Midbrain

- is the narrow part of the brain that connects the forebrain to the hindbrain
Cerebral Aqueduct
is the narrow part of the brain that connects the forebrain to the hindbrain
Forebrain
- comprises the diencephalon (between brain), which is the central part of the
forebrain, and the cerebrum
-
Diencephalon
- is almost completely hidden from the surface of the brain
- consists of a dorsal thalamus and a ventral hypothalamus
Thalamus
is a large, egg-shaped mass of gray matter that lies on either side of the
third ventricle
The anterior end of the thalamus forms the posterior boundary of the interventricular
foramen

Cerebrum
- the largest part of the brain
- consists of two cerebral hemispheres, which are connected by a mass of white
matter called the corpus callosum
- The hemispheres are separated by a deep cleft, the longitudinal fissure, into
which projects the falx cerebri
Cortex
- surface layer of each hemisphere
- Composed of a gray matter
Gyri
- Cerebral cortex folds
Basal Nuclei of Ganglia
- Central core of white matter containing several large masses of
gray matter
- surface layer of each hemisphere
Corona Radiata
- Fan-shaped collection of nerve fibers
- Converges on the basal nuclei and passes between them as the
internal capsule.
Caudate nucleus
- The tailed nucleus situated on the medial side of the internal
capsule
Lateral ventricle
- each cerebral hemisphere is a cavity
The lateral ventricles communicate with the third ventricle through the interventricular
foramina.

Major Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System

Cranial nerves
- 12 pairs of nerves leave the brain and pass through foramina in the skull

Spinal Nerves
 - 31 pairs of nerves leave the spinal cord and pass through intervertebral foramina
in the vertebral column
Regions of the Spinal Cord
8 cervical; 12 thoracic; 5 lumbar; 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal
Each spinal nerve is connected to the spinal cord by two roots: the anterior root and
the posterior root

Anterior root
- consists of bundles of nerve fibers carrying nerve impulses away from the CNS
—efferent fibers
- Those that go to skeletal muscles and cause them to contract are motor fibers.

Posterior Root
- consists of bundles of afferent fibers that carry nervous impulses to the CNS

Sensory fibers
- Sensations of touch pain, temperature and vibration

Posterior Root Ganglion

- cell bodies of these nerve fibers are situated in a swelling on the posterior root

Spinal nerve
- To form this, the spinal nerve roots pass from the spinal cord to the level of their
respective intervertebral foramina where they unite

Lower border of the lst lumbar vertebra in the adult) form a vertical leash of nerves
around the filum terminale. Together, these lower nerve roots are called the cauda
equina.

Ganglia
Divisions:
1. Sensory ganglia of spinal nerves
2. Cranial nerves and autonomic ganglia

Sensory Ganglia
- Fusiform swellings

Autonomic Ganglia
- which are often irregular in shape, are situated along the course of efferent nerve
fibers of the ANS
- found in the paravertebral sympathetic chains

Early Development of the Nervous System

Three main cell layers:

1. Entoderm - innermost layer ; gives rise to the gastrointestinal tract, the lungs,
and the liver
2. Mesoderm - gives rise to the muscle, connective tissues, and the vascular
system
 3. Ectoderm - formed of columnar epithelium, gives rise to the entire nervous
system

Neural Plate
- 3rd week of development, the ectoderm on the dorsal surface of the embryo
between the primitive know and the buccopharyngeal membrane thickens to
form this

Neural Groove
- A plate that is pear in shape and wider cranially, develops a longitudinal neural
groove

Neural Folds
- Groove now deepens so that it is bounded on either side by neural folds

Neural Tube
- Further development the neural folds fuse, converting the neural groove into a
neural tube

Neural Crest
- a strip of ectodermal cells that lie between the neural tube and the covering
ectoderm

The neural crest cells will differentiate into the cells of the:
- Posterior root ganglia
- Sensory ganglia of the cranial nerves
- Autonomic ganglia
- Cells of the suprarenal medulla
- melanocytes

Meanwhile, the proliferation of cells at the cephalic end of the neural tube causes
it to dilate and form three primary brain vesicles:
- Forebrain
- Midbrain
- Hindbrain vesicles
Aug.22, 2021

Development of CNS

1. by day 18 of fetal development the ectodermal germ layer has the shape of a
disc with a cranial and caudal end

Left Picture: Folding of the Neural Plate to a Neural Tube

Three germ layers:
1. Ectoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Endoderm
2. the central nodal cord has induced the overlying ectoderm to thicken and form the
neural plate
3. by the end of the third week the edges of the neural plate extend upward to become
neural folds

4. he depressed mid region is now the neural groove

5. each neural fold then grows toward each other to fuse at the midline converting
the neural groove into a complete and closed and hollow neural tube
6. at the same time as the neural folds fuse a population of cells separated from the
tips of the neural folds to become a mass of his ankle cells called the neural
crest

7. the neural crest cells migrate throughout the body to form a

wide variety of cell types including Schwann cells the
meninges endocardial cushions power follicular cells and
the adrenal medulla
8. before the fusion of the neural tube is complete the cephalic
and caudal ends with the amniotic cavity through the cranial
and caudal neuropores
9. the cranial neuropore closes on day 25
 10. after closure the cranial end of the neural tube develops into three primary
vesicles the forebrain or pros and Cephalon the midbrain or mesencephalon and
the hindbrain or rhombencephalon

11. these three develop

12. later into five secondary vesicles the forebrain develops into the telencephalon
and diencephalon the midbrain develops into the mesencephalon the hindbrain
develops into Menton Cephalon and the myelin Cephalon
13. The caudal neuropore then closes on day 27

Detailed Steps on Neurulation

Neurulation is the stage of development where the neural plate forms the neural tube.
The events that occur during neurulation mark the beginning of the formation of the
central nervous system.

The first event in neurulation is the formation of a thickened area of cells, called the
neural plate.

Approximately 19 days after fertilization, the notochord induces the ectodermal cells
lying just cranial to the primitive node to differentiate into columnar neuroepithelial cells,
in a process called neural induction.

The neural plate forms at the cranial end of the embryo, and grows in a cranial to
caudal direction. The cranial end of the neural plate indicates the region of the eventual
brain, and the narrower caudal end represents the eventual region of the spinal cord.

By the end of the third week of development, the lateral edges of the neural plate
become elevated, and fold to form the neural fold.

The groove created by the folding of the neural plate is called the neural groove.
Gradually, the two neural folds approach each other, beginning around the level of the
fourth somite.
Approximately 25 days after fertilization, the folds fuse together, and the neural plate
transforms into the neural tube, the precursor to the central nervous system.

Fusion of the neural tube usually begins in the cervical region, extending in both cranial
and caudal directions. The openings that are formed at the cranial and caudal ends of
the embryo are called cranial and caudal neuropores.

During the closure of the neural tube, cells on the lateral side of the neural plate detach
forming a new cell population, called the neural crest.

The neural crest cells migrate and displace the cells of the ectoderm to enter the
underlying mesoderm. These cells contribute to the formation of the peripheral nervous
system, including the formation of neurons and glial cells of the sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and sensory nervous systems.

Once the neural tube has completely fused, the process of neurulation is complete
PICTURE REFERENCES