  2 T 
r . 0
 r   r 
on integration results in
T
r2.  C1
r
 T C1

r r2
C1
T   C2
r
Applying the boundary conditions i.e. at r  ri , T  Ti and r  ro , T  To
T0  Ti ri r0 T0 r0  Ti ri 
C1  C2 
r0  ri  r0  ri 
 T0  Ti ri r0 1 T0 r0  Ti ri 
T . 
r0  ri  r r0  ri 
The heat transfer through the sphere can be obtained by using.
T  Ti ri r0 T  T0 ri r0
Q  4k 0  4k i
r0  ri  r0  ri 

2.4. Electrical analogy

T
The conduction equation Q 
 
L
kA
can be compared with current flow through a conductor

V
I . Temperature difference is analogous to voltage difference across the conductor and
R
resistance of the conductor is analogous to conduction resistance of the slab. Fig. explains the
similarities between heat flow and current flow.
T
Q Where RCond through slab  L
R
Cond
kA

2.5. Combined Conduction and convection

When a solid body is exposed to surrounding fluid heat transfer between the surface and
surroundings is due to convection. When ever a fluid is in contact with a stationary solid surface
a thin film of the fluid in stagnant condition develops adjacent to the wall. The heat flow through
this layer is mainly due to convection.
Let us consider a body whose extreme temperatures are at T1 and T2 and exposed to fluid
on either side at temperatures T1 and T 2 . The fluid will from a thin film adjacent to the wall
and heat transfer through this film is by convection and governed by Newton’s law.
 Q  h.A S .(T1 - T1 ) . Further the amount of heat passing through this film by convection is
equal to the amount passing through the solid by conduction. From the above equation we can
(T - T )
get  Q  1 1
 1 
 h.A S 
This 1 is known as convection
h.A S
Resistance offered by the fluid. More the
resistance for a given temperature difference
less will be the heat flow. Where h1 is the
Convective heat transfer Coefficient on one
side of the slab. Thus in the above case heat
has to pass through three resistances namely
Convection, Conduction and again
Convection. The electrical analogy for the
above system can be represented as follows
from which we can write Q 
T Overall
.
RTotal
 T1  T 2
Q
1 x1 1
 
h1 AS k1 AS h2 AS
Note: when the surrounding fluid is at T1 the surface temperature of the body will not be
equal to that. If these two are equal it represents zero Convective resistance or infinite
convection heat transfer of the fluid; which is impossible.

2.6. Overall heat transfer Coefficient

In the above case the heat transfer is due to combined condition and convection. Hence
the equation for heat transfer in a combined mode is expressed in the form of Q  U .A.T 
Where U is an overall heat transfer coefficient which represent the rate of heat transfer per
unit area and per unit temperature difference in a combined conduction and convection mode.
T T
Q  U .A.T   
1 x1 1 RTotal
 
h1 AS k1 AS h2 AS
1 x1 1
U   assuming As = A.
h1 k1 h2
This is very much useful in the case of composite systems such as cold storage walls,
refrigeration systems, heat exchangers etc. By knowing the ‘U’ value of such system the rate
of heat transfer through it can be found using Q  U .A.T 
1  T 
U   Q  
RTotal  RTotal 

2.7. Critical thickness of insulation

In the case of insulation of cylindrical components with poor conductors some times the
rate of heat loss may increase. This is due to the fact that as we go on adding insulation the
conduction resistance increases but due to increasing in surface area the convective resistance
decreases. Hence till the rise in convection is offset by the conduction resistance, adding
insulation will increase the heat transfer and beyond that it will decrease. The thickness of
insulation added on a bare pipe at which the rate of heat transfer reaches maximum is known as
critical thickness of insulation. The radius at which it occurs is known as critical radius.
Assume a pipe of radius r1 is
insulated with a material having thermal
conductivity ‘k’. Then this insulation
offers conduction resistance to heat. But
due to the radius is increased to r2
causing more exposed surface area to
environment and decreases the
convective resistance.

T
Q
1 r 1
ln 2 
2kL r1 ho .2r2 L
 dQ  T  1 1 1 1 
 0   2 
d r2   1 r2 1   2kL r2 2Lho r2 
2

 ln  
 2kL r1 ho .2r2 L 
1 1
 
2kLr2 2Lho r2 2
k
r2  . This radius is known as critical radius.
ho
k
rC 
ho

2.8. Composite wall

In most of the practical cases the heat transfer is through a composite medium consisting
two or more different materials. For example the wall of a house is build of three layers
consisting cement, brick and plaster of Paris each one exhibiting different conductivities.
Similarly the refrigerator door is composite system consisting insulating material between
metallic sheet and fiberboard. These kinds of problems can be solved either by using energy
conservation principle or electrical analogy method as explained below.
Consider a composite wall consisting three layers of different materials having thickness
x1 , x2 , and x3 with thermal conductivities k1 , k 2 and k 3 respectively as shown in figure.
The heat transfer passing through the 1st layer is same as that passing through other layers and
coming out finally.
 k .A.T2  T1   x1 .Q
Q st  1  T2  T1 
1 layer x1 k .A
1
 k 2 . A.T3  T2   x2 .Q
Q nd   T3  T2 
2 layer x2 k 2 .A
 k 3 . A.T4  T3   x3 .Q
Q rd   T4  T3 
3 layer x3 k3 .A
Q  x1 x2 x2 
Adding we get T4  T1    
A  k1 k2 k 3 

Using electrical analogy and résistance method we can also derive the same expression.
The three layers offer resistance to flow of heat in series as shown in figure given below.

The conduction resistance of each layer is given by

x x x
R1  1 , R2  2 and R3  2
k1 A k2 A k3 A
Between initial and final resistance the temperature difference is (T1-T4). Hence the heat transfer
can be expressed as
T Overall T1  T4
Q 
RTotal R1  R2  R3
T1  T4
Q
x1 x 2 x 2
 
k1 A k 2 A k 3 A
The interface temperatures can be obtained by applying the same analogy as
T T T T T  T4
Q 1 2  1 3  2 and so on.
R1 R1  R2 R2  R3
n
x
In general for ‘n’ number of layers RTotal   n
n 1 k n A
T1  Tn1
And Q 
RTotal
2.9. Variable thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity of the most of the materials varies w.r.t temperature. For metals k
value decreases with increase in temperature and for nonmetals, insulators k value increases with
increase in temperature. Although this variation is non linear, it is reasonable to assume the
variation as linear over a limited short range. Thus k  k 0 1  .T  where K0 is thermal
conductivity at 00C and  is the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity. The values of 
and K0 can be found for a given material if we know its value at least at two different
temperatures.
Taking into consideration k  k 0 1  .T  the heat transfer through a slab is given by

 k 0 1  α.T . A.
dT dT
Q  kA
dx dx
q   k 0 1  α.T .
dT
dx
qdx  k 0 1  α.T .dT
Integrating on both sides
2

qx12  k 0  T  α. T 

2
 2 
1

q x 2  x1   k T2  T1  
2
 2

α T2  T1 

0 2
 
 k T2  T1   T T 
q 0 1  . 1 2 
x2  x1    2 
 k .1  .Tm T2  T1 
q 0
L
where Tm is the mean temperature and L is the thickness of the plate x2  x1 
T  T 
Q  k . A. 2 1
m L
where km is the mean thermal conductivity of the material evaluated at mean temperature. We
can also express the above equation as
 k .A.T2  T1   T T 
Q m 1  . 1 2 

L  2 

 k m . A.T2  T1 
Q 1  C.F 
L
T1  T2
Where CF is the correction factor and is equal to . .
2
2.10. Conduction with Internal Heat Generation
In many circumstances generation or absorption of heat takes place within the body itself
e.g. in electrical heating appliances, nuclear reactors, chemical beds, drying and setting of
concrete and in electrical cables etc… Electric current flowing in a conductor results in heat
generation due to electrical resistance. Induction heating introduces the energy into the material
in a distributed way. Chemical reaction may occur in a material and result in either positive or
negative heat transfer. In nuclear reactor fuel elements, moderators, shielding etc… there is heat
generation due to the deceleration and absorption of neutrons or due to absorption of gamma
radiation etc.

2.10.1. Plane wall with internal heat generation

Let us consider a wall with central heat generating capacity of q W/m 3 . The thickness of
the wall is taken as L and assumed that heat is generated exactly at the center of the plane.
The surfaces of the slab on both
sides will be at same temperature. Say Ts.
Further it is assumed that the wall is exposed
to convective environment with ho and
surrounding temperature T.
.
The total amount of heat generated = q
LA.W [ Vol = A x L]. This heat
generated reaches the surface by Conduction
& from surface dissipates into environment
by Convection.
.
 q L A = ho. A. (Ts-T)  2 (from both faces).
.
qL
 Ts   T
2h0
 Using the above equation we can find the surface temperature. To find the temperature
distribution within the slab one dimensional conduction equation with heat generation is applied as
follows.
. .
d 2T q d 2T q
2
+ = 0, 2
=
dx k dx k
.
dT q x
 = + C1
dx k
.
 q x2
T + C1 x + C2
2k
To obtain the values C1 and C2 we have to apply the boundary conditions, Such as
at x = L , T  TS
2
at x =  L , T  TS
2
Equation is a second-degree equation thus representing a parabolic profile. From the geometry of
dt
the problem we can identify that at x = 0, T  T max i.e. = 0 [since heat generation point is
dx
at center]
.
dt qx
= +C1 = 0 at x = 0
dx k
i.e. C1 = 0
.
 q L2
T = Ts at x = L  + C2 = 0 [ Since C1 = 0]
2 4k
.
q L2
 C2 =
4k
. .
 q x 2 q L2
T 
2k 4k
L
If we substitute x = we will get the temperature on the surface
2
. . .
 q L2 q L2 q L2
Ts = + = .
8k 4k 8k
Note: If the heat generation is not at the center the surfaces on both sides will be at
different temperatures, and Max temp occurs at the point of heat generation in the slab i.e. where
dT
=0
dx
2.10.1.1. When one surface of the slab is
insulated
When one surface of the wall is
insulated the total heat generated will
be lost to environment only from one
face.
.
 q  A  L = h0. A (Ts  T )
q
 Ts   T
hL
General conduction equation is
2
d T q
 0
dx 2 k
.
q x2
 T =  C1 x  C 2
2k

dT
The boundary conditions are (Ref to the fig) at x = 0, T  T max i.e. = 0.i.e. the max
dx
temperature in the slab occurs at the surface of insulation due to accumulation of heat at the point.
qL2
The other boundary condition is at x = L, T = Ts applying these we get C1 = 0, C2 =
2k
 T max .
.
 q x 2 qL2
T  
2k 2k
 This is the temperature distribution equation in the slab.
dT
If we use Q =  k A we will get Q =  at the insulated surface.
dx x 0

2.10.2. Hallow cylinder with internal heat generation

In the case of a current carrying wire or a fuel rod in a nuclear reactor the heat generated
at the center is conducted radially to the outer surface. The magnitude of maximum temperature
developed and its position is of practical importance. Let us consider a hallow cylinder of inside
radius ri and outside radius r0 of thermal conductivity k is generating q W/m3 volume.
The one dimensional conduction equation is with internal heat generation for a cylinder is
 2T 1 T q
+ + =0
r 2 r r k
 2T T q r
r. + =
r 2
r k
  T  q r
 r.  =  Integrating once
r  r  k
 T q r2
r. =  C1
r 2k
T qr 2 C
= + 1
r 2k r
.
 qr 2
 T + C1 ln r  + C2
4k

The boundary conditions applicable to this are at r = ri, T = Ti

at r = r0, T = T0
.
 q ri 2
 Ti  + C1 ln ri + C2
4k
.
 q ro2
To  + C1 ln ro + C2
4k

 
.
 q ro2  ri 2
Ti  To  + C1 ln ri  ln ro 
4k
.
q 2
(Ti - T0 )  [r0  ri ]
2
2
4 k qr1
 C1   and C 2  Ti   C1 ln ri
ln( r0 ri ) 4k
Substituting these we get the Temp distribution.
If we consider a solid cylinder of radius ‘r’ with its surface temperature maintained at T w and
subjected to a convective environment with ‘h’ at T then the boundary conditions are
at r  r0 , T  Tw
dT
at r  0, T  Tmax i.e 0
dr
Substituting these in the temperature distribution equation
dT qr C
   1  0 at r  0  C1  0
dr 2k r
2
qr
Tw  0  C 2  C 2  0
4k

.
 q(r02  r 2 )
Hence T  TW
4k
 .
qr02
Tmax is at r = 0  Tmax  Tw 
4k
The value of Tw can be obtained by using energy balance equation

Total heat generated = Heat lost to the environment by convection

 
 q r0 .L  h.2r0 LTw  T 
2

.
qr0
Tw   T
2h
. .
q(r0  r 2 )
qr0
 T  T  
2h 4k

. .
qr 2
qr0
and Tmax  T   0 ……
2h 4k

2.10.3. Conduction in a sphere with heat generation

Let us consider a hallow sphere of inside radius ri and outside radius r0 having thermal ‘k’
subjected to an internal heat generation of q. Let the inner and outer surface temperatures are T 1
and T2. To obtain the temperature distribution we
consider the one dimensional steady state conduction
equation for sphere with internal heat generation as
.
1   2 T  q
r   0.
r 2 r  r  k
  2 T   qr 2
r 
r  r  k
T  q r
r2   C1
r k 3
T  q r C1
 . 
r k 3 r2
 qr 2  C1
T  C2
6k r
Applying boundary conditions suitably we can obtain the constants C1& C2. In this case at r = ri,
T= T1 & at r = r0 , T = T2
 qri  C1
2

 T1   C2
6k ri
 qr0  C1
2

 T2   C2 Solving these we can

6k r0
obtain C1 and C2
Substituting C1 and C2 the temperature distribution equation is sphere is obtained.
If it is a solid sphere as shown in fig with surface Temp T W exposed to convective
environment with ‘h’ at T. The boundary conditions are
at r  r0 , T  Tw and
dT q r C1
at r  0, T  Tmax i.e.    0 at r  0  C1  0
dr k 3 r2
 qr0
2 2
qr
using 2nd condition Tw   C 2  C 2  Tw  0
6k 6k

 T
.
 qr q r0  r 2
2 2 2
qr
Hence T   0  Tw Or T w
6k 6k 6k
2
qr
The maximum temp will be at the center i.e. at r = 0 Hence Tmax  0  Tw
6k
To obtain the TW we can use the following energy balance equation.
Heat generated in the sphere = Heat lost to the environment by convection
q r0  h.4.r0 Tw  T 
4 3 2

qr0
Tw   T
3h

q [r0  r 2 ]
2
qr0
 T  T  
3h 6k
2
qr0 qr0
And TMax at r = 0, is Tmax  T  
3h 6k

2.11. Heat transfer through extended surfaces (or) Fins

The rate of heat transfer from a surface to the surroundings by convection is given by the
Newton’s law as Q  h.AS Δ T
Where T is the temperature difference between the surface and surroundings, As is the
surface area exposed to the environment and h is the convective heat transfer coefficient. When it
is desirable to enhance this rate of heat transfer as in cooling of Ic engine cylinders or
compressor cylinders or from an electronic circuit board or from a car radiator etc. it is possible
in only two ways. The temperature of the surroundings is fixed and the rate increases only when
surface temperature increases. Increasing surface temperature is not desirable and hence we are
left with two options either increasing surface area or increasing convective heat transfer
coefficient. Convective heat transfer coefficient is a complex one and is a function of
surrounding fluid properties and flow properties. And increasing ‘h’ is a cumbersome process
and may not be practical. Hence to increase the heat transfer from a surface the best thing is to
increase the surface area exposed to the surroundings. This is done by increasing the surface area
by attaching to the original surface and such extended surface are generally called as Fins.
There are several forms of fins and the most common types are straight fins, triangular
fins, circumferential fins, plate type fins, pin fins and longitudinal fins etc.. Fig shows some
important fin configurations. Common applications of fins are with Ic engines, Air compressors,
Automobiles, electrical transformers, Refrigeration and A/c equipment, economizer etc..These
surfaces are manufactured by extruding welding or wrapping a thin metal sheet on a surface. In
the case of a car radiator evaporator condenser of a window A/c box closely packed thin metal
sheets attached to the tubes increase the surface area for and thus increases the convection many
times.

The fins are classified as uniform and non-uniform cross section area fins. Analysis of
uniform area fins is relatively easy and is taken up first in this chapter.

2.11.1. Heat transfer through a fin

Let us consider a fin of length L, width W and thickness t attached to a base, which is
maintained at T0. The fin is exposed to the surroundings at temperature T and having a
convective heat transfer coefficient of ‘h’. The temperature at the base of the fin is T0 and as we
proceed along the length of the fin temperature gradually decreases and (T) between the surface
and surroundings is not constant. Hence we can’t directly use the Newton’s law of cooling
formula.
The heat transfer is thus evaluated from first principles by applying the conservation of
energy to a differential element of thickness dx. Considered at a distance x from the base. The
rate of heat conducted into this element at x is the sum of rate of heat conducted from element at
x + dx and rate of convection from the element.
Qconduction, x  Qconduction, x dx  Qconvection
d
Qx  Qx  ( Q x ) dx  Qconv
dx
d  dT 
Qx  Qx    k Ac dx  h.d As T  T 
dx  dx 

Where T is the temperature of the

surface maintained at distance x and
(dA)s represent the elemental surface
area exposed to the environment.
dA = perimeter  dx = P dx
 T 2
 kAx   hx T  T   0
x 2
T 2
 k . Ax  2  h.Px T  T   0
x
 T hPx 
2
 T  T  0
x 2 KAx 
Let θ  T  Tα then
 2 hPx 
 0
x 2 kAx 
If the area of the fin and perimeter are constants all along the length of the fin we can
write the above equation as
 2θ hP Let m 2 
hP
 θ  0 kA
x 2 kA

 2
 m2   0
x 2

This is the general differential equation for a fin. The assumptions used for this are
1) Steady state 2) No heat generation 3) K value is constant 4) h is also constant 5)
Area of cross section is uniform and hence perimeter.
 represents the excess temperature at any location all along the length of the fin. The
solution of the above 2nd order linear homogeneous differential equation is.
θ  C1 e m x  C 2 e  m x
Where C1, C2 are arbitrary constants whose values are to be determined from the
specified boundary conditions. We need at least two conditions to find C1, C2. From this 
dθ
equation we can find  using  kA / x  0 at x = 0. Because the heat transfer is purely by
dx
conduction at the base.
From the above equation it is evident that temperature distribution is non-linear and is
totally governed by the fin configuration. Solution to the above equation is obtained by
considering three different cases as follows.

2.11.2. Infinitely long fin

L
When the fin is sufficiently long i.e.  20 with uniform cross section the temperature at
d
the end of fin will approach the surrounding temperature T. Hence the boundary conditions are
At x = 0, i.e. at the base T = T0 or  = T0 -T which is called .
At x = L and L   T = T or  = 0.
These are applied to the general fin equation θ  C1 e m x  C 2 e  m x
For 1st condition θ 0  C1  C 2
C2
2nd condition 0  C1 .   C1  0

C2  θ 0
θ
The solution is θ  θ 0 .e  m x or  e m x
θ0
T  Tα
 e m x
T0  Tα
hP
where m
kAc

The heat transfer from the fin is obtained by using

dT d
Q   kA   kA
dx x0 dx x0


 kA 0 e  m x  m 
x 0  mkA0

Q  hPkAc . 0 Alternatively, the rate of heat

transfer from the fin is by convection into the
environment from its entire surface. hence

Q  h A T where A  Pdx, T  
L
Q  h p dx
0

 e  mx  hP  0
 hP   0 e  mx
.dx  hP  0    0  1
0   m 0  m

Q hPkA. 0
Under steady state the rate of heat transfer entering into the fin by conduction is equal to
the amount leaving from its surface by convection. In general no fin is of infinite length and the
above equations give reasonable accurate temperature and heat transfer values if the length of the
fin is very large compared to its cross sectional area.

2.11.3. Heat transfer from fin with its end insulated (Negligible heat transfer from end)
Infinite long fin analysis is far off from practical consideration since the temperature after
certain length on the fin approaches T and rate of heat transfer by convection beyond that point
is negligibly small. So it is an unnecessary extended portion occupying space, increasing cost
etc.. hence infinite long fins are not likely to be present. A more practical approach is when the
end area of the fin is very small the rate of heat transfer from that area is negligible and thus the
fin tip may be assumed to be insulated. The boundary conditions for this case are:
d d
at x  0, T  T0     0 and x  L,  kA  0 i.e 0
dx dx x L
Substituting in equation we get  0  C1  C2  (1)

0  C1e mL  C2 e  mL
C1  C 2 e  2mL substituin g this in equation (1)

0  0 e 2m L
C2  and C1 
1  e 2m L 1  e 2 m L
0 0
  emx  2 m L
e m x
1 e 2m L
1 e

Multiplying 1st term with emL and 2nd term with e-mL both numerator and denominator we get,

 e m x em x 
   0  2 m L  2m L 
 e  1 e  1

e m( L x )  e  m( L x )
  0 ( )
e m L  e m L
cosh m( L  x) T  T cosh m( L  x)
  0 . i.e 
cosh mL T0  T cosh mL
The heat transfer from the fin is obtained by
d  m.sinh mL  x 
Q   kA  kA 0
dx x 0 cosh mL x 0

sinh mL
  kAm.  o  hPkA. o . tanh mL
cosh mL

 Q  hPkA. o. tanh( mL)

L
The same expression can be derived using Q   hPdx
o

No fin will be insulated at its end but a triangular fin is an example for this case since the area at
the end is negligibly small.

2.11.4. Heat transfer from fin with convection at the Tip

This is the most practical case in which any fin when exposed to surroundings looses heat
from its end surface by convection. The analysis is little complicated and the solutions obtained
are lengthy. These expressions are useful to determine the temperature and heat transfer in an
analytical manner for any uniform cross section fin.
The boundary conditions
applicable are
d
at x  0, T  T0    0 and at x  L  kA  h A.
dx xL

Applying 1st condition in the equation   C1e m x  C 2 e  m x , we get

 0  C1  C 2
And the second leads to 
 kA m C1e mx  mC2 e mx 
x L 
h A   h. C1e mx  C2 e mx 
x L

C1e m L C 2 e m L 
h
Km

C1e m L  C 2 e m L .
Substituting C 2  θ 0  C1
 h  m L
0 1  e
 km 
C1 

e m L  e m L   h mL
km

e  e m L 
 h  m L
 0 1  e
 km 
and C2 
e m L  e m L   km
h mL

e  e m L 
Substituting these in the general equation we get

e 
 m( L x
 e m ( L  x  
h m( L x
Km
e 
 e m( L x 
θ  θ0  
 
h or
 e m L  e m L  (e m L  e  m L ) 
 Km 
 h 
 cosh m ( L  x)  sinh m ( L  x) 
  0  mk 
 
h 
 cosh mL sinh m L 
 mk 

From this the expression for heat transfer is obtained as

h
sinh m L  cosh mL
d mk
Q  kA x 0   0 hPkA.
dx h
cosh mL  sinh m L
mk
h
tanh mL 
Q   0 . hPkA. mk
tanh mL
h
1
mk
 2.11.5. Fin efficiency
The performance of a fin is judged by its efficiency. The efficiency of a fin is defined as
the ratio of actual heat transfer from a fin to that of heat transfer from the fin if its entire length is
maintained at its base temperature. i.e. in ideal case we assume that the entire fin is at its base
temperature T0. Since T0 is constant all along the length and h, A are also constant the ideal rate
of heat transfer can be calculated as
Qideal  hAs T0  T 
 h. p.L T0  T 
 As  perimeter  length
For a fin with insulated end Qact  hPkA 0 tan h(mL)
hPkA  0 tanh mL kA tanh m L 
  .
h.P.L. 0 hP L

tanh m L 
 fin 
mL

If the fin is very long (mL) is very large and fin efficiency will be less. Since tanh m L
value significantly increases only up to a value of mL =3 there after it stands at one. That is the
reason why in most of the fin designs the value of mL is restricted to 2.5. Similarly when L  0
the efficiency of fin tends to 100% i.e. when there is no fin at all the heat transfer rate from that
surface is at base temperature only and efficiency leads to 100%.
So fin efficiency is an indication to what extent the temperature along the length varies
from that of its base temperature. Efficiency is more means the temperature is less and vice
versa. If we know the fin efficiency the actual heat transfer from the fin can be calculated easily
by using
Qact    Qideal  .h. As .0
Qact   h As (T0  T )

2.11.6. Effectiveness of a fin

Fins are basically meant for enhancing the rate of heat transfer. The performance of a fin
is judged on the basis of this enhancement relative to no-fin case. Thus the effectiveness of a fin
is defined as the ratio of heat transfer using fin to that of heat transfer without fin.
Qwith fin

Qwithout fin
Let us consider the case of a fin with insulated end then
hPkA  0 tanh mL tan h (mL)
  [ without fin As  Ac ]
h. As. 0 hA / kP
If mL is sufficiently large tan h (mL)  1 and then
kP
 
hAc
The effectiveness of a fin must be always greater than one and it is desirable to have >2.5 so that
the fin usage justifies the added cost and complexity with the system.
This is possible when the value of k is very high or h is very low. The k value of a fin
must be high, so most of the fins are made of metals with Iron, Aluminum and copper.
Aluminum is more preferable because of its low cost and less weight.
The ratio of P/Ac must be large to have high effectiveness. That indicates a low cross
sectional area with a large perimeter. It is possible only when one selects thin or slender fins.
The value of h should be low for the better performance of a fin. Thus the use of the fin
is justified in a low convective medium such as, in gas instead of a liquid, that too under natural
convection. Due to this in refrigeration system condensers, evaporators and in car radiators fins
are used on gas side. Instead if we use fins during condensing or boiling, the value of h being
very high it lead to effectiveness <1.
Effectiveness <1 indicates that fin hampers the heat transfer by acting as an insulator on
the original surface. This can happen when we use low k material or low P/Ac ratio or in
situations where h value is very high.

2.11.7. Error in temperature measurement

To measure the temperature of gas flowing through a pipeline a small tube called“
thermometric well ” is welded perpendicular to axis of the pipeline as shown in the fig. The well
is filled with oil or some other fluid in which a thermometer is introduced. The heat of gas is
absorbed by the well and is transferred to the wall. This effect of heat transfer through well to the
tube makes the bottom of well to become colder than the gas temperature and the thermometer
records a low temperature. This error in measurement is due to action of well acting as a fin
conducting heat transfer along the tube walls and we can estimate the error using fin analysis.

 Cos h m( L x)
Assuming negligible heat loss from its end 
0 Cos h mL
   T  TG
Where,
 0  T0  TG
T0 is the temperature of the pipe wall.
T is temperature at a distance of x
TG is the gas temp.
TL  TG cos h m[ L  L] 1
At x  L  
T0  TG cos h mL cos h mL

hP h ( d ) h
and m   
kA k.( d .t ) kt
Where TL is the temperature recorded by the thermometer. Using equation, we can find the
gas temperature.
1
There will be no error if  0 . I.e. for higher values of mL the error between
cos h mL
the reading and original gas temperature will be minimum.
Further it is observed from the expression for m and  the error is independent of
0
diameter of the tube well.
To increase the value of m we have to use very thin tubes or low k value materials.
To increase the value of L the well may be set up in an inclined position.
 HEAT TRANSFER COURSE MATERIAL (A36C2)

UNIT-III

3.1. Unsteady state or Transient Heat conduction

In many practical applications the temperature of a body varies with time as well as
position. All cooling or heating process of a solid material with convection or thermal radiation
at the surface fall under unsteady state conduction In the preceding chapter we have considered
the heat transfer under steady state in which temperature of a body at any point does not change
with time. This chapter is devoted to consider the heat transfer under unsteady state i.e. the
variation of temperature with time as well as position. The change in temperature during
unsteady state may follow a periodic or non-periodic variation. In periodic variation,
temperature changes in a cyclic manner repeating the same changes after some fixed intervals of
time. like in Ic engine cylinder wall, a building roof exposed to sun etc.. In non-periodic
variation the temperature changes are some non-linear function of time, as In heating & cooling
of ingots, bars, billets etc..
Thus the unsteady state problems can be broadly divided into four categories a) lumped
system or infinite conductivity b) finite conductivity and convective resistance c) semi infinite
thick solids d) periodic variation. The unsteady state heat transfer under above conditions is
explained in the foregoing sessions.
The one dimensional conduction equation under unsteady state condition is given by
 2 T 1 T
 .
x 2  t
Solution of the above equation subjected to the specified boundary conditions will lead to
the temperature distribution in a solid as a function of x & t. T = f (x,t) Analytical solution of the
above equation can be obtained using variable separable method. Use of graphs and tables to
obtain the solution for complicated systems is also explained in this chapter.

3.2. Lumped system analysis

It is the system, which has infinite thermal conductivity or negligible internal resistance
such that the entire body is maintained at the same temperature. I.e. there is no change in
temperature at the surface and at the center of the body i.e. the entire body is at the same
temperature. This idealization indicates that the substance is holding heat as a lump and hence
known as lumped heat system.
Temperature everywhere in the solid is same, means temperature gradients within the
solid are negligible and is considered as a function of time only. Temperature changes w.r.t time
but that change is uniform throughout the object.
Assuming heating or cooling of a body without any temperature gradient within it is an
ideal case and is known as Newtonian cooling or heating process.
Let us consider a mass m at an initial temperature T0 i.e. at t = 0 and belongs to lumped
system. That means the entire body is at temperature T0 or everywhere in the body at any point
the temperature is T0. If this is exposed to an environment at T (T0 > T ) with convective heat
transfer coefficient ‘h’ the body loses heat gradually producing a change in temperature. At any
instant of time the amount of heat lost by the body as a lump is equal to that it releases to the
environment by convection.
 Heat lost by the body = Heat transfer to environment by convection
 mC
dT   hAT  T .

dt
Where T is the temperature attained by the body after a time of t seconds.
dT  hA dt hA
  dt
T  T mC vC
 hA 
On integration ln T  T    t  C1
 vC 
The boundary condition are at t = 0, T = T0 and at t =t , T=T
lnT  T   0  C1

ln T  T   0  C1 . Substituting we get

T  T hAt
ln 
T0  T vC

hAt

T  T
 e vC
T0  T

hAt


 e vC
0
Where,
 is temperature difference at any instant, t sec
0 is temperature difference initially at t = 0 sec
This is the equation for variation of body temperature in a lumped system. Note that it is
a function of ‘t’ only and is independent of x. This can be also expressed as

hAt hv  kA2 
  t
vC kA  v 2 C 

hAt hv  kA2 
  t
vC kA  v 2 C 

hLc  t  k V
  2  Where Thermal diffusivity   , characteristic length Lc  .
k  Lc  C A

 Bi , Fo
  e  Bi, Fo 


0
Where Bi represents Biot Number which is the ratio of internal conduction resistance to that
external convective resistance. Fo represents Fourier number and is defined as
Rate of heat conduction in the body t
Fo  
Rate of heat storage in the same body L 2
c
Thus Fourier number represents the measure of rate of heat conduction in comparison
with the rate of heat storage in a given volume element. Higher is the value, deeper the
penetration of heat into a solid over a given time.
Lc is the characteristic length, which is the ratio of volume to surface area. For different
geometries the Lc valve is calculated as follows:
4 R 3
R
for a sphere Lc  3 2 
4R 3

L3 L
for a cube Lc  2

6L 6

R 2 L R
for a cylinder Lc  
2RL 2
3.2.1. Time constant:
hAt
T  T 
In the equation  e ρvC if we make
T0  T
hAt vC vC
 1 by taking t  , the value of is called time constant and is
vC hA hA
denoted by t*.
vC
 t*  .
hA
hA
If the time taken for cooling is t = t*, then .t will be equal to one and
vC
T  T
 e 1  0.3678
T0  T
 If the time taken for cooling is t = 2 t* i.e two time constants then
T  T
 e 2  0.1353
T0  T
So one time constant is defined as the time required for the temperature of the body to
reach 63.2% of its initial temperature difference. The time taken by a thermocouple to reach the
surface temperature is defined as response time. Lower the value of time constant, better the
response of a system. Generally the time constant lies between 0.04 to 2.5 sec.
The sensitivity of the thermocouple is defined as the time required by the thermocouple
to reach 63.2 % of the value of the initial temperature difference.

Thus For practical purpose, the reading of a thermocouple should be taken after a period
equal to 4 time constants have elapsed. (4t*).
hAt
For better response must be large i.e. by decreasing the wire diameter, or
vC
minimizing the volume to area ratio we can achieve it. Thus the shape of thermocouple head
should be spherical to have maximum response.
The above analysis assumes uniform distribution of temperature throughout the body i.e.
where the body offers no internal resistance for conduction or the body is having infinite thermal
conductivity. Therefore this system is applicable only when Bi = 0.
However in reality nobody will have infinite thermal conductivity or negligible
conduction resistance. But in the case of a spherical steel ball of small diameter, or a thin copper
electrical conducting wire, because of their good conducting nature, the difference in temperature
between surface and at center is negligible and hence can be treated as a lumped system. Hence
though there is no system with infinite k value, bodies having very low characteristic dimension
like thin wires or having high k value like Cu, Ag spheres& wires will fall under this category.
We approximate that the case is applicable when Bi  0.1
3.3. Systems with finite conduction and convective resistances:
Consider a plane wall of thickness 2L extending
to infinity in the Y and Z directions. Let us assume that
the wall is initially at a uniform temperature T0 and is
suddenly exposed to atmosphere, which is at a
temperature Ta having heat transfer coefficient ‘h’
 2T 1 T
The governing equation for this is  .
x 2  t
the boundary conditions are t  0,
T  T0 for  L  x  L

T
 0 at x  0
x
 T
k  hT  T  at x   L
x
assuming   T  T

  2
 2
t x

   0 at t  0, and  0 at x  0
x
  h
 at x   L for t  0 .
x k
 The solution of the above equation is
  C1 cos x  C 2 sin x .e  t
2

The Heisler Charts are used to solve the problems with finite conduction and convection
resistance.
 HEAT TRANSFER COURSE MATERIAL (A36C2)

UNIT-IV

4.1. Classification of Convective Heat Transfer Systems

The convective heat transfer is associated with relative movement of the fluid particles
either in a molecular scale or at a macroscopic level from the rigid surface maintained at a
different temperature from that of the medium. The dissipation rate of heat from the surface
depends on the nature of the velocity field adjacent to the rigid body. This is divided into two
types Natural convection and Forced convection. In natural convection the velocity field can be
generated due to temperature differences, pressure differences or concentration differences in the
medium adjacent to the rigid surfaces. Such processes are classified under natural convective
phenomena. An external agent such as a pump or blower can create the relative motion in the
medium relative to the heat-dissipating surface. Thermal processes related to motion of the
medium by externally impressed pressure gradient by any agent are known as forced convection
phenomena. Thus, convection is dependent on the dynamics of the fluid and the nature of the
fluid. Fluids are broadly classified as compressible or in compressible media. Liquids are
considered as incompressible species whereas gases are generally treated as compressible media.
The compressible nature of gases leads to elastic forces arising due to changes in density
especially at very high velocities. In addition the fluids are classified as Newtonian or non-
Newtonian depending on the type of shear deformation rate under the action of the shear force.
In the case of Newtonian fluids the shear deformation rate is directly proportional to the shear
force i.e.

u
τμ
y
where τ =shear stress [N/m2]
μ = Absolute viscosity [kg/ms]
u
= Rate of shear deformation [1/s]
y
In the case of non-Newtonian fluids equation is non-linear and it is represented by the non-linear
relationship as
n
 u 
τ  m 
 y 
If n is different from unity the fluid is known as non-Newtonian and such fluids are
termed as power law fluids. Fluids following above equation are known as Ostwald-de-Waele
fluids.

4.2. Concepts of Continuity, Momentum and Energy Equations

4.2.1. Law of continuity:
The principle of conservation of mass in a moving fluid medium is known as law of
continuity. The law of continuity expressed in differential form will be useful in the estimation of
convective heat transfer rates from the surface past over which relative motion of the medium
occurs. In fact all flow processes must obey law of continuity. An element of size [XYZ]
is shown in figure8.1 with the velocities entering the element being represented

respectively by u, v, w in x,y,z directions. The element under consideration must obey the law of
continuity. With reference to the fluid element the conservation of mass states that the net rate of
in flow into the control volume is equal to accumulation rate of the control volume. Thus,

 x m
[m  y m
 z ]  [m
 x x  m
 yy  m 
 zz ]  M
where
:

 x  ρuyz : m
m  z  ρwxy
 y  ρvxz m

 x x = ρuyz 
m

ρuyzx : m y y = ρvxz   ρvxzy
x y

m z  z = ρwxy  ρwxyz
z
  net rate of accumlatio n in the controlvol ume    [ρxyz] 
M  τ 
 

Substituting above equations the law of continuity can be written as follows

ρ   
 [ρu ]  [ρv]  [ρw ]  0
τ x y z

For incompressible medium density variation with respect to position or time can be ignored i.e.,
ρ
=0 and thus, the law of continuity is as follows for a two-dimensional flow
τ

u v
 0
x y

4.2.2. Equation of motion:

The equation of motion can be derived by applying Newton second law of motion to a
differential element of the fluid shown in the figure 8.2. The law states that the time rate of
change of momentum in a given direction of motion of the particle is equal to sum of the external
forces acting on the body in the same direction of motion. Consider a fluid element of size
XYZ where Z = 1 with reference to the x, y Cartesian coordinate system. u.v are the
velocity components in x and y direction of motion of the fluid.
Thus,
du
Time rate of change of momentum in the x direction  [ρXYZ]
dτ
where u = u (x, y,) and for two dimensional motion in x,y under unsteady state conditions the
du
total derivative can be expressed as the sum of the partial derivatives
dτ
du x u y u t u u u u
   u v 
d  x  y   x y 
Thus, the rate of change of momentum in the x  direction for a two dimensional flow z  1 in
the element is
 u u u 
ρxYZ u v  
 x y τ 
The sum of the external forces in the x-direction can be listed as:
 Pressure force,
 Viscous force and
 Body force.
The components of these forces acting on the element in the x-direction are shown in the figure.
The sum of these forces in the x-direction of x must be equal to the time rate of change of
momentum.

 Fexternal  [Pressure forces + Surface Forces + Body forces]

P
=[yz] P- [yZ][ P  X ]
x
+
 τ y 
τ y  y [ZX]- τ y [XZ]
 y 
+ ρg x xYZ
where P is pressure [N/m2],  is viscous shear stress[N/m2] the subscript indicates the direction of
it acting on the plane, gx is the component of acceleration due to gravity in the x direction of
motion.
Thus, equating and on simplification it can be shown that the equation of motion in x direction as
follows.

 u u u  P τ x
ρ  u v    ρg x
 τ x y  x y

Proceeding along similar lines the equation of motion in y-direction can be written as follows.

 v v v  P τ y
ρ  u v    ρg y
 τ x y  y x

The shear force terms for Newtonian fluids can be further expressed for two-dimensional motion
as follows.
τ x 2u 2u 
 μ 2  2 
x  x y 

τ y 2v 2v
 μ 2  2 
y  x y 
Thus, the equations of motions in x and y directions are listed as follows.
in x 
 u u  P  2u  2u 
ρ u v   μ  2  2   ρg x
 x y  x  x y 

in y 
 v v  P 2v 2v
ρ u v   μ  2  2   ρg y
 x y  y  x y 
However, for flow over a horizontal plate gx= 0

4.2.3. Energy equation:

The energy equation for an incompressible isotropic medium can be derived from the
Fourier law of conduction for solids.

T   2T  2T  2T 
ρCp  k 2  2  2 
τ  x y z 
 T
The partial derivative ρCp should be treated as a substantiative derivative written as
τ
DT
ρC p . . The substantiative derivative for a moving medium can be written as follows
dτ
DT  T dx T dy T dZ T 
ρCp  ρCp    
dτ  x dτ y dτ z dτ τ 
dx dy dz
However, u  ;v  ;w  where u, v, z are respectively velocities in x, y, z directions of
dτ dτ dτ
the coordinate system.

Thus, the energy equation in its general form can be written as follows

 T T T T    2T  2T  2T 
ρCpu v w 
z τ 
k  2  2  2
 x y  x y z 

Thus, for two-dimensional motion of the fluid in x, y directions can be written as follows for
steady state conditions

 T T    2T  2T  T
C p u v   k  2  2   0
 x y   x y  τ

4.3. Dimensional analysis:

Dimensional analysis is a systematic approach of formulating problems of physical
phenomenon those are lacking analytical solution. This helps in correlating the variables in a
problem based on the obtained experimental data. It is assumed that a particular phenomenon is
affected by certain variables categorized as dependent variables and independent variables. So
the first step in the process is identifying the variables affecting the problem and next step is
formation of dimensionless groups of the variable.

4.3.1. Buckingham -Method:

The Buckingham Pi method is based on the theorem postulated by E.Buckingham in
1914. In any physical process if the governing parameters are n involving p fundamental
dimensions, then the n parameters can be grouped as (n-p) dimensionless -groupings.
Applying Buckingham’s  method is more advantageous than Rayleigh’s method for a
phenomenon, which involves more governing variables as this method has less calculations. It
helps to find out how many dimensionless groups are expected in advance of analysis
According to Buckingham’s  method if there are ‘n’ variables governing a physical
phenomenon and these variables contains ‘m’ basic dimensions, then these variables can be
grouped in to (n-m) dimensionless numbers.
If f(x1,x2,x3……xn) = 0 is a given physical equation. Where x1,x2,x3……xn denotes the
variables governing the phenomenon, then the same phenomenon can be described by the
equation (1, 2,3……n-m) = 0. where 1, 2,3……n-m are called  - terms and are
dimensionless numbers.
In this method of dimension analysis we should select some governing variables in to
‘core group’ or ‘repeated variables’. These variables should contain all the fundamental
dimensions M, L, T and . The selection of variables into core group should be in such away
that these variables should contain a geometric property (like length or diameter), a fluid
property (like density or viscosity) and a flow property (like velocity or acceleration) and a
thermal property (like thermal conductivity or specific heat).
The procedure is explained as follows:

Step by step procedure:

1. Let the total number of variables = n
2. Number of fundamental dimensions involved in the above variables = p
3. Number of  terms (dimensional groups) = n-p
4. Number of repeating variables equal to number of fundamental dimensions = p.
5. Selection of repeating variables: p no of variables either 3 or 4 depending on the problem
is to be selected.
a) One from dimensions of the objects like L, D, thickness etc.
b) One from flow properties like velocity, acceleration etc.
c) One from fluid properties like g,, Cp etc.
d) If necessary the fourth one should be selected in such away that the four repeating
variables selected together contain all the fundamental dimensions involved in the
problem M,L, T and .
Note: repeating variables themselves should not from dimensionless group.
6. Write the (n-p) number of  terms 1,2,3……n-m containing all the repeating variables
as explained in the following examples.
7. Applying dimensional homogeneity find the power coefficients of repeating variables and
find  terms.
8. To obtain the solution in the desired from, the following modifications can be made
a) A  - term can be multiplied or divided with any other  - term/  - terms.
b) A  - term can be raised to any power.
c) A  - term can be multiplied or divided with any constant.
The given below problems explains the procedure to obtain dimensionless groups using
Buckingham’s  theorem.

4.3.2. Application of -Theorem to Forced convective Phenomenon:

The convective heat transfer coefficient is found to be a function of the following
parameters h=f (D, k, V,,, Cp). Fix the dimensionless -parameters that determines the
process using Buckingham’s  method.
Solution:
The following steps are to be followed.
1.Apply Buckingham- theorem
Number of parameters=7
Number of fundamental Dimensions = 4
Hence number of - terms = 7- 4 = 3
Choose repeating variables D,  , V and k.

S.No Parameters Units Dimensions

1 h,heat transfer coefficientW M

m2 k T 3θ
2. D, diameter of the tube m L
3 K, thermal conductivity W ML
mk T 3θ
4 V, velocity of the medium m/s L
T
5 , Absolute viscosity kg M
mS LT
6 , Density of the medium kg M
m3 L3
7 Cp, Specific heat J L2
kg k θT 2

h ρ Cp
1= : π 2  b1 b 2 b3 b 4 : π 3  c1 c 2
D k V μ
a1 a3 a4
a2
D k V μ D k V c3
μ c4

Substitution of dimensions from the table for respective parameters will yield the following

M  1  1  T 3  2  T  3  LT 
a a a a4
[ 1 ]  3   
T   L   ML   L   M 
M 1 1  T 3   T  3  LT 
b b2 b b4
[  2 ]  3   
L  L   ML   L   M 
C4
L2 1 1  T 3 
C C2 C3
[  3 ]  2    T   LT 
T   L   ML   L   M 

 M L T 
1 1-a2-a4=0 -a1-a2-a3+a4=0 -3+3a2+a3+a4=0 -1+a2=0
2 1-b2-b4=0 -3-b1-b2-b3+b4=0 3b2+b3+b4=0 b2=0
3 -c2-c4=0 2-c1-c2-c3+c4=0 -2+3c2+c3+c4=0 -1+c2=0

Solving the equations the indices can be as follows.

hD
a1=-1: a2=1: a3=0: a4=0 : π 1  [Nusselt number]
k
 V Dρ
b1=-1: b2=0: b3=-1: b4=1: π 2  [Reynolds number]
μ
μC p
c1=c3=0: c4=-1: c2=1: π 3  [Prandtl number]
k

hd V D  C p 
Thus,  1  f  2 ,  3    f , 
k   k 

4.3.3. Application of Buckingham- theorem to natural convective Phenomenon:

The heat transfer coefficient in free convection from a body is dependent on the
following parameters = f [ g,L,,,Cp,k,,T] . Establish the - dimensionless parameters
Solution:
The phenomenon is described by 9 physical parameters and the fundamental dimensions
are 4.
Hence, applying Buckingham -theorem the dimensionless groups are 9-5 = 4.
S.no Physical parameter Dimensions Dimensions in
In SI units M,L,T, system
1 h,heat transfer coefficient W M
2
m K T 3θ
2 g, acceleration due to gravity m L
S2
T2
3 L, characterstic dimension m L
of the body
4 , Absolute viscosity of the medium Kg M
mS LT
5 , Density of the medium kg M
3
m L3
6 Cp, specific heat J L2
Kg K T 2θ
7 k,thermal conductivity W ML
mK T 3θ
8 , Coefficient of volume expansion 1 1
K θ
9. T, Thermal potential K θ

Choose four repeating variables , say L,,,Cp and list down the -parameters
 M  1  1  LT  2  L3   T 3  
a 3 a a a4
h
1  
La1  a2  a3 k a4 T 3  L   M   M   ML 
 1   LT   L   T  
b 3 b
3 3 b b4
g
L 1 2

 2  b1 b2 b3 b4 : 2  L   M   M   ML 
L   k T
 1   LT   L   T  
c c 3 c c4
L2 3 3
Cp 1 2

3   2  L   M   M   ML 
Lc1  c2  c3 k c4 T 
  L3   T 3  
d d d d4
1  1   LT  1 2 3

4  d d d d       M   ML 
L   k
1
 L  M 
2 3 4
   

1  1  LT  2  L3   T 3  
e e4
t
e e

3

 5  e1 e2 e3 e4         
L   k  L   M   M   ML 
hL
a1=-1: a2=0:a3=0: a4=1 : 1=
k
g L3
b1=-3:b2=2:b3=-2:b4=0: 2= 2
ν
μC p
C1=0: C2=-1: C3=0 :C4=-1: 3=
k
βL2μ 3
d1=-2:d2=-3: d3=2: d4=1: 4= 2
ρ k
T L2 ρ 2 k
e1= -2 : e2=3 ;e3= -2: e4=-1 : 5 =
μ3
Product of 45 will yield another new  -parameter [] which can replace 4 and 5 in the
system of governing criteria.

Hence, the system of criteria governing the free convective heat transfer is as follows:

hL  gL3 C P 
 f 2 , , T 
k  k 
gL3  gL3 
In practice the criteria , β  T are represented by a single dimensionless number  βT 
ν 2
ν
2

in obtaining the final form of the dimensionless equation in free convective studies. Hence
hL  gTL3 C p 
 f , 
k   2 k 

4.3.4. Dimensionless numbers and their significance

a) Reynold’s number (Re): It is given by ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces.

 Fi
Re 
Fv

V 2 L2 VL
 
VL 

The importance of the Reynold’s number is if the Reynold’s number is low, then viscous
forces are predominant and the flow is laminar. If Reynold’s number is more than inertial forces
are predominant and the flow is turbulent.

b) Froude number: It is given by a square root of ratio of the inertia forces to gravity forces.

Fi V 2 L2 V
Fe   
Fg L g
3
Lg

The importance of Froude number is for dynamic similarity of flow problems where gravity
forces dominate as in the case of spillways, notches, wiers, energy dissipates and wave motion
studies, Froude number must be equal for model and prototype.

c) Euler’s number(Eu): It is given by the square root of the ratio of inertia forces to pressure
forces.

Ei V 2 L2 V
Eu   
Ep pL 2
p / p

The importance of Euler number is for dynamic similarity of flow problems where pressure
forces dominant as in the case of pumps and turbines, Euler’s number must be equal for model
and prototype.

d) Weber number (We): It is given by the square root of the ratio of the inertia forces to
surface tension forces.

Fi V 2 L2 V L
We     V.
Fs L  
L

The importance of the Weber number is for similarity of flow problems where surface
tension forces dominate as in the case of droplet formation, capillary movement of soil moisture
and erosion problems. Weber number must be equal for model and prototype.
e) Mach number (M): It is given by square root of ratio of the inertia forces to elastic forces.

V 2 L2 V
M  
KL 2
K/

But K /  is velocity of sound in a fluid ‘C’.

V
M 
C

The importance of Mach number is for similarity of flow problems where elastic forces
are dominant as in the case of rockets, missiles, spacecraft carriers etc., Mach number must be
equal for model and prototype.

f) Grashoff Number: It is the ratio of buoyant force to the viscous force acting on the fluid
denoted by Gr.
Buoyancy force g. .V g.TV g .TL3
Gr     .
viscous force  2 2 2

This number provides main criteria in determining whether the flow is laminar or
Turbulent in natural convection

g) Prandtl Number: The relative thickness of velocity and thermal boundaries is best described
by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl number. It id defined as the molecular diffusivity of
 C p
momentum to that of molecular diffusivity of heat. Pr   . Low prandtl number
 K
indicates the heat diffusion at a faster rate and high Prandl number significances slow
dissipation in oils relative to momentum diffusion. Consequently thermal boundary layer in
thickness for liquid metals and thinner for oils relative to velocity boundary layer.

h) Nusselt number: It is the ratio of heat flux by convection to that of heat flux by conduction
when the fluid is assumed motionless.

qconvection hT h
Nu    It is represent the enhancement of heat transfer through a
qconduction KT /  K
fluid layer as a result of convection relative to conduction across the same fluid layer. Nusselt
number 1 represents the heat transfer is by pure conduction.
i) Peclet number(Pe): is the ratio of heat flow rate by convection to flow rate by conduction
under a unit temperature gradient and through thickness l.
Qconvection  mC p   AV C p
kAt kA
Qcoduction  
l l
Qconvection  AV C p C p lV
 Pe    lV 
Qconduction kA / l k 
The peclet number can be recast as

C p lV C p
 Pe  lV    Re Pr
k  k
i.e. the Peclet number is a function of Reynolds number and Pandtl number.

j) Stanton number: St is the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to the flow of heat per unit
temperature rise due to the velocity of the fluid.
h
St 
VC p
hl / k Nu
 
 Vl /    C p / k  Re Pr
Thus the Stanton number can be expressed terms of other dimensionless number as:
Nusselt number
St 
Reynolds number  Pandtl number
It should be noted that Stanton number can be used only in correlating forced convection
data. Through dimensional analysis, we have obtained the following possible forms for
correlation of convection data. (Ref Problem 7.9 and 7.10)
In Forced convection: Nu  f1 Re, Pr  or St  f 2 Re, Pr  and
In Free convection: Nu  f 2 Gr, Pr 

4.4. Boundary layer simplifications for flow past a flat plate:

Boundary layer simplifications are first introduced by Prandtl and the study of internal
and external flows relative to the surface of a body are made possible due to the application of
the concepts viz., that the flow region can be regarded as viscous region near to the rigid
boundary and invisid region far away from the wall. Invisid region is defined as the medium in
which viscous forces can be neglected. The momentum and energy equations can be further
simplified into a tractable form for obtaining solutions. The heat transfer from a flat plate with
flow occurring past over it with a free stream velocity u will be considered for further study.
The physical picture of the boundary layer can be visualized as a thin viscous layer
adjacent to the plate in which velocity variation across it occurs. However, the fluid is assumed
as invisid medium with velocity variation being absent at distances beyond the boundary layer,
i.e at y:
u
u = u : 0
y
4.4.1. Velocity boundary layer:
Let us consider the flow of a fluid over a plate as shown in fig. The fluid at the leading
edge has a velocity equal to free stream velocity i.e. at x = 0. As it moves along the length of the
plate the fluid particles which are in contact with the plate surface assume zero velocity and
forms a thin stagnant film. Therefore starting from the surface of the fluid in y direction there
will be retardation in the fluid stream till it matches u = 0 at y = 0. The retardation effect reduces
when the particle is far away from plate surface in y direction. At sufficient distance away from
the plate the effect is nil and the velocity of the fluid is u = u. Therefore at each location along x
direction at y =  i.e. from the surface of the plate where the axial velocity is equal to 99% of
free stream velocity. The imaginary curve joining all the points where U=0.999 Uα is called the
velocity boundary layer. Within this boundary layer the flow field can be separated in two
regions one boundary layer region and the other potential flow regime. The boundary layer starts
at the leading edge of the plate as a laminar boundary layer in which the flow remains orderly
and fluid particles move along streamlines. This continuous along the plate till a critical distance
is attained or Reynolds number attains a critical value. After this the fluid particles get disturbed
and these disturbances begin to grow which represents the beginning of transition from laminar
to turbulent layer. The critical Reynolds number at which the transition occurs for external flow
is Recr = 5105. However this depends on surface roughness but for a flow along plate the
boundary layer is always turbulent where Re >5105. In the turbulent boundary layer next to the
wall there exists a thin layer known as viscous sub layer where the flow is laminar. Adjacent to
this there is a buffer layer in which there is fine-grained turbulence and the mean axial velocity
rapidly increases in y direction. The buffer layer is followed by turbulent layer in which there is
large scale turbulence

Thus, the classification of the regions is done zone wise viz., viscous and invisid regions.
Viscous region confines to the range - 0<y< (known as boundary layer)
Invisid or non-viscous region is beyond y>

4.4.2. Thermal boundary layer:

Similar to hydrodynamic boundary layer when the plate is at a different temperature
from the stream flowing past over it heat dissipation occurs with a temperature profile existing
over a finite thickness of the medium known as thermal boundary layer t as shown in the figure.
 Let the surface temperature Ts of a flat plate is greater than free stream temperature T.
At the leading edge the temperature profile is uniform with T = T. The fluid particle at the
entrance is at the free stream temperature and hence no temperature gradient occurs. As the fluid
passes over the plate they come in contact with the surface and exchange heat with those in the
neighboring layers developing a temperature gradient. The effect of plate temperature in the
layers of fluid in y direction is negligible after some height and that point at which T = 0.999 T 
is known as boundary. All such points along length of the plate when joined together develop a
layer known as thermal boundary layer. This is an imaginary layer below which the variation of
temperature in y direction exists and beyond this there will no variation in temperature. The
thickness of the boundary layer along the length of the plate increases as shown in fig 8.5.

The thermal boundary layer t can be different from the , the hydrodynamic boundary layer
depending on the thermal properties of the medium viz.,, the kinematic viscosity and  the thermal
diffusivity.
The relation between velocity and thermal boundary layers is given below.
t
 Pr 1 / 3

It can be seen from this relationship the physical significance of the dimensionless number, Pr,
i.e
For gases: Pr=1,=1(thickness of thermal boundary layer= thickness of hydrodynamic boundary
layer)
For viscous liquids: Pr >1;1 (thickness of thermal boundary layer < thickness of
hydrodynamic boundary layer)
For molten metals: Pr<1: >1 (thickness of thermal boundary layer > thickness of
hydrodynamic boundary layer)

4.5. Average heat transfer coefficient:

Let us consider a plate of dimension L  W temperature of which is Ts as shown in
figure over which a fluid at T is flowing with a velocity v. The rate of heat transfer from the
surface by convection according to Newton law is Q  h. As .Ts  T  . However the value of ‘h’
over the entire plate is not constant due to the variation of fluid temperature as it flows along the
plate causing variation in its properties. Due to this the heat transfer coefficient must be assessed
locally and the total heat transfer is to be found using average heat transfer coefficient. Let the
heat transfer coefficient at a distance x from the edge of the plate is hx. Therefore the heat
transfer dQ from elemental area W.dx as shown in the figure is given by

dQ  hx .(W .dx) Ts  T 

L
 Q   hx .(W .dx) Ts  T   havg .L.W Ts  T 
0
L
1
L 0
havg hx .dx

Thus average heat transfer coefficient over the entire surface can be found using the above
equation.

Mean heat transfer coefficient:

The mean heat transfer coefficient hm is defined as follows
1L
h m   h dx .
L0

4.6. Use of empirical correlations for convective heat transfer

The forced convection is divided basically in two types i.e. external flow and internal
flow. Fluid flow over a flat plate, cylinder, sphere and tube bundle are examples for external
flow. The flow could be purely laminar or turbulent or a combined laminar and turbulent one.
When fluid flows inside a circular pipe or duct it is categorized as internal flow. This is further
considered in two ways laminar and turbulent flow. Compact heat exchangers, cryogenic cooling
equipment, heating and cooling of oils are examples for laminar flow and flow through double
pipe heat exchangers, water heaters, boilers, refrigeration equipment and radiator are examples
for turbulent flow inside the tubes. Empirical correlations are used to solve the problems in
forced and natural convection heat transfer.
4.6.1. Empirical correlations for forced convective heat transfer over flat plates/Vertical
Plates/ Vertical Pipes (Cylinders)
Let us consider the flow of a fluid with a velocity U over a flat plate as shown in figure.
The critical Reynolds number for the external flow is Re = 5105 and till that valve is reached
the flow remains laminar. As the flow proceeds along the length of the plate it turns in to
turbulent one. The analysis for laminar and turbulent flow regimes is different and dealt
separately as given below.

4.6.1.1. Laminar flow over a flat plate:

Assuming a two dimensional steady incompressible constant property fluid flow along
the plate, the following continuity, momentum and energy equations can be written
u v
 0
x y
u u  2u
u v 
x y y 2
   2
u v  2
x y y
The boundary conditions are
Tw  T
at y  0  u  0, v  0 and   0 where  
Tw  T
at y    u  U and   1
assuming the velocity profile in the form
y 2 y 3
 a0  a1    a2    a3   following the von-Korman momentum integral approach
u y
u      
we obtain
4.64 x

Re x
u 3u
The velocity gradient at the wall  
y y  0 2
 u 3u Re x 3u 13u
   
y y  0 2 4.64 x 2 280
u
we know the viscous shear stress  x  .
y y  0
and  x i.e. shear stress per unit area is related to local drag coefficient f is defined as
1
 w  fu 2
2
u 1
hence f  2.
y y  0 u 2
13 0.646
3 
280 u x Re x
0.646
f 
Re x

The above expression is valid for the assumption that the velocity profile is a third degree
polynomial. However the profile may not follow the rule exactly. And it is found that exact value
of the local drag coefficient is
0.664
f 
Re x
The average friction factor is obtained using
L
1
L
f avg  f  x  dx
0
 2. f x
1.328
 f avg 
Re L1 / 2

and the boundary layer thickness is given by

4.96 x
x 
Re x
The drag force acting on the plate
1
F  f . . A.u 2
2
Assuming the temperature profile as
2 3
y y y
  a 0  a1    a 2    a3   and following the energy integral approach we get
 t   t   t 
t
 0.976 Pr 1 / 3


Nu x  0.332 Pr1 / 3 Re x
1/ 2

Which is valid for Re < 5105 and Pr  for 0.6 < Pr<10 and for very high values of Prantdl
number.
Pohlhausen’s exact calculations shown that the local Nusselt number is given by
Nu x  0.339 Pr1 / 3 Re x
1/ 2

for Re < 5105 and Pr 

for the above two cases
L L
havg   hx d x   C.x 1 / 2 dx  2hL dx
1 1
L L
0 0
Nuavg  2.Nu x
 Nuavg  0.664 Pr1 / 3 Re x1 / 2

for Re < 5105 and Pr < 10

 Nuavg  0.678 Pr1 / 3 Re1 / 2
for Re < 5105 and Pr  

The properties are to be evaluated at film temperature

4.6.1.2. Turbulent flow over a plate

In turbulent flow the boundary layer thickness and local friction factor f cannot be
determined purely by theoretical means and experimental work is carried by several workers.
Schlichting has recommended the following correlation based on his experimental data, for
friction factor.
f  0.0592 Re x 0.2
for 5105 < Rex< 107
Thus for laminar flow f  0.664 Re x 0.2 and for turbulent flow f  0.0592 Re x 0.2 using these
two the average drag coefficient with turbulent flow over the entire region 0  x  L can be
found as
 xc L 
1
f avg 
L
f .dx   
f .dx
0 xc 
where x c is the critical length at which the flow turns into turbulent
1 
0.5 xc 0.2 L
u  u 
x 
0.5 0.2
 0.664   dx  0.0592   x dx 
L    0   xc 
  0.2 0.074 Re cr 0.8  1.328 Re 0.5
f avg  0.074 Re 
Re

The velocity profile in turbulent flow is experimentally determined and represented with a power
1/ 7
u  y
law distribution as   and the shear force acting one the plate is empirically expressed
u   
as
0.2
u  
 w  .  0.0296   .u 2
y y  0  ux 

The boundary layer thickness for completely turbulent starting from leading edge is given by
 x  0.381 x Re x 0.2

and if the flow is laminar up to xc and turns into turbulent

 x  0.381 x Re x 0.2 102256 x Re x 1

f
using the colburn analogy St Pr 2 / 3  as in (5.53)
2
we obtain St x Pr 2 / 3  0.0296 Re x 0.2

Nu x
Pr 2 / 3  0.0296 Re  0.2
Re . Pr

Nu x  0.0296 Re x 0.8 Pr 0.333

The properties are to be evaluated at film temperature. The average heat transfer coefficient in
turbulent flowcan be obtained as follows
0.8
hx x  vx 
 0.0296   Pr 1 / 3 i.e h  x 0.2  Cx .0.2
K  

L L
1 1
havg   hx dx   Cx  0.2 dx
L L
0 0
havg  1.25 hL

 Nuavg  0.036 Re 0.8 Pr1 / 3

The above expression is valid only for fully turbulent flow from the leading edge. If the flow is
combined laminar and turbulent over the length 0<x<L the average heat transfer coefficient is
x L
1 c 1
havg   hLa min ar dx   hturbulent dx
L0 L xtur
0.5 xc 0.8
u  u 
L
1
x x
 0.5  0.2
 0.332 K    Pr 1/ 3
dx  0.029   Pr 1/ 3
dx
L   0   xc


Nuavg  0.036 Pr 0.33 Re L 0.8  17400  297 Pr1 / 3 
4.6.2. Empirical correlations for forced convective heat transfer over horizontal
pipes/cylinders
Flow over a cylinder is more of practical importance as in the case of radiators, heat
exchangers and condenser tubes etc. The determination of friction coefficient and heat transfer
is very complicated due to the complexicity of flow around cylinder. Consider a fluid flowing
across a cylinder with a velocity U as shown in the figure. The flow Reynolds number can be
 .u D
found using Re D  .


At higher Reynolds number the vertices start in the wake region and the velocity and
temperature distribution around the cylinders becomes most complicated. The drag force acting
1 u 2
on the cylinder is expressed as F  C D . . A. 
2 2
Where CD is known as drag coefficient. At low Reynolds number the drag is caused by viscous
force only and the boundary layer is attached to the cylinder. In that condition the drag is
maximum. As Reynolds number increases the drag is partly due to wake formation and partly
due to viscous force. If Reynolds number exceeds 5000 the drag is predominantly by the high
turbulent eddies formed in the wake region. When the flow separation occurs i.e. nearly at Re =
4.5105 the drag coefficient suddenly drops, which reduces the size of wake and hence the drag.
Whitaker presents the average Nusselt number for flow over the cylinder as

 Pr
0.25
0.5  0.06 2/3 0.4   
Nu  0.4 Re Re  
 w
 T T
where the physical properties are evaluated at free stream temperature T f  w  except w
2
which is evaluated at wall temperature.
For gases the viscosity effects are neglected and the properties are evaluated at film temperature.
The general equation to predict average Nusselt number for gases and liquids is given by

Nu  C Re n Pr1 / 3

ReD C n
0.4 to 4 0.989 0.33
4 to 40 0.911 0.385
40 to 4000 0.683 0.466
4000 to 40000 0.193 0.618
40000 to 400000 0.027 0.805

4.7. Internal flow (Forced convection in a circular tubes)

Whenever fluid flows through a pipe, the difference in temperature between the fluid and
pipe causes the heat transfer to occur by convection. The nature of flow can be determined by
finding the Reynolds number.

d
 .v.d  .v.d 4 m 4m
Re   .  
   d   d . d
4 4
where m  Av is the mass flow rate through the pipe. If the Reynolds number is >2300
the flow is turbulent else it is laminar. Since the value of  is very less in the order of 10-6
generally Reynolds number is more than 2300 in most of the practical cases and the flow is
turbulent. The heat transfer and friction factor correlations are mostly empirical in nature.
Experimental determination of friction factor by knowing the pressure drop and hence the heat
transfer coefficient is the easiest method.

4.7.1. Fully developed Laminar flow

The temperature distribution and convective heat transfer coefficient for a fully
developed laminar flow is obtained by solving the equation
1 T  2T 1 T  2T
.u.   
 x r 2 r r x 2
For a fully developed flow in a tube under constant wall heat flux condition
Nu = 4.36
For constant wall temperature condition Kays has shown that
Nu = 3.66
We can conclude from the above two equations that Nusselt number under constant heat flux
condition is 19%more than that in the constant heat flux condition of the tube.

4.7.2. Entry Region Laminar flow

In the above section it is assumed that the velocity and temperature profiles are fully
developed are applicable only beyond the point of fully developed flow in a tube. The heat
transfer characteristic up to entry length are different since the hydrodynamic and thermal
boundaries are yet to be completely developed indicating continuous change in temperature and
velocity profile. For constant surface temperature the entrance lengths are given by
Hydrodynamic entrance length = 0.05 D.ReD

Thermal entrance length = 0.05 D.ReDPr

So it is of more interest and useful to know the average Nusselt number considering the entrance
length effects also. Hausen has developed an empirical formula to determine the average Nusselt
number considering the effects in entry region for constant wall temperature as
D
0.668  Re . Pr
Nu  3.66  L
avg 2/3
 D  
1  0.04  Re . Pr 
 L  

D
where Re D . Pr  Gz a dimensionless number known as Gratez number (Gz).
L
All properties are to be evaluated at bulk mean temperature.

4.7.3. Fully developed Turbulent flow

Based on experimental data Dittus – Boelter have developed a general expression
independent of thermal boundaries as
Nu D  0.023 Re 0.8 Pr n

where n = 0.3 for cooling

The fluid properties are to be evaluated at mean bulk temperature.
n = 0.4 for heating
For fluids with large variation in viscosity w.r.t temperature Sieder and Tate developed
0.04
1 / 3   
  
0.8
Nu D  0.027 Re Pr
 w
when all properties are evaluated at bulk mean temperature except w at wall temperature.

4.7.4. Correlation for Thermal entry Region:

L
Nusselt has developed the following correlation for in the range 10 to 400 as
D
0.055
 D
Nu  0.036 Re 0.8 Pr1 / 3  
L
4.8. Introduction to natural convection
If the motion of the fluid is due to density difference generated due to temperature
variation within the fluid causing heat transfer is known as natural convection. In this mode of
convection the motion occurs naturally within the fluid without imposing it externally by a fan
blower or a pump. Thus the fluid motion setup due to buoyant force called free convection or
natural convection. Example is hot body kept in a quiescent air losses heat by natural convection.
The surrounding air in the vicinity of hot body gains heat and losses its density. This causes it to
drive away naturally within the same medium and the vacated space is occupied by fresh cool
air, which again removes heat from hot body and so on. Steam carrying pipes, hot tubes,
condenser and evaporator of a household refrigerator, picture tube in TV transformers, heating
coils, and transmission cables are some of the practical examples for natural convection.

4.9. Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer development:

Consider a hot vertical plate whose wall surface
temperature Tw is maintained greater than surrounding fluid
temperature T. The fluid near the wall of the plate gets
heated up and raises up due to the change occurred in its
density. Thus the warmer fluid is replaced by cold fluid
causing the flow of fluid naturally. The motion of fluid on
the wall surface is zero and as we move away from the wall
the velocity in the upward direction increases. However
after a critical distance the temperature variation within the
fluid decreases, causing again a drop in velocity. At the
boundary it is expected that the velocity of the fluid is zero.
Thus the velocity is zero both at the plate surface and on
the edge of boundary layer. The fig10.1 shows the
development of both velocity and thermal boundary layers
over a vertical flat plate. The wall temperature is highest
and as we move away from the wall the temperature
decreases and equals to that of atmospheric temperature.
Up to certain height of the plate the flow of fluid
particles in the boundary are uniform and is known as
laminar region. In this region the effect of viscous force is
dominant compared to inertia and buoyant forces. As the
flow proceeds to transition a turbulent boundary layer begins
and eventually a fully developed turbulent boundary
develops at the end of the plate.

4.10. Use of empirical relations for Vertical plates/Vertical pipes

Grashoff number (Gr) as the product of ratio of inertia force to viscous force and
Buoyant to viscous force as
Inertia force Buoyant force
Gr  
viscous force viscous force
The Grashoff number signifies the effect of buoyant force acting on the fluid particle. In
forced convection the movement of particle is represented by Reynolds number and in natural
convection Grashoff number indicates the motion of a particle due to buoyancy. The transition
from laminar to turbulent conditions depends on the critical value of Grashoff number
gT L3  2
Gr  2

.The governing heat transfer in natural convection depends on the magnitude of Gr and Re
numbers. However in natural convection the buoyant forces are significant and no external flow
velocities are induced. Hence
Nu  f Gr, Pr
Gr Gr
Further the ratio has got great significance in natural convection. If  1 it implies free
2
Re Re 2
Gr
and forced convection are of same magnitude and if  1 the flow is due to forced
Re 2
Gr
convection only and if  1 the flow is due to natural convection only and under these
Re 2
conditions the equations (10.11) holds good perfectly. Sometimes the product of Grashoff
number and Pradtl number is represented as Rayleigh number (Ra) and we can express
Nu  f Ra , Pr  for natural convection

4.10.1 Laminar flow: Let us consider a hot plate with coordinate system as shown in
Fig.10.2.Assume an isothermal condition i.e. the wall temperature is maintained constant and the
flow is laminar.
The governing equation for this are

u v
 0
x y
u u  2u
u v   g T  T 
x y y 2

T T  2T
u v 
x y y 2

The boundary conditions are

At y   , u  0 and T  T
At y  0, u  0, v  0 and T  Tw
1/ 4
1/ 4  Pr 
Nu x  0.508 Ra x  
 0.952  Pr 
 gTx 3 gTx 3
where Grx  and Ra  Grx Pr 
2  .
The average heat transfer is found by using
L
1
L
havg  h x dx
0
4
havg  hL
3

4
or Nuavg  Nulocal
3
Thus the general expression for Nusselt number in a simplified form as Nu  c.Gr. Pr n  c.Ra n
The value of c and n are for laminar flow is c = 0.59 and n = ¼, under uniform wall temperature
T  T
conditions. The Gr and Pr are evaluated at film temperature, T f  w .
2
 Nu  0.59 Ra 0.25
and for uniform wall heat flux condition Sparrow and Gregg have developed expression based on
experimental data for water as

Nu  0.6 Gr. Nu. Pr 1/ 5

4.10.2. Turbulent flow

The natural convection phenomenon is found to be turbulent under the condition where
Ra  10 9 or Gr. Pr  10 9
Nu x  0.1Gr. Pr 1 / 3
is used for turbulent flow under constant wall temperature condition. The examination of this
expression reveals that in turbulent flow the heat transfer coefficient is independent of plate
height.
For constant heat flux condition the proposed equation is
Nu x  0.568Gr. Nu. Pr 0.22
gTx 3
qx gqx 4
where, Ra  Gr Nu  .
2 Tk k 2
The other expression for both laminar and turbulent is
0.387 Ra L1 / 6
Nu1avg
/2
 0.825 
1  0.492 / Pr   9 / 16 8 / 27
 HEAT TRANSFER COURSE MATERIAL (A36C2)

UNIT-V

5.1. Heat exchangers

Heat exchanger is a device used for transfer of heat from one fluid to another without
mixing them. The exchange of heat may be from gas to gas or liquid, or gas to liquid etc. e.g. In
a car radiator heat exchange takes place between Air and water flowing through radiator tubes. In
a steam condenser heat exchange takes place between steam and water. In diesel engine oil
cooler the exchange of heat is between lubricating oil and water. In an air preheater used in
steam power plant the heat exchange is between hot flue gases and cool air. In all these devices
the purpose is to either effectively recover the heat energy in hot fluid as in an air preheater or
cooling it to the desired extent as in a car-radiator. This can be achieved by providing effective
heat transfer between the two fluids. Thus the knowledge of proper design of heat exchangers is
essential to minimize the size of it.

5.2. Classification of Heat Exchangers

The heat exchangers are classified based on the type of fluid, based on the type of flow,
based on number of fluids and based on heat transfer rate. Some of the major types of heat
exchangers their construction features are explained briefly.
Tubular Heat Exchanger: A Shell and tube heat Exchanger consists of number of circular tubes
parallel to that of shell. The fig 38 shows the important features of a shell and tube heat
exchanger. In this the tube fluid passes only once and shell fluid passes through the shell. The fig
39 shows a one shell-Two Tube pass in which the tube fluid passes twice through the shell.
Similarly fig 40 shows two shell and 4 tube pass.
 In some cases tubes are kept one in another concentrically such that one fluid passes
through inner tube and other fluid passes through the annular space between the tubes. This is
known as double pipe heat Exchanger and is shown in fig 41. If both the fluids flow in the same
direction it is known as parallel flow and if the fluids pass opposite to one another it is known as
counter flow.
Plate type heat Exchanger: In plate type heat exchanger as the name implies they are made up
of two plates and the hot and cold fluids pass through either side of a plate exchanging heat
through it. In some cases the plates are made in the form of corrugated sheets through which the
fluid passes. Parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow arrangements are possible. In some other
types the plates are fixed with number of fins to enhance the rate of heat transfer.
Tube Fin type heat exchanger: For heat exchange between a Gas and other fluid this kind of
tube heat exchangers are most useful. Like in car radiators, Evaporators and Condensers of small
refrigeration systems etc. either round tubes or tubes with fins on their surface as shown in fig 43
are used. This kind of heat exchangers is known as cross flow heat exchanger. The flow of fluid
through the tubes is unmixed where as the flow of fluid over the tube is considered as mixed one.
The flow of two fluids acts in two perpendicular planes.

Regenerative Heat Exchanger: A Porous medium generally of metal balls, pebbles, powder etc
called bed or Matrix through which hot and cold fluids are passed alternatively. Thus during the
flow of hot fluid the bed absorbs heat and when cold fluid is passed the heat is transferred from
the bed to the cold fluid. In some regenerators half of the bed is exposed to hot fluid and other
half to the cold fluid. During rotation the bed periodically passes through hot stream and then
through the cold stream. However this kind of rotary regenerators are useful for gas-to- gas heat
exchange and not useful for liquid since the heat capacity of bed is less for liquids.
 However most of the heat exchanger can be brought under common classification i.e
parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow heat exchangers.
Compact heat exchangers: when the surface area to volume ratio of a heat exchanger is greater
than 750 m2/ m3 the heat exchanger is known as compact heat exchanger. Generally when one of
the fluids is gas and having small heat transfer coefficient it requires large surface area and a
compact heat exchanger is best suitable. The fig 44 shows different kinds of compact heat
exchangers. In the case of compact heat exchangers the pressure drop of the fluid will be high
and is of important design consideration. In many cases the heat transfer characteristics and
friction factor of such configurations is found experimentally. Several Researches have done
extensive work on compact heat exchangers and developed charts to obtain heat transfer and
friction factors, for a specified matrix and Reynolds number. Thus the value of U for a compact
heat exchanger can be obtained from these charts and applying either LMTD or NTU method we
can estimate the rate of heat transfer and its size requirements etc.

5.3. Principle of heat exchange:

Let us consider a double pipe heat exchanger in which hot fluid is flowing inside the
tube and cold fluid is passing through the annulus of surrounding tube. Heat exchange takes
between the two fluids through the barriers / walls of the tube. Assuming that there is no heat
loss from the outer wall of exchanger tube, the heat lost by inside hot fluid = heat gained by the
cold fluid
Let us assume that mass flow rate of hot fluid is mh and it enters at Thi . it losses heat to the cold
fluid and leaves at a temperature Tho .

 Heat lost by the hot fluid  mh ch Thi  Tho 
Similarly let the mass flow rate of cold fluid is mc and it enter the heat exchanger at Tci. It
absorbs heat form the hot fluid and leaves at a temperature Tco.
Heat absorbed by the cold fluid  mc cc Tco  Tci 
Assuming adiabatic conditions, the heat exchange between the fluid results in heat lost by hot

 
fluid and heat gain by cold fluid.
 Q  mh ch Thi  Tho
 mc cc Tco  Tci 
5.4. Overall heat transfer coefficient
The heat has to flow through three resistances namely convective resistance of inside
fluid, conduction resistance of the tube surface and convective resistance of cold fluid. All these
resistances act in series.Let at any instant of time or position the temperature of hot fluid is Th
and cold fluid is Tc. Then the heat transfer can be expressed as
T
Q
Rtotal

1 1 r 1
RTotal   ln 2 
ho Ao 2KL r1 hi Ai
Where L represent the total length of the pipe. The combined conduction and convective
resistance of the pipe can be expressed as overall heat transfer coefficient as follows.
1
RTotal 
U o Ao
Where Uo is known as overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area.
ΔT
Q  U o Ao Δ T 
Rtotal
Where Δ T is the effective temperature difference between hot fluid and cold fluid.

 The heat exchange between the two fluids can be expressed as

 Q  mc cc Tco  Tci 

 m h ch Thi  Tho 
U o Ao T effective
Using the above three equations we can determine any three unknown quantities.

5.5. Fouling factor or Scaling factor

Due to continuous flow of fluid through the pipes after prolonged hours of operation
there is a chance of scale formation both inside and outside the pipes. This may be due to
deposition of solid particles in the fluid or due to corrosion, which forms a thin layer on the
surface. This thin layer offers some resistance to heat transfer and is known as fouling resistance.
This results in to a total of five resistances between hot fluid and cold fluid viz the inside
convective resistance, inside fouling resistance, pipe wall conduction resistance, outside fouling
resistance and outside convective resistance as shown in fig 46.

1 1 r2 1
RTotal  R f   ln   Rf -
i hi Ai 2KL r1 ho Ao o

This fouling factor considerably increases the resistance of the exchanger and thus affects the
heat transfer rate. The value of fouling factor depends on the type of fluids flowing through the
pipes.
The magnitude of scaling factor depends on the nature of the deposits and is generally
built up of unknown complicated composites.
Generally fouling factors will be given in m2K/W. where as the other convective and
conduction resistances are in kW. Hence in the above equation while using R f and R f , care
i o
must be taken to substitute in proper units.
1 1
Resistance due to scale r   -
U clean U fouled

5.6. Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

5.6.1. Parallel flow arrangement
Let the hot fluid enters the inner tube at Thi and leaves at Tho with a flow rate of mh kg/s,
having specific heat Ch. From the same side let cold fluid enters the pipe at Tci and leaves at Tco
with a flow rate of mc having specific heat Cc.
The variation of temperature along the length of heat exchanger from inlet to outlet can be
represented as shown in fig.47. It is clear that as the fluid flow along the length of the heat
exchanger, the temperature difference goes on decreasing and hence the rate of heat exchange is
not uniform throughout its length. The effective temperature difference between hot and cold
fluids can be determined by considering an elemental length at which the hot fluid temperature is
Th and cold fluid temperature is Tc.
In this elemental area the temperature drop by the hot fluid is say dTh and the
Temperature rise of cold fluid is say dTc.
We can write dQ  mh ch dTh for hot fluid (-ve sign temperature decreases in the +ve x(L)
direction).
dQ  mc cc dTc for cold fluid
dQ  UdATh  Tc 
Since the dTh and dTc are small it is assumed that the temperature difference in this elemental
section between two fluids is Th  Tc 
total heat transfer Q  mh c h Thi  Tho 


Q  mc cc Tco  Tci 
Let d Th  Tc   dTh  dTc

 dQ dQ  1 1 
   dQ   
mh ch mc cc  mh ch mc cc 
 1 1 
d Th  Tc   UdATh  Tc   
 mh ch mc cc 


d Th  Tc 
 UdA

  Th i  Th o

  
Tc o  Tc i 

Th  Tc  Q Q 
Integrating on both sides between the limits inlet to outlet.
Tout
d Th  Tc  UA
 
Th  Tc

Q
  
Th o  Tc o  Th i  Tc i 
Tin
Th o  Tc o UA
 ln
Th i  Tc i

Q
 
Th o  Tc o  Th i  Tc i 
Th  Tc o   Thi  Tc i 
 Q  UA o
Th o  Tc o
ln
Th i  Tc i
 

 T out  T in 
 UA
 T out 
 ln
 T in 
= UA [LMTD]
Where LMTD is the logarithmic temperature
difference, which is nothing but the effective
temperature difference to be considered.

5.6.2. Counter flow arrangement

In the counter flow arrangement hot
fluid and cold fluid pass in different directions
one opposite to the other. The temperature
variation along the length of heat exchanger is
represented as shown in fig 48. It is observed
from the figure that the effective temperature difference is more or less uniform throughout the
length enables more heat exchange to takes place between the two fluids. However these two
lines need not be parallel and hence the effective mean temperature difference is evaluated by
considering the elemental at section as shown. Let the temperature of hot fluid at this section is
Th and is subjected to a temperature difference is evaluated by considering the elemental section
as shown. Let the temperature of hot fluid at this section is Th and is subjected to temperature
drop of dTh. The cold fluid is assumed to be at Tc and is subjected to a rise in temperature of dTc
 Heat lost by hot fluid in this section  dQ  mh Ch dTh
Heat gained by the cold fluid  dQ  mc Cc dTc 
Negative sign is incorporated since the
temperature rise is in the reverse direction i.e in
negative ‘x’ direction.
Further heat transfer across the tube is
dQ  UdATh  Tc 

 
Total heat transfer is given by
Q  mh C h Thi  Tho

Q  mcCc Tco  Tci 
Consider d Th  Tc   dTh  dTc
 dQ dQ  1 1 
   dQ   
mh ch mc cc  mh ch mc cc 
 Thi  Tho Tco  Tci 
d Th  Tc   UdATh  Tc  
  
 Q Q 


d Th  Tc  UdA
Th  Tc

Q
 
Tho  Tci  Thi  Tco  
Integrating both sides between inlet and outlet conditions
Tout
d Th  Tc  UA
   Tho  Tci   Thi  Tco 
Th  Tc Q
Tin

T T
 ln ho ci 
Thi  Tco
UA
Q

Tho  Tco  Thi  Tci  
 Q  UA
Th o  Tci  Thi  Tc o 
Th o  Tc i
ln
Th i  Tc o
  

 T out  T in 
Q  UA
 T out 
 ln 
 T in 

= UA[LMTD]

Where, LMTD = Logarithmic mean temperature difference

T outlet  T inlet
LMTD 
T out
ln
T in
Hence Q  UALMTD

5.6.3. Cross flow

In the case of fluids flowing perpendicular to each other i.e. in a cross flow manner
their LMTD can be found using the following equation.
(LMTD)cross flow =
K.(LMTD)counter flow
Where K is the correction factor.

5.7. Effectiveness of heat exchanger:

It is defined as the ratio of actual heat exchange
between two fluids to that of ideal or maximum possible
heat transfer. It signifies how effectively the heat
exchanger is capable of transferring heat from hot fluid
to cold fluid.
actual heat transfer
ε
maximum possible heat transfer
The maximum heat transfer is possible only when both fluids flow in counter direction.

Case i:
Let us assume the cold fluid enters at Tci and if max heat transfer occurs between the
fluids it can come out at Tco=Thi;
Maximum heat transfer = mc cc Tc o  Tc i   mc cc Th i  Tc i 
The heat capacity of hot fluid mh ch  Cc
The heat capacity of hot fluid mc cc  Ch
It is obvious from fig that Th i  Th o  is less than
Tc o  Tc i  or Th i  Tc i 
i.e. the cold fluid is subjected to maximum
temperature difference.
Q  mh c h Δ T hot fluid  mc cc Δ T cold fluid

 C h Δ T hot  C c Δ T cold
since ΔT cold is more that Δ T hot to satisfy the above
equation
C h  Cc or Cc must be minimum
 The maximum possible heat transfer can be express as

Q  mc cc Th i  Tc i   Cmin Th i  Tc i 

Q m c T  Th o or mc cc Tc o  Tc i 
ε  act  h h h i
Qmax C min Th i  Tc i 

Case (ii):
Let us assume the cold fluid is getting heated up from Tc i to Tc o and the hot fluid is
entering at Th i in the counter flow direction. If maximum possible heat transfer occurs Th i will be
cooled up to Tci and hence Th o  Tc i

 Maximum heat transfer Qmax  mh ch Th i  Th o 
 mh ch Th i  Tc i 
it is obvious from the figure that Th i  Tc i  or
Th i  Th o  is greater that Tc o  Tc i  i.e. the
hot fluid is subjected to maximum
temperature difference.
Q  mh c h Δ T hot  mc cc Δ T cold
 Q  C h Δ T hot  C c Δ T cold
since the ΔT hot is greater than Δ T cold to satisfy the above equation Ch must be minimum.
Hence
Qmax  mh ch Th i  Tc i  Cmin Th i  Tc i 

Qact m c T  Th o or mc cc Tc o  Tc i 

ε   h h hi
Qmax C min Th i  Tc i 

5.8. Number of Transfer Units (NTU)

2 2
UA W / m .k .m

NTU   = Dimensionless.
C min W / k
 It is a dimensionless number signifying the heat transfer capacity of a given heat
exchanger. This depends only on the flow rates and is independent of temperatures, since U and
Cmin both are function of mass flow rates only. Hence NTU signifies how much number of units
of heat the given heat exchanger is capable of transferring from one fluid to other.

5.9. Effectiveness of heat exchanger:

Effectiveness of heat exchanger is useful to determine the outlet temperature of the fluids
for a given heat exchanger with known inlet temperatures and area of heat exchanger. The value
of U can be determined from the mass flow rate of fluids and the tube configuration using forced
convection principles. Thus it is desirable to know the value of effectiveness in terms of number
of transfer units.

5.9.1. For parallel flow:

Let us consider
Q  Ch Th i  Th o  Cc Tc o  Tc i 
Let d Th  Tc   dTh  dTc
 dQ dQ   1 1
  UdATh  Tc   
mh ch mc cc  C h  Cc
Th o Tc o

d Th  Tc  1 1 A

Thi Tc i
Th  Tc
 U     dA
 Ch Cc  o
Th o  Tc o  1 1 
ln  UA  
Th  Tc  C h Cc 
 1 1 
T  Tc o UA  
 ho  e  h c
C C

Th i  Tc i
C h Th i  Th o  C T  Tc i 
From the definition of ε   c co
Cmin Th i  Tc i  C min Th i  Tc i 
from which we can get

 Th o  Th i 
Cmin
Th i  Tc i .
Ch

 Tc o  Tc i  min Th i  Tc i .

C
Cc
1 1
Subtracting Th o  Tc o  Th i  Tc i   C min Th i  Tc i ..  
 C h Cc 
  1 1 
 Th i  Tc i 1  ε .C min .  
  C h C c 
Th o  Tc o  1 1 
  1  ε .C min .  
Th i  Tc i  Cc Ch 
substituting this in the above equation

 1 1 
 1 1  UA  
1  ε .Cmin .    e  C h Cc 
 Cc Ch 
 1 1  UA  Cc 
UA   1 
1 e  Cc C h 
1 e
Cc  C h 
ε 
 1 1  C min  C c 
C min .   1  
 C c C h  Cc  C h 
If we assume Cc is minimum then
UA  C min 
1 
1  e  N 1 C 
C min  C max 
1 e

 C min  1  C 
1  
 C max 
where C = Cmin/Cmax known as heat capacity ratio
1  e  N 1 C 
  -
1  C 
If C = 1 i.e. if heat capacity of both fluids is same as in the case of regenerator of a gas turbine.


ε  1  e 2 N  12
That is if N   the max = 50%.
If C = 0, ε  1  e  N which is in the case of condensers and evaporators.

5.9. 2. Counter flow arrangement:

Referring to the figure.14.10
d Th  Tc   dTh  dTc
dQ  C h dTh  Cc dTc
 dQ  1 1 
d Th  Tc    UdATh  Tc 
dc
  
mh ch mc cc  c
C C h 

Th o Tc i

d Th  Tc  1 1 
A


Th i Tc o
Th  Tc
 U     dA
 Cc C h  o

C h Th i  Th o  C T  Tc i 
From the definition of ε   c co
C min Th i  Tc i  C min Th i  Tc i 
  Th o  Th i 
Cmin
Th i  Tc i .
Ch

 Tc o  Tc i 
Cmin
Th i  Tc i .
Cc
Substituting these in the equation 14.17b and integrating, we get
 
Th i  Tc i  min Th i  Tc i .
C
 1 1 
 Cc   e UA Cc  Ch 

Th i 
C min
Th i  Tc i   Tc i
 Ch 
Th i  Tc i   Cmin Thi  Tci . UA 1  1 
Cc
 e  c h
C C

Th i  Tc i   C min
Th i  Tc i .
Ch
C min
1 .  1
UA 
1 
Cc 
 e  c h
C C

C
1  min .
Ch
 1 1   1 1 
UA    UA   
C
1  min .  e  Cc C h  e  C c C h   C min 
 .
 C
Cc  c 
C  1
UA 
1 
 C min 
 1
UA 
1 

  min
.e  Cc C h 
  e  Cc C h 
 1.
 Cc Cc 
 
 1 1 
UA  
1 e  Cc C h 
 
1 1
 1
UA 
1 

C min   .e  h
C c C

 Cc C h 
 
Let Cc = Cmin
UA  Cc 
1 
1 e
Cc  C h 

C min  C UA 1 Cc  
1  c .e Cc  Ch  
Cc  Ch 
 
 UA  Cmin 
1 
1 e  Cmax 
Cmin
 
C min  C UA  Cmin  
1 
1  min .e min  Ch  
C

C max  Ch 
 

1  e  N 1C 

1  C.e  N 1C 

When C = 1, direct substitution in equation 14.18 leads to  value indeterminate. So by applying

L – hospital rule, we get



 e  N 1C  .N 

 C.e  N 1C  .N  e  N 1C  
N 1
  If N    = 1.
N 1 1 1
N

When C = 0,   1  e  N

So the maximum possible effectiveness incase of counter flow heat exchanger is 100% where as
for a parallel flow the maximum effectiveness is only 50%.
C
Incase of boilers, evaporators and condensers min  0 . Substituting this in respective
Cmax
expressions for effectiveness in parallel flow and counter flow.
effectiveness (parallel flow) = 1  e  N
 effectiveness (counter flow) = 1  e  N
 HEAT TRANSFER COURSE MATERIAL (A36C2)

UNIT-VI

6. Boiling:

It is a process in which a liquid converts into vapor by absorbing latent heat of

vaprization at saturation temperature. This happens when the fluid is exposed to a surface whose
temperature is greater than the saturation temperature. Latent heat effect surface tension and the
surface characteristics play a significant role in the boiling mechanism making it more
complicated than convection. In boiling very high heat transfer rates associated with small
temperature difference is common. The boiling process depends on the nature of the surface,
thermo physical properties of the fluid and the vapour bubble dynamics.

6.1 Types of Boiling:

Boiling of a liquid is classified into different categories depending on the type, nature of
the process and temperature of fluid as follows.
Pool boiling: If heat is added to a liquid at rest from a submerged solid surface the boiling is
referred as pool boiling. In this the vapor produced near the heating surface form bubbles which
grow and detach themselves from the surface and raises to the free surface due to buoyancy
effect. Ex: an electric heater in a pool of water, boiling water in a kettle on a stove etc….
Flow boiling: Also known as forced convective boiling which occurs in a flowing stream. In this
case the boiling surface may itself be a portion of the flow passage. For example water flowing
through a hot tube. It enters in to the tube as a liquid
absorbs heat from the surface and boils. This is
generally associated with two phase flow confined
through a passage.
Sub cooled boiling or local boiling: If the
temperature of the liquid is below saturation
temperature, the boiling can still occur at the
heating surface raising the temperature of the local
fluid. This kind of boiling is known as sub cooled boiling or local boiling. In this the bubbles
formed at the heating surface eventually condense in the fluid.
Saturated boiling: If the temperature of the liquid is maintained at its saturation temperature
and boiling occurs the process is called saturated boiling or bulk boiling.

6.2 Pool Boling:

Considering boiling of water in a
container with an electric heater immersed init
as shown in the fig. This kind of boiling is
referred as pool boiling. As the temperature of
the coil increases the pool of liquid undergoes
different changes as explained below.

The pool-boiling phenomenon is broadly divided into three different modes as

a) Interface evaporation
b) Nucleate boiling and
c) Film boiling

Phase – I: When the surface temperature of the coil is around 50 greater than the saturation
temperature the liquid near the surface of the coil gets slightly superheated. Then convection
currents setup and circulate the liquid causing evaporation at the surface. This regime is called
interface evaporation.
Phase – II: With further rise in temperature the bubbles began to form on the surface of the wire
at certain spots and they eventually condense in the liquid without rising to the surface.
Phase – III: With further increase in temperature difference, the bubbles start forming on the
surface more rapidly and rise to the surface of liquid resulting in rapid evaporation. This occurs
at a temperature difference of 500C. In this phase the amount of heat flux reaches maximum and
is known as critical heat flux represented by point A as shown in the pool-boiling curve of fig.
11.9. The order of heat flux is expected around 1 MW/m2.
The second and third phases in which the bubbles develop and grow is known as
Nucleate boiling. The maximum heat flux occurred is known as critical heat flux. And from here
the boiling crisis will begin.
Phase – IV: As the heating continues the bubbles on the surface of the heating rod form so
rapidly that they tend to blanket the heating surface with an vapor film. This vapor film thus
formed on the heating surface prevents the inflow of fresh liquid from taking their place. The
heat now has to be transferred into the liquid through this film, to effect any further boiling and
hence known as film boiling. Since the thermal conductivity of this film is much less than liquid
the value of heat flux starts decreasing with increase in temperature difference.
In the critical stages the bubbles formed on the surface forms a film but collapse immediately
and form rapidly. Thus the film formed is an unstable film.
Phase – V: With further growth in the temperature the film stabilizes and the heating surface is
completely covered with a blanket of vapor and the heat flux reaches its lowest value.
Phase – VI: The surface temperature required for maintaining a stable film is very high and
under these conditions a considerable amount of heat starts entering into the liquid by radiation
and the heat flux starts increasing. To reach the maximum heat flux experienced in nucleate
boiling in the film boiling the surface temperature must be raised to a very high value more than
15000C at which the heating surface may itself burn. This point is called burnout point.
The rate of heat transfer is found high in the nucleate boiling and least in the stable film
boiling.
Eg: A droplet of water when sprinkled on a red hot pan doesn’t evaporate immediately,
but dances few times on the pan surface. This is due to the formation of stable film at the
interface between the hot surface and liquid droplet. Once this film is broken the droplet
suddenly evaporates and escapes to the atmosphere.
6.3. Condensation
Condensation of a vapor occurs when it is cooled sufficiently below the saturation
temperature, to induce the nucleation of droplets. Such nucleation may be homogeneous within
the matter like formation of fog in winter or heterogeneously on the entrained particulate matter
like in expansion of steam in steam turbine or in condensation on the tube surface of a steam
condenser etc.. This kind of condensation is divided into two types a) Film condensation b) Drop
wise condensation.
Film condensation occurs on the cold surface which can be easily wetted. On non –
wetted surfaces the vapor condense in drops which grow by further condensation and
coalescence and then roll over the surface. New drops take their place.
6.3.1. Film condensation Vs Drop wise condensation.
 Film condensation occurs on the surfaces which are clean and uncontaminated. The vapor
condenses on the surface spreads out and forms a continuous film over the entire surface. The
liquid thus formed flows down the surface due to gravity and the film thickness grows due to
continuous condensation of vapors. This film covering the surface offers resistance for heat
exchange between vapor and cold surface and reduces the rate of condensation.
Drop wise condensation occurs on the rough surfaces or surfaces having dents, cracks
etc.. This may also occur on surfaces contaminated with impurities like fatty acids and organic
compounds. In this type of condensation the vapor condenses on the surface in the form of
droplets. These droplets stick to the surface due to the roughness or the dents on the surface. The
droplet size gradually increases and it breaks away from the surface falling down due to gravity
and in the process knocks of other droplets. Thus a continuous film is not developed and the cold
surface is again exposed to the vapors afresh. Therefore the rate of condensation is very high and
it experiences a high heat flux at the surface. The condensing heat transfer coefficient in drop
wise condensation is found 7 to 10 times more than film wise condensation. Thus to promote
drop wise condensation the surface is artificially coated with chemical substances that inhibits
wetting. Teflon, wax, oils and fatty acids are often used for this. It is found that coating the
surface with noble metals like gold will also enhance drop wise condensation. However
sustaining the drop wise condensation for a long time is highly difficult due to its unstable
nature. The droplets formed on the surface gradually fills the rough pores or dents thereby
making the surface smooth and the process eventually turns into a film wise condensation. Due
to this reason only, in the design of industrial condensers the heat transfer coefficient considered
is only based on film wise condensation. The table lists the major difference between the two.
Table: Film condensation versus Drop wise condensation
Film condensation Drop wise condensation
The condensate tends to wet the surface Condensate doesn’t wet the surface.
and forms a liquid film Only part of the surface is covered with
Heat transfer is through film. Since the condensate and heat transfer is directly
entire surface is covered with a liquid between surface and vapor.
film. High heat transfer rates are reported due
The rate of heat transfer is low due to to good contact between vapor and
the resistance offered by liquid film. surface.

6.3.2. Laminar film condensation on vertical surface.

The analysis of film condensation was first done by Nusselt with the following assumptions.
a) The flow of condensate in the film is laminar
b) The properties of fluid are constant
c) No sub cooling of condensate
d) Vapor is stationary and exerts no drag force on the condensate film
e) Heat transfer thro film is only by conduction and is one dimensional.
f) The momentum changes in the film are negligible i.e. the inertia forces are negligible
g) The velocity of film in Y direction is negligible.
Consider a vertical flat plate of length L and width w as shown in figure whose surface
temperature is Tw  Ts of vapor surrounding it. Due to the condensation of vapor on the surface
the thickness of liquid film vary from 0 to a maximum as it flows down along the length of plate
by gravity. Consider an elemental strip of height dx at a distance of x from the origin and
thickness dx. Let the boundary layer thickness here is . In this consider an element at a distance
of y from wall having thickness   y  . The maximum value of y is , where the film thickness
is. The volume of the element is thus dx.W .  y  .
The weight of the element =  g.W .dx  y 
 The weight of the element = viscous shear force

 g.  y dx.W   dx .W

du
dy
du  g
  .  y 
dy 
 g.  y 2 
or U  y   c1
  2 
using boundary conditions
at y = 0, u = 0  c1  0
 g.  y2 
U   y  
  2 

The mean velocity in the film at a distance x from the origin is


1
U m   udy
 0

1 g y2  


  0  
    y  dy 
2  
 g. 2
Um 
3
Considering the energy balance, i.e. the rate of heat transfer through conduction in film is equal
to heat transfer by convection
dQ  K .
dx.W
TS  Tw   h.dx.W TS  Tw 

K
 hx 

The mass flow rate of steam through a section at a distance x is given by mx    W U m .
g 2  2 g 3
Mass flow rate =  . 
3 3
The amount of condensate leaving the element at x  x is
m x  dx  m x 
d
m x x
dx
Increase in mass flow rate = m 
d
m x .x
dx
 d   2 g 3 
 .x
dx  3 


2g d 3
.
3 dx
 
 .x

 2 g d  3  d
 . .dx
3 d dx
 2 g 2
m  .d

Under steady state condition

Heat lost by m kgs of vapor = Heat conducted thro film

  2 g 2  K .x.Ts  Tw 
 ..d  h fg 
   

K
 3 d 
1
Ts  Tw .dx Integrating
.
 g h fg
2

4 K
 Ts  Tw x  c2
4  gh fg
2

The boundary conditions are at x =0,  =0

 c2  0

1/ 4
 4  kxT 
   
  2 g.h fg 
 
we get
1/ 4
 k 3  2 g .h fg
k 
hx    
  4xT 
 
The average heat transfer coefficient over the length L is
L
1 4
havg    hx dx  havg  hx
L 3
0
1/ 4
4  k  g .h fg 
3 2

havg   
3  4  LTs  Tw  
 1/ 4
 k 3  2 g.h fg 
havg  0.943 
  LTs  Tw 
 
To account for the various assumptions made in the above theory based on experimental
results the value of h during laminar film condensation is proposed by Machine Adams as

1/ 4
 k 3  2 g .h fg 
havg  1.13 
  LTs  Tw  
 

The properties in the above equation are to be evaluated at mean film temperature i.e. at
T  Ts
Tf  w
2
Q havg .L.wTs  Tw 
The total mass of condensate formed m  
h fg h fg
If the surface is inclined, the value of g is replaced by g sin  where  is the angle made by the
surface with horizontal.
0.25
 k 3  2 g sin  
hinclined  0.943 
  LTw  Tw  
h
 inclined  sin  0.25 This is applicable for 60    90 0
hvertical

6.3.3. Turbulent film condensation:

At relatively low Reynolds number the
assumption that the condensate flow is laminar is
valid. However the examination of surface structure
of the flow indicates considerable waviness. This
waviness is accounted for turbulence resulting in 40
to 50% of higher heat transfer coefficient than
theoretical values. For a long vertical surface the
liquid flow is laminar manner at the upper end of the
surface.It becomes undulating in the middle and
finally converts into a turbulent state as shown in fig.
During turbulence the eddy diffusion plays a vital role
and enhances the rate of heat transfer.

vDh 4A
The critical Reynolds number Re  where Dh is the hydraulic mean diameter  .The
 p
critical Reynolds number is considered as 1800 and when Re>1800 the flow is turbulent.
The average heat transfer coefficient for turbulent condition is proposed by Kirkbide as
  3 2 1 / 3
0.4 k  g
hturbulent  0.077 Re  
  2 

6.3.4. Condensation on cylindrical surface:

Laminar film condensation on the outside of a single horizontal tube was first examined
by Nusselt. He assumed that the formation of film on the tube when it is in horizontal position is
such that it extends on the surface to a height of 2.5 D. Thus replacing the L in the vertical plate
expression by the film formation height 2.5 D he proposed the expression as
1/ 4
  2 g .h fg k 3 
hhorizontal  0.725 
 D Ts  Tw  
 
Similarly for a vertical tube the expression obtained for vertical flat surface can be used.
Assuming that the diameter of the tube is much larger than film thickness the curvature effects
can be neglected.
1/ 4
 k 3  2 g.h fg 
hvertical  0.943 
  LTs  Tw 
 
If we compare the performance of vertical tube versus horizontal tube in stagnant vapor
condensation from the above two equations it will be seen that for same temperature difference
and fluid conditions the same average heat transfer coefficient exists if
0.943 0.725

L1 / 4 D1 / 4
 L  2.87 D
Thus for tubes having L>2.87 D the heat transfer coefficient will be high or condensation rate
will be better, if they are kept in horizontal position than in vertical position. For most of the
condenser tubes the L/D ratio is greater than 50 and hence they give better performance when
laid horizontally than in vertical position.
0.25
hhorizontal 0.725  L 
  
hvertical 0.943  D 

6.3.5. Condensation on bank of tubes:

In a bank of horizontal tubes it is
possible for the condensate to run off the
bottom of the upper tube onto the next
tube below as shown in fig. Kakob has
considered this and concluded that the
mean heat transfer coefficient for a
vertical column of horizontal tubes with
the same temperature difference is given
by equation with D replaced by nD. Thus
 1/ 4
 k 3  2 g .h fg 
h  0.725 
  nDTs  Tw 
 
6.4. Drop wise condensation:
Drop wise condensation occurs on non – wettable surfaces. The interfacial shear between
condensate and the surface may be reduced due to contamination, removal of wettable oxide
films or by electroplating the surface. The condensate appears in the form of droplets which
grow and coalesce with adjacent droplets. They roll down due to the action of gravity or other
aerodynamic drag force. New droplet appears on the exposed clean surface. Eucken has assumed
that droplet formation is fundamentally a heterogeneous nucleation process.
The immersible submicroscopic droplets are randomly nucleated at the active sites on the
condenser surface. These active sites are wetted pits and grooves which are continuously being
exposed by numerous drop coalescence and by large droplets falling from surface. The drops
grew by direct condensation. Condensation on the larger droplets is less than for the smaller
droplets because of the resistance to heat conduction through the drop. The larger drops thus
mainly grew by coalescence and coalescence between smaller drops in negligible. Small drops
grew mainly by condensation and are responsible for major fraction of heat transferred. It is
reported by many scientists that the drop wise condensation is gradually replaced by a
contribution of drop and film condensation and finally by film condensation. This is likely due to
the reduction in surface tension of water at higher temperatures. Further the heat transfer
coefficients in drop wise condensation increase with increase in vapor velocity up to 2 m/s and
then start to decrease. This is due to increased coalescence between droplets blanking the surface
with a film of condensate.
We can conclude that the condensing heat transfer coefficient depends on a) condensing
temperature b) film temperature difference c) mass flow rate d) pressure of contaminates e) flow
geometry and the surface roughness of the tubes.

6.5. Effect of non – condensable gases:

The presence of even a small quantity of non – condensable gas in the condensing vapor
has a profound influence on the resistance to heat transfer in the region of the liquid vapor
interface. The non-condensable gas is carried with the vapor towards i.e. interface where it
accumulates. The partial pressure of gas at the interface increases producing a driving force for
gas diffusion away from the surface. Since the total pressure should remain constant the partial
pressure of vapor becomes lower and provides a driving force towards interface. This causes
reduction in heat transfer rate by more than 50 percent. The reduction is more remarkable as the
total pressure reduces. Therefore in the design of condensers a vent for non- condensable gases
must be provided.