MODULE-

I
Int
roduct i
on:Softwar eCri
sis,NeedforSoftwareEngineer
ing.ProfessionalSoft
wareDev el
opment,
SoftwareEngineer i
ngEt hi
cs.CaseStudies.
Softwar eProcesses:Model s:Waterfal
lModel(Sec2.1.
1),I
ncrement alModel(Sec2. 1.2)andSpir
al
Model (Sec2.1.3).Processactiv
iti
es.
Requirement s Engi neeri
ng: Requirements Engineer
ing Processes ( Chap 4) . Requirements
Eli
cit
ationand Anal y si
s( Sec4.5).Functi
onaland non-functi
onalr equirements( Sec4. 1)
.The
soft
war eRequi r
ement sDocument( Sec4.2).Requir
ementsSpecificati
on( Sec4.3).Requirements
val
idati
on( Sec4.6).RequirementsManagement( Sec4.
7).

I
ntr
oducti
on
Sof
twareCri
sis
Themostv isibl
esy mpt omsoft hesof twar ecrisi sar e
 Latedel i
v ery,ov erbudget
 Pr oductdoesnotmeetspeci fiedr equi rement s
Inadequat edocument ation
Softwar edel iverywhi chsomeki ndofer r
or soraf terthecompl et
ionoft heschedul eddat e
causeshugef manci allossesandi sal soext r
emel yinconv eni entonone' spar tashi story
tell
sus.Si t
uat ionsliket heY2Kpr obl em whi chwasdi sast r
ousi nmostoft hecount r
iesi s
consider edt obeoneoft hecat ast rophicf ai l
ur esi ntermsofeconomi c,admi nistrativeand
polit
icalf unct ioningmaybet ermedasaSof twar eCr i
sis.ThusaSof twar ecr isi
smaybe
explainedasami smat chinsof twar edel iver ablesandt heexpect ati
onsauserhav efr om t he
comput ersy stem int ermsofi tscapaci tyt owor k.Dur ing20t hcent uryitwasanemer gi
ng
issuesi ncecomput i
ngf l
our ishedandsof twar ewasi ncapabl et ocat chup.Duet ot he
softwar ecr isis,programmer shadt ost r
uggl eal way sinor dert okeeppace.
The2003Nor t
heastbl ackoutwasoneoft hemosti mpor tantpowersy stem f ai
lur esi n
theNor thAmer icanhi story .Duet ot hisbl ackout ,largenumberofpowerpl ant sf ail
ed
andappr oximat elyfi
ftymi llioncust omer sf acedpowerl osswhi chresul tedi nahuge
fmanci al t
hreatt ocurrency .Af t
er war ds, itwasunder stoodt hatasof twar ebugwas
ther easonbehi ndt hisunpr ecedent edf ailur
ei nthepowermoni t
oring/ notingal ong
wi ththemanagementsy stem.
Y2Kpr obl em basi call
yref erredt ot hehugeamountofdr awbacki nt hepr ocessi ngof
dat aaf terthey ear2000.Dur i
ng1990s, realizati
onoft heexper tsbegant ounder stand
thisimpor tantshor tcomi ngi ncomput erappl i
cationandt heninor dert ohandl esuch
apr obl em mi l
lionswer espent .
They ear1996phy si
call
ywi t
nessedtheendofAr ian- 5spacer ocketwhi chwasmade
withacostof$7000mi l
li
onwi t
hinaper i
odoft eny earsinlesst hanami nuteafterthe
rocketlaunch.Itwasl at
erobservedthattherewasasof twar ebugi nther ocket
guidancesy stem.
Oneoft hebiggestbanksofUSi n1996, didwrongcal culati
onoft hecreditedaccount s
ofappr oxi
mat el
y800cust omerst ot
heamountof$9241acs.I twasl aterdetected
thattheproblem tookplaceduet oapr ogrammi ngbugi nthebanki ngsof t
war e.
Att hetimeoftheGul fWarin1991, theU.S.A.Pat ri
otmi ssilesactedasadef ence
againstScudmi ssi
lesusedbyI r
aq.Butt hePatriotfai
ledtot argethittheScudsev eral
ti
mes.Thus, t
went yei
ghtUSsol di
erswer eputt osleepinDhahr an,Saudi Arabia.An
inquiry
 i
ntotheinci
dentmadecleart
hecauseofthefai
l
edtargetast
hesmal
lbugagai
nand
f
inal
l
yr esul
tedi
nthewrongcalcul
ati
onofthemissi
l
epath.

Needf orSoftwareEngineer i
ng
Theneedofsof twareengineeri
ngar i
sesbecauseofhi gherrateofchangei nuserr equir
ements
andenvironmentonwhi cht hesoftwareisworking.
Largesof t
ware-Itiseasiertobuil
dawal lthant oahouseorbui l
di ng,li
kewise,asthesizeof
softwarebecomel argeengineeri
nghast osteptogiveitascient ifi
cprocess.
Scalabil
it
y-Ifthesoftwareprocesseswerenotbasedonsci ent
ificandengi neeringconcepts,
i
twoul dbeeasiertor e-
creat
enewsof twaret hant
oscaleanexi stingone.
Cost -Ashardwareindustryhasshowni t
sski l
lsandhugemanuf act uri
nghasl owerdownt he
pri
ceofcomput erandel ectr
onichardware.Butthecostofsof twar eremainshi ghifpr
oper
processisnotadapt ed.

Dynami cNatur
e-Thealwaysgrowingandadaptingnat
ureofsof
twarehugelydependsuponthe
envi
ronmentinwhichuserworks.I
fthenatur
eofsoftwar
eisalwayschanging,new
enhancementsneedtobedonei ntheexi
sti
ngone.Thisi
swheresoftwareengineer
ingpl
ays
agoodr ol
e.
Qualit
yManagement -Bet
terpr
ocessofsoftwaredevel
opmentprovi
desbetterandquali
ty
sof
twareproduct
.

Pr
ofessi
onalSof
twar
eDevel
opment
Whati
ssoftwar e?
 Sof t
war eisasetofapr ogram associ atedwi thdocument ati
onandconf i
gurati
ondat at hatis
neededt omaket hesepr ogramsoper atecor rectly.
 Asof twar esy st em usual l
yconsi sts:ofanumberofsepar atepr ograms,conf igurationfil
es,
whichar eused t o setup t hesepr ograms,sy stem document ation,whi chdescr ibesthe
str
uctur eoft hesy stem,anduserdocument ation,whi chexpl ainshowt ouset hesy stem and
websi tesoruser st odownl oadr ecentpr oducti nformat ion.
 Softwar eproduct smaybe
o Gener i
c-dev elopedt obesol dtoar angeofdi fferentcust omer s
o Bespoke( cust om)dev elopedf orasi nglecust omeraccor di
ngt ot hei
rspecifi
cat ion
Whati
ssoftwar eengi neer ing?
 Sof twar eengi neer ingi sanengi neeringdi sciplinewhi chi sconcer nedwi thallaspect sof
softwar epr oduct ion.
 Engi neer ingdi scipli
ne
 Engi neer smaket hingswor k.Theyappl yt heories,met hodsandt oolswher et heseare
appr opriate,butt heyuset hem sel ectivelyandal wayst ryt odi scoversol utionsto
pr oblemsev enwhent herear enoappl icablet heoriesandmet hods.
 Engi neer salsor ecogni sethatt heymustwor ktoor ganisat i
onal andf i
nancial
const raints,sot heylookf orsol utionswi thi
nt heseconst rai
nts.
 Al laspect sofsof twar epr oduct i
on
 Sof
twareengineer
ingi snotjustconcernedwi
tht hetechni
calprocessesofsof
tware
dev
elopmentbutalsowi t
hact i
vi
ti
essuchassoft
war eproj
ectmanagementandwiththe
dev
elopmentoftools,
met hodsandtheor
iest
osupportsoft
warepr
oduction.
Whatisthedi
ffer
encebetweensoftwareengineeri
ngandcomput erscience?
Computersci
enceisconcer
nedwiththeoryandfundamentals;
soft
wareengi neer
ingisconcer
ned
wit
hthepract
ical
i
tiesofdevel
opi
nganddel i
veri
ngusefulsof
tware.
Computersci
encetheori
esarecur
rentl
yinsuf
fici
enttoactasacompleteunder pi
nningforsof
twar
e
engi
neeri
ng
Whatisthedi
ffer
encebetweensoftwareengineeri
ngandsy st
em engineeri
ng?
 Sy stem engi neeri
ngisconcernedwi thallaspect
sofcomput er-basedsy stems
developmenti ncludi
nghardwar e,soft
war eandprocessengi neer i
ng.
 Sy stem engi neersarei
nvol
vedi nsy st
em specifi
cat
ion,architecturaldesign,i
ntegrat
ionand
deployment .
 Sof twareengi neeri
ngispartoft hi
spr ocessconcer
nedwi thdev el
opingthesof tware
inf
rastructure,contr
ol,
appli
cati
onsanddat abasesinthesy stem.
Whatisasof twar eprocess?
Asoft
war eprocessi sthesetofactivi
tiesandassoci at
edresult
st hatpr oduceasof twarepr .4
oduct
Gener
icactivi
tiesinallsoft
wareprocessesar e:
Speci
fi
cat
ion-whatt
hesy
stem shoul
ddoandi
tsdev
elopmentconst
rai
nts.
Dev
elopment-producti
onoft
hesoft
waresy
stem.
Val
i
dation-checki
ngthatt
hesof
twarei
swhatthecust
omerwant
s.
Evol
uti
on-changingt
hesoft
war
einresponset
ochangi
ngdemands.
Whatisasoftwareprocessmodel?
Asimpli
fi
edrepresent
ati
onofasoftwar
epr
ocess,pr
esent
edf
rom aspeci
fi
cper
spect
ive4Exampl
es
ofpr
ocessperspecti
vesare

Awor kl owmodel -sequenceofact i

vities
Adat a-fl
owmodel -informat ionf low
Ar ole/actionmodel -whodoeswhat
Gener
icprocessmodel s
Thewat er
fallappr oach: separ atepr ocessphasessuchasr equir
ementsspeci fi
cation,
sof twaredesi gn, i
mpl ement ation,test i
ngandsoon.Af tereachst ageisdef i
nediti s
'
signed- off,
anddev elopmentgoesont ot hef oll
owingst age.
Iterat i
v edevelopment :
Thi sappr oachi nterleav estheact i
viti
esofspecifi
cation,
dev elopmentandv al
idation.
Component -
basedsof twareengi neering( CBSE) :
Thist echni queassumest hatpar tsof
thesy st
em al r
eadyexi st.Thesy st
em dev elopmentpr ocessf ocusesonint egrati
ng
thesepar t
sr athert handev elopingt hem f rom scratch.
Whatarethecost sofsof twar eengi neering?
 Roughl y60%ofcost saredev elopmentcost s,40%ar etestingcost s.Forcustom sof tware,
ev olutioncost sof tenexceeddev elopmentcost s.
 Cost sv arydependi ngont het ypeofsy stem bei ngdev el
opedandt herequir
ement sof
sy stem at tr
ibutessuchasper formanceandsy stem reli
abili
ty .
 Distribut i
onofcost sdependsont hedev elopmentmodel t
hati sused.
Whataret heat tr
ibutesofgoodsof tware?
 Thesof t wareshoul ddelivertherequiredfunctional
it
yandper f
ormancet ot heuserand
shouldbemai ntainabl
e, dependableandaccept abl
e.
 Mai nt
ai nabil
it
y :Softwaremustev olvetomeetchangi ngneeds;
 Dependabi l
ity
:Sof twaremustbet r
ustworthy;(i
thasar angeofcharacterist
ic,
incl
udi
ng
rel
iabil
ity,secur i
tyandsaf ety).
 Ef fi
ciency :Softwar eshoul dnotmakewast efuluseofsy st
em resources;
 Accept abili
ty/
Usabi li
ty:
Sof twaremustaccept edbytheusersforwhi chitwasdesigned.Thi
s
meansi tmustbeunder standable,usableandcompat i
blewit
hot hersystems.
Whataret hekeychal lengesfacingsof tware
engineering
Het
erogenei
ty:Devel
opingtechni
quesforbui
l
dingsoftwaret
hatcancopewi
th
heter
ogeneousplatfor
msandexecutionenvir
onments;
Del
i
very:Dev
elopingtechni
questhatl
eadtofasterdel
i
v er
yofsof
tware;
Trust
:Devel
opi
ngt
echni
quest
hatdemonst
rat
ethatsof
twar
ecanbe
t
rust
edbyit
susers.
 Sof
twar
eengi
neer
ingdi
ver
sit
y
 Therear
emanydi ff
erentt
ypesofsof
twar
esyst
em andt
her
eisnouni
ver
sal
setof
soft
waretechni
questhati
sappli
cabl
etoal
loft
hese.
 Thesoft
wareengineeri
ngmethodsandtool
suseddependonthet
ypeofappl
i
cat
ionbei
ng
devel
oped,
therequir
ementsofthecust
omerandthebackgr
oundoft
hedevel
opment
team.
Appl
icati
ont ypes
 St and- aloneappl ications
Thesear eapplicat i
onsy stemst hatrunonal ocal comput er
, suchasaPC.Theyi ncludeall
necessar yfunct i
onal it
yanddonotneedt obeconnect edtoanet wor k.
 I nteract i
v etr
ansact i
on- basedappl i
cati
ons
Appl icationsthatexecut eonar emotecomput erandar eaccessedbyuser sfrom t hei
rown
PCsort erminals.Thesei ncl
udewebappl icationssuchase- commer ceappl i
cations.
 Embeddedcont rolsy stems
Thesear esoftwar econt rolsystemst hatcont rolandmanagehar dwar edev i
ces.Numer ical
ly
,
ther earepr obabl ymor eembeddedsy stemst hananyot hert ypeofsy stem.
 Bat chpr ocessingsy stems
 Thesear ebusinesssy stemst hataredesignedt opr ocessdat ainlargebat ches.They
processl argenumber sofi ndividuali
nputst ocr eatecorrespondingout puts.
 Ent ertainmentsy stems
Thesear esystemst hatar eprimaril
yforper sonal useandwhi charei ntendedt oent ert
ainthe
user .
 Sy st emsf ormodel ingandsi mul ati
on
Thesear esystemst hatar edevelopedbysci entist
sandengi neerstomodel phy sical
processesorsi tuations, whichi ncl
udemany , separate,i
nteracti
ngobj ects.
 Dat
acol
lect
ionsy
stems
Thesearesyst
emst hatcoll
ectdatafr
om t
hei
renv
ironmentusi
ngasetofsensor
sandsend
thatdat
atoothersy
stemsf orprocessi
ng.
 Systemsofsystems
Thesearesyst
emst hatarecomposedofanumberofothersoft
war
e
systems.

Sof
twar
eengi
neer
ingf
undament
als
Somefundamental
pr i
ncipl
esappl yt
oallty
pesofsoft
war esyst
em,i
rrespecti
veoft
he
dev
elopmentt
echniquesused:
Systemsshoul
dbedev elopedusingamanagedandunder st
ooddev el
opmentprocess.
Ofcour
se,di
fferentprocessesareusedf
ordif
ferentty
pesofsoftware.
Dependabil
i
tyandper
for
mancearei
mportantf
orallt
ypesofsystem.
Underst
andingandmanagi
ngt
hesoftwar
especif
icat
ionandrequir
ement
s(whatt
he
softwareshoul
ddo)arei
mpor
tant
.
Whereappr
opri
ate,
youshoul
dreusesof
twar
ethathasal
readybeendev
elopedr
ather
thanwri
tenewsoftwar
e.
Sof
twareengi neeringandt heweb
 TheWebi snowapl atf
ormf orrunningappl i
cat i
onandor ganizati
onsar eincreasingly
developingweb- basedsy stemsr athert hanl ocalsystems.
 Webser vi
ces( discussedi nChapt er19)al lowappl icationf uncti
onalitytobeaccessedov er
theweb.
 Cl oudcomput i
ngi sanappr oacht ot hepr ovisionofcomput erservi
ceswher eappl i
cationsrun
remot el
yont he` cl
oud'.
 User sdonotbuysof t
warebuypayaccor dingt ouse.
Websof t
war eengi neering
 Sof twar ereusei st hedomi nantappr oachf orconst ructi
ngweb- basedsy stems.
Whenbui l
dingt hesesy st
ems, y
out hi nkabouthowy oucanassembl ethem fr
om pr e-
existi
ng
softwarecomponent sandsy st
ems.
 Web- basedsy stemsshoul dbedev elopedanddel iveredi ncremental l
y.
Iti
snowgener allyrecognizedthatiti simpr acticalt
ospeci fyallt
her equir
ement sforsuch
systemsi nadv ance.
 Useri nterfacesar econst r
ainedbyt hecapabi li
ti
esofwebbr owser s.
Technol ogiessuchasAJAXal lowr i
chinterf
acest obecr eatedwi thi
nawebbr owserbutar e
stil
ldif
ficulttouse.Webf or mswi thlocalscri
pt i
ngar emor ecommonl yused.
Web-basedsof twar eengi neeri
ng
Web- basedsy stemsar ecompl exdist ri
butedsyst emsbutt hefundament alprinci
plesofsof t
ware
engineer i
ngdi scussedpr ev i
ousl yar easappl icablet othem ast heyar etoanyot hertypesof
system.
Thef undament alideasofsof t
war eengi neeri
ng, discussedi nthepr evi
oussect i
on,applytoweb
-basedsof twar eint hesamewayt hattheyappl yt oothertypesofsof twaresy stem.
Sof
twareEngi neer i
ngEt hi
cs
 Sof twareengi neer i
nginvolveswi derresponsibili
tiesthansi mplytheappl icati
onoft echni
cal
skill
s.
 Sof twareengi neer smustbehav ei nanhonestandet hi
call
yr esponsiblewayi ftheyaretobe
respectedaspr ofessionals.
 Et hicalbehav iourismor ethansi mpl yupholdingt helawbuti nv ol
vesf oll
owi ngasetof
princi
plest hatar emor al
lycor r
ect .
 Conf i
dent i
alit
y
Engineer sshoul dnor mall
yr espectt heconf i
dent iali
tyoftheirempl oyersorcl i
entsir
respecti
ve
ofwhet herornotaf ormal confident i
ali
tyagreementhasbeensi gned.

 Compet ence
Engineersshoul
dnotmisr
epresentthei
rlev
elofcompet
ence.Theyshoul
dnotknowi
ngl
y
acceptwor kwhi
chisoutwit
htheircompetence.
 Int
ellectualpropertyri
ghts
Engineersshoul dbeawar eoflocall
awsgoverni
ngtheuseofi nt
ell
ect
ualpropertysuchas
patents,copy ri
ght,etc.Theyshoul
dbecarefultoensuret hattheint
ellect
ualpropert
yof
empl oyersandcl i
entsisprot
ect
ed.
Comput ermisuse
 Sof t
wareengineer
sshoul
dnotusethei
rtechni
calskil
l
stomi suseotherpeopl
e'
s
 comput ers.Comput ermi suserangesfrom rel
ativel
yt r
ivi
al(gamepl ayi
ngonan
empl oyer '
smachi ne,say )toextremelyserious(disseminationofv i
ruses).
ACM/ I
EEECodeofEt hics
 Thepr of essional societi
esi ntheUShav ecooperatedtopr oduceacodeof
ethicalpractice.
 Member soft heseor gani sati
onssignupt othecodeofpr act i
cewhent heyjoin.
 TheCodecont ai
nsei ghtPr i
ncipl
esrelatedtot hebehav i
ourofanddeci si
ons
madebypr of essionalsof t
wareengi neers,i
ncludingpr act i
ti
oner
s,educat ors,
manager s,super v i
sorsandpol icymaker s,aswel last r
aineesandst udentsof
thepr ofession.
Et
hical
dil
emmas
Di
sagr eementi npr inciplewi t
ht hepol i
ciesofseniormanagement .
Yourempl oyeract sinanunet hical wayandr el
easesasaf ety-cri
ti
cal syst
em without
f
mi shingthet est i
ngoft hesy stem.
Part
icipationinthedev elopmentofmi li
taryweaponssy stemsor
nucl
earsy
stems.
Casest
udi
es
Aper
sonali
nsul
inpump
Anembeddedsy
stem i
naninsul
inpumpusedbydiabeti
cstomai
ntai
nbl
ood
gl
ucosecont
rol
.4Amentalheal
thcasepat
ientmanagementsy
stem
Asystem usedtomaintai
nrecordsofpeopl
ereceiv
ingcareformental
heal
thpr
obl
ems.4Awi l
dernessweatherstati
on
Adatacoll
ecti
onsystem t
hatcollect
sdataaboutweathercondi
ti
onsin
r
emot
ear
eas.
I
nsul
inpumpcont
rolsy
stem
Coll
ectsdat
afrom abloodsugarsensorandcalcul
atestheamountofi
nsul
in
r
equir
edtobeinject
ed.4Calcul
ati
onbasedont herateofchangeofbl
oodsugar
l
evel
s.
Sendssignalstoami cro-pumptodel
iverthecorr
ectdoseofinsuli
n.
Safet
y-cr
it
icalsyst
em asl owbloodsugarscanleadtobrainmalfunct
ioni
ng,comaanddeath;
hi
gh-bl
oodsugarl evelshavel
ong-
term consequencessuchasey eandkidneydamage.
Essentialhigh- l
evelr equirement s
 Thesy stem shal lbeav ailablet odel i
verinsulinwhenr equired.
 Thesy stem shal lper formr eli
ablyanddel iverthecor rectamountofi nsuli
nt ocount eractt he
currentl evelofbl oodsugar .
 Thesy stem mustt herefor ebedesi gnedandi mpl ement edt oensurethatthesy stem alway s
meet st heser equi rement s.
Apatienti nformat i
onsy st em f orment alhealthcar e
 Apat ienti nformat ionsy stem t osuppor tment alheal thcar eisamedi calinformationsy stem
thatmai ntainsi nfor mat ionaboutpat ientssuf f
eringf rom ment alhealt
hpr obl
emsandt he
treatment st hattheyhav er eceived.
 Mostment alhealthpat ient sdonotr equi rededi catedhospi talt
reatmentbutneedt oat tend
specialistcl i
nicsr egul arl
ywher et heycanmeetadoct orwhohasdet ail
edknowl edgeoft heir
problems.
 Tomakei teasi erforpat ientst oattend, thesecl i
nicsar enotjustruninhospi tal
s.Theymay
alsobehel dinlocal medi cal pract
icesorcommuni tycent r
es.
 TheMHC- PMS( Ment al Heal thCar e-PatientManagementSy stem)isaninfor mati
onsy stem
thatisi ntendedf orusei ncl i
nics.
 I tmakesuseofacent ralizeddat abaseofpat ientinformat i
onbuthasal sobeendesi gnedt o
runonaPC, sot hati tmaybeaccessedandusedf rom sit
est hatdonothav esecur enet wor k
connect i
vity.
 Whent hel ocalsy stemshav esecur enet workaccess,t heyusepat i
enti nformat i
oni nt he
databasebutt heycandownl oadandusel ocalcopi esofpat i
entrecor dswhent heyar e
disconnect ed.

MHC-
PMSgoals
 Togenerat
emanagementi nfor
mat
ionthatal
lowshealt
hservi
cemanager
stoassess
per
formanceagai
nstlocal
andgovernmenttarget
s.
 Toprovi
demedicalst
affwithti
mel
yinfor
mationtosuppor
tthetr
eat
mentofpat
ients.
MHC-
PMSkeyf eature
 Indi
vi
dual caremanagement
• Clinici
anscancreaterecordsforpat i
ents,edi
ttheinf
ormat
ioninthesystem,v
iew
pat i
enthist
ory
,etc.Thesystem support
sdatasummar i
essothatdoct
orscanqui
ckl
y
learnaboutthekeyprobl
emsandt r
eatmentsthathav
ebeenpr
escri
bed.

 Pat ientmoni t
oring
Thesy stem moni torsther ecor dsofpat i
entsthatarei nvol
v edi nt r
eatmentandi ssues
war ningsifpossi bleprobl emsar edet ect
ed.
 Admi nistr
ativer epor t
ing
Thesy stem gener atesmont hlymanagementr eportsshowi ngt henumberofpat ientstreat
ed
ateachcl inic,thenumberofpat i
entswhohav eent eredandl ef tthecaresystem,numberof
patientssect i
oned, thedr ugspr escribedandt heircosts,etc.
 Pr i
vacy
Itisessent ialthatpat ienti nformat i
oni sconfidenti
alandi snev erdisclosedtoany oneapar t
from aut horisedmedi cal st affandt hepatientthemsel ves.
 Saf ety
o Somement alil
lnessescausepat i
entst obecomesui cidaloradangert oot herpeople.
Wher ev erpossi ble,t hesy stem shouldwar nmedi calst affaboutpot enti
all
ysui ci
dalor
danger ouspat i
ent s.
o Thesy stem mustbeav ailablewhenneededot herwisesaf etymaybecompr omised
andi tmaybei mpossi blet oprescri
bet hecorrectmedi cat i
ont opati
ents.
Wi
lder
nessweat herstat
ion
 Thegov ernmentofacount r
ywi thl
argeareasofwil
dernessdeci
destodepl
oyseveral
hundredweat herstati
onsi
nr emoteareas.
 Weat herstat
ionscoll
ectdataf r
om asetofinstr
umentsthatmeasur
etemperat
ureand
pressure,sunshi
ne,rai
nfal
l,
wi ndspeedandwi nddi
rect
ion.
Theweat herstati
onincludesanumberofi nst
rumentsthatmeasur eweatherparameters
suchast hewindspeedanddi rect
ion,t
hegroundandai rtemperatur
es,thebarometri
c
pressur
eandt herainfallov
era24- hourperi
od.Eachoftheseinstrumentsiscontr
oll
ed
byasof t
war esyst
em t hattakesparameterreadi
ngsperiodi
cal
lyandmanagest he
datacoll
ectedfrom theinstruments.
Theweat
herstation'
senvironment
Weat
heri
nfor
mat
ionsy
stem
 Theweat herstationsy st
em
 Thi sisresponsi bleforcollecti
ngweat herdat a,carr
yingoutsomeinit
ial
dataprocessi
ngand
tr
ansmi t
tingi ttothedat amanagementsy stem.
 Thedat amanagementandar chiv
ingsy st
em
 Thi ssystem col lectsthedat afrom allofthewi l
dernessweatherst
ati
ons,carr
iesoutdata
processingandanal ysisandar chivesthedat a.
 Thest ationmai ntenancesy stem
 Thi ssystem cancommuni catebysat ell
it
ewi thallwil
der
nessweatherstat
ionstomonitorthe
healt
hoft hesesy stemsandpr ovidereportsofpr obl
ems.
Addi
ti
onalsof t
war ef unctionali
ty
Monit
ort
heinstr
ument
s,powerandcommuni
cat
ionhar
dwar
eandr
epor
tfaul
tst
othe
managementsyst
em.

Managet hesy stem power ,

ensuringt hatbat t
eri
esar echargedwhenev ertheenv i
ronment al
condi t
ionsper mitbutal sothatgener atorsareshutdowni npotentiall
ydamagi ngweat her
condi t
ions, suchashi ghwi nd.
Suppor tdy nami creconfigurati
onwher epar t
soft hesoftwarearereplacedwi t
hnewv er si
ons
andwher ebackupi nstrumentsar eswi tchedintothesy st
em intheev entofsy stem fail
ure.
Sof
twarePr ocesses:
Model
s
 Thewat erfallmodel
Plan-drivenmodel .Separ ateanddi stinctphasesofspeci fi
cati
onanddev el
opment .
 I ncrement aldevelopment
Speci f
icat ion,developmentandv alidationareinter
leaved.Maybepl an-driv
enoragile.
 Reuse- or ientedsof twareengineer i
ng
Thesy stem i sassembl edf rom existi
ngcomponent s.Maybepl an-dr i
venoragi l
e.
Inpractice, mostl argesy stemsar edev elopedusi ngapr ocessthatincorporateselement sfrom
al
loft
hesemodel s.

Thewaterfal lmodel
 Requirement sanal y
sisanddef init
ion
Thesy st em'sser v i
ces,constr
aints,andgoal sar eestabli
shedbyconsultati
onwi thsy stem
users.Theyar ethendef i
nedindet ailandser veasasy st
em speci
fi
cati
on.
 System andsof twar edesign
Thesy st emsdesi gnpr ocessal l
ocatest her equir
ement st oeit
herhar dwar eorsof tware
syst
emsbyest abli
shinganov eral
lsy stem archit
ecture.Soft
waredesigni nvolvesidentif
ying
anddescr i
bingthef undament alsoftwar esystem abstracti
onsandthei
rr el
ationships.
 Implement at i
onanduni ttest
ing
Duri
ngt hisst age, t
hesof t
waredesi gni sreal
izedasasetofpr ogr
amsorpr ogram uni t
s.Unit
test
ingi nv olvesv eri
fyi
ngthateachuni tmeet sit
sspeci fi
cati
on.
  Int
egr ationandsy st em testing
Thei ndiv i
dualprogram uni tsorpr ogramsar eintegr
atedandt est
edasacompl etesystem to
ensur et hatthesof twarer equirementshav ebeenmet .Aftertesti
ng,thesoft
war esy st
em is
deli
ver edt othecust omer .
 Oper ationandmai ntenance
Thesy stem i si
nst all
edandputi ntopr act
icaluse.Mai ntenanceinvolvescorrecti
nger r
ors
whichwer enotdiscov er
edi near l
ierstagesoft heli
fecycle,improvi
ngt heimplement at
ionof
system uni tsandenhanci ngt hesystem'sservicesasnewr equi r
ementsar edi
scov er
ed.

Wat
erf
allmodelpr oblems
 Infl
exiblepar ti
ti
oni
ngoft heprojectintodist
inctstagesmakesitdi
ffi
cul
ttorespondto
changi ngcust omerrequirements.
 Therefore, thi
smodel i
sonlyappr opri
atewhent herequi
rementsarewell
-under
stoodand
changeswi llbefai
rlyli
mitedduringthedesignpr ocess.
 Fewbusi nesssy st
emshav establerequir
ement s.
 Thewat erfallmodelismost l
yusedf orlar
gesy stemsengineer
ingproj
ect
swher easystem i
s
developedatsev eralsi
tes.
 Inthosecircumstances,
thepl
an-
dri
vennat
ureoft
hewat
erf
all
model
hel
ps
coordinat
et hework.
I
ncr
ement
aldev
elopment

 Increment al sof t
war edev el
opment ,whi chisaf undament alpartofagi leappr oaches, i
sbet t
er
thanawat erfallappr oachf ormostbusi ness, e-commer ce,andper sonalsy stems.
 Increment al dev el
opmentr efl
ectsthewayt hatwesol vepr oblems.
 Wer arelywor koutacompl eteprobl em solut i
oni nadv ancebutmov etowar dasol uti
oni na
seriesofst eps,backt r
ackingwhenwer ealizet hatwehav emadeami stake.Bydev elopi
ng
thesof twar ei ncrement all
y,itischeaperandeasi ertomakechangesi nthesof twareasi tis
beingdev eloped.
 Eachi ncrementorv ersionoft hesyst em incor poratessomeoft hef unctionalit
yt hati
s
neededbyt hecust omer .
 Gener all
y,t heear l
yi ncr ementsoft hesy stem i ncludet hemosti mpor tantormostur gent l
y
requiredf unct ionalit
y .Thismeanst hatt hecust omercanev al
uatet hesy stem atar elati
vely
earlyst agei nt hedev elopmentt oseei fitdel iverswhati sr equired.I fnot ,thenonl yt he
currenti ncr ementhast o be changed and,possi bly,new f unct ionalit
ydef i
ned forl ater
i
ncr ement s.
Increment aldevel opmentbenef i
ts
 Thecostofaccommodat i
ngchangi ngcust omerr equirement sisr educed.
Theamountofanal y sisanddocument ati
ont hathast ober edonei smuchl esst hanis
requiredwi t
ht hewat erfallmodel.
 4Iti seasiert ogetcust omerf eedbackont hedev elopmentwor kthathasbeendone.
Customerscancommentondemonst r
ati
onsofthesoftwareandseehowmuchhasbeen
i
mpl emented.
 Morer api
ddel i
ver
yanddepl
oymentofuseful
softwar
etot hecustomeri
spossible.
Customersar eablet
ouseandgai
nv al
uefrom t
hesoftwareearl
iert
hanispossiblewi
tha
waterf
allprocess.
I
ncr
ement aldevel
opment
probl
ems

Thepr
ocessi
snotv
isi
ble.
Managersneedregulardeli
verabl
estomeasureprogress.I
fsystemsaredevel
oped
quickl
y,i
tisnotcost-ef
fecti
vetoproducedocumentsthatref
lectev
eryver
sionoft
he
system.
Sy
stem st
ructur
etendstodegradeasnewi ncr
ementsareadded.
Unlessti
meandmoneyi sspentonref
actori
ngtoimprov
ethesof
tware,
regul
archange
tendst ocorr
uptit
sst r
uct
ure.I
ncor
porati
ngfur
thersof
twar
echangesbecomes
increasi
nglydif
fi
cultandcostl
y.

Spi
ralModel

I
dent
if
ication
Thi
s phase starts wit
h gatheri
ng t
he busi
ness r
equir
ementsint he baseli
ne spi
ral
.Int he
subsequentspi
ralsastheproductmatur
es,i
dent
ifi
cati
onofsyst
em requir
ements,subsy
stem
requir
ementsandunitrequir
ementsareal
ldonei
nt hi
sphase.
 This phase al so includes under standing the system r equir
ements by continuous
communi cat
ionbet weent hecust omerandt hesy st
em analyst
.Att heendofthespiral
,the
producti
sdepl oyedintheidenti
fiedmar ket.
Design
TheDesi gnphasest art
swi t
ht heconcept ualdesigni
nt hebaseli
nespiralandinv
olv
esarchi
tectural
desi
gn,logicaldesi
gnofmodul es,physicalproductdesignandt hefmaldesigninthesubsequent
spi
rals.

Constr
uctorBuil
d
TheConstructphaseref
erstoproducti
onoft heactualsoftwareproductatever
yspi
ral
.Inthe
basel
i
nespiral
,whentheproducti
sjustt
houghtofandt hedesignisbei
ngdevel
opedaPOC( Pr
oof
ofConcept
)isdevel
opedinthi
sphasetogetcustomerfeedback.

Theni nthesubsequentspi ralswit

hhigherclari
tyonrequir
ement sanddesi gndetai
lsaworking
model ofthesof t
warecalledbuildisproducedwi t
hav ersionnumber .Thesebuil
dsaresent
t
ot hecustomerf orfeedback.
EvaluationandRi skAnal ysi
s
Risk Anal ysi
si ncl udes identi
fy i
ng,estimati
ng and moni t
or i
ng t he technicalfeasi
bil
it
y and
managementr i
sks, suchasschedul esli
ppageandcostov er
run.Af tertest
ingthebuil
d,attheendof
fi
rstiterat
ion,thecust omerev aluatesthesoftwareandpr ovi
desf eedback.
SpiralModelAppl ication
Whent hereisabudgetconst rai
ntandriskevaluati
onisimpor tant.
Formedi um tohi gh-ri
skprojects.
Long- term projectcommi tmentbecauseofpot enti
alchangest oeconomi cpri
ori
ti
esasthe
r
equi r
ement schangewi tht i
me.
Cu stomeri snotsur eoftheirrequi
rementswhi chareusuallythecase.
Requir
ement sarecomplexandneedevaluat
iontogetcl
ari
ty.
Newpr oductli
newhichshouldberel
easedinphasestogetenoughcust
omerf
eedback.
Signi
fi
cantchangesar eexpectedinthepr oductduri
ngthe
dev
elopmentcycle.

Theadvant
agesoft
heSpi
ralSDLCModelar
easf
oll
ows
 Changingr equir
ement scanbeaccommodat ed.
 All
owsext ensiveuseofpr ototy
pes.
 Requirement scanbecapt uredmor eaccuratel
y.
 Usersseet hesy st
em ear l
y .
 Developmentcanbedi videdi nt
osmal l
erpar t
sandt her
iskypar
tscanbedevel
opedearl
i
er
whichhelpsi nbetterri
skmanagement .
Thedi
sadvantagesoft heSpiralSDLCModelar easf ol
lows
 Managementi smor ecompl ex.
 Endoft heprojectmaynotbeknownear ly.
 Notsui tableforsmal lorlowr i
skprojectsandcouldbeexpensi
veforsmall
proj
ect
s.
 Pr ocessi scompl ex
 Spi ralmaygooni ndefini
tely.
 Lar
genumberi
nter
medi
atest
agesr
equi
resexcessi
vedocument
ati
on.
Reuse-
ori
entedsoft
wareengineeri
ng
 Ba sedonsystemati
creusewheresystemsar
eint
egr
atedf
rom exi
sti
ngcomponent
sor
COTS(Commer ci
al-
off-
the-
shel
f)sy
stems.
 Processstages
Componentanalysis;
Requirement
smodi fi
cati
on;
Syst
em desi
gnwit
hreuse;
Devel
opmentandi
ntegr
ati
on.
Reusei
snowt hest
andar
dapproachf
orbui
l
dingmanyt
ypesofbusi
nesssy
stem

Ty
pesofsof twar ecomponent
 Webser vicest
hataredev el
opedaccordi
ngtoser
vicestandar
dsandwhichar
eavai
l
ablef
or
remot ei nvocat
ion.
 Collectionsofobj ect
sthataredevel
opedasapackaget obeint
egr
atedwit
hacomponent
framewor ksuchas. NETorJ2EE.
 Stand- alonesoftwaresyst
ems( COTS)thatar
econfigur
edforusei
na
particularenvir
onment .

Pr
ocessact
ivi
ti
es
 Realsof t
war e processes arei nter
-l
eaved sequences oft echnical,collaborat
ive and
manager i
alactivi
tieswi t
ht heov eral
lgoalofspeci f
y i
ng,designi ng,implementingand
test
ingasof t
war esy st
em.
 Thef ourbasicpr ocessactivi
ti
esofspeci fi
cat
ion,dev elopment,v ali
dati
onandev ol
ution
areorganizeddifferent
lyindif
ferentdevelopmentpr ocesses.Int hewat erf
allmodel,they
areorganizedinsequence, whereasinincrementaldevelopmentt heyar eint
er-l
eaved.

Soft
warespecif
ication
Theprocessofestabli
shi
ngwhatser
vicesar
erequi
redandt
heconst
rai
ntsont
hesy
stem'
s
oper
ati
onanddev elopment.

Requi
rementsengineeri
ngprocess
 Feasi
bil
itystudy
Isi
ttechnical
lyandf
inancial
l
yfeasi
blet
obui
l
dthesy
stem?
  Requir
ement sel
ici
tat
ionandanaly
sis
Whatdot hesyst
em stakehol
dersr
equi
reorexpectf
rom t
hesy
stem?
Requir
ementsspecif
icat
ion
 Defi
ningtherequir
ement
sindetai
l
Requi
rement
sv al
idat
ion
 Checkingthevali
dit
yoft
herequi
rement
s

Ther
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocess

Sof
twaredesignandi mplement ation
 Thepr ocessofconv erti
ngt hesy stem specifi
cati
onint
oanexecutabl
esyst
em.
 Sof twar
edesign
Designasoftwarestructuret hatreal
isest hespeci
fi
cati
on;
 Impl ementati
on
Transl
atethi
sstructureintoanexecut abl
epr ogram;
 Theact iv
iti
esofdesignandi mpl ement at
ionareclosel
yrel
atedandmaybeint
er-
leav
ed.

Agener almodeloft hedesi gnprocess

Designact ivit
ies
 Ar chi t
ecturaldesi gn,wher eyouidenti
fyt heoveral
lstructureoft hesy stem,thepri
ncipal
component s( somet imescalledsub-systemsormodul es),thei
rr el
ati
onshipsandhow t hey
aredi stri
buted.
 I nterfacedesign, wher eyoudefi
netheinterf
acesbetweensy stem component s.
 Componentdesi gn, wher
ey outakeeachsy st
em componentanddesi gnhowi twil
loper
ate.
 Dat abasedesi gn,wher eyoudesignthesy st
em dat
astructuresandhowt hesearetobe
represent edinadat abase.
Softwar evalidati
on
 Veri
ficati
onandv ali
dat
ion(V&V)isintendedtoshowt hatasystem conf
ormstoi
ts
specifi
cati
onandmeet stherequi
rementsofthesy stem customer.
 Inv
olvescheckingandr ev
iewprocessesandsy st
em t est
ing.
 System test
inginvol
vesexecut
ingthesystem wit
ht estcasesthatarederi
vedf
rom t
he
 speci
fi
cati
onofthereal
dat
atobeprocessedbyt
hesy
stem.
 Testi
ngisthemostcommonlyusedV&V
acti
vi
ty.

St
agesoft
est
ing

Testi
ngst
ages
 Devel
opmentorcomponenttesti
ngIndivi
dual
component
saretest
edindependent
ly;
Component
smaybef uncti
onsorobjectsorcoher
entgr
oupi
ngsoft
heseent
it
ies.
 Syst
em test i
ng
Test
ingoft hesystem asawhol
e.Testi
ngofemergentpr
opert
iesi
spar
ti
cul
arl
y
i
mpor t
ant.
 Acceptancet est
ing
Test
ingwi t
hcust omerdatat
ocheckthatt
hesyst
em meetsthe
cust
omer
'sneeds.
Test
ingphasesi
napl
an-
dri
vensof
twar
epr
ocess

Sof
twar
eevol
uti
on
Sof t
wareisinher
entlyfl
exi
bleandcanchange.
Asrequir
ement schangethroughchangi
ngbusinessci
rcumstances,t
hesoftwar
ethatsupport
s
t
hebusinessmustal soevolveandchange.
Alt
houghtherehasbeenademar cati
onbetweendevel
opmentandev olut
ion(mai
ntenance)t
his
i
sincr
easinglyi
rrel
evantasfewerandfewersystemsarecompletel
ynew.
Sy
stem evol
uti
on

Requi
rement
sEngi
neer
ing:
Requi
rement
sEngi
neer
ing
Pr
ocesses
 Thepr ocessofest
abli
shingtheservi
cesthatt
hecust omerrequi
resfr
om asy st
em and
theconstrai
ntsunderwhichitoper
atesandisdev el
oped.
 Ther equi
rementsthemselvesaret
hedescript
ionsoft hesy
stem ser
vicesandconstr
aint
s
thataregenerat
edduringtherequi
rementsengineeri
ngprocess.
Ty
pesofr
equirement
 Userrequirement s
 Stat
ement si nnaturall
anguageplusdi
agramsoftheservi
cesthesyst
em pr
ovi
desandits
operat
ional constrai
nts.Wri
ttenf
orcustomer
s.
 Syst
em r equirement s
 Astructureddocumentset t
ingoutdet
ail
eddescr
ipt
ionsofthesyst
em'sf
uncti
ons,
ser
vices
andoper ati
onal constr
aint
s.
Funct
ionalandnon-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
s
 Functionalrequirement s
Statement sofser vi
cest hesyst
em shouldprovide,howt hesy stem shoul
dreacttoparti
cul
ar
i
nput sandhowt hesy stem shouldbehav ei
npar ticul
arsituati
ons.
Mayst atewhatt hesy st em shoul
dnotdo.
 Non- f
unct i
onalrequirement s
Const r
aintsont heser v icesorfunct
ionsofferedbyt hesy st
em suchast i
mingconstr
aints,
constrai
nt sonthedev el opmentprocess,st
andar ds,etc.
Oftenappl ytothesy st em asawhol er at
herthani ndiv
idualfeaturesorservi
ces.
 Domai nr equi
rement s
Const r
aintsont hesy st em from t
hedomai nof
oper
atonFunct
i i
onalrequirement s
 Descri
befuncti
onali
tyorsystem serv
ices.
 Dependont hetypeofsof t
ware,expectedusersandthetypeofsy st
em where
the sof
twarei s used.4 Funct i
onaluserr equi
rements may be high-
lev
el
stat
ementsofwhatt hesystem shoulddo.4Funct i
onalsyst
em requir
ements
shoulddescr
ibethesy st
em ser
vicesindetai
l
.
Funct
ionalr
equi
rement
sfort
heMHC-
PMS
 Ausershallbeabletosearchtheappoint
mentsli
stsforall
cli
nics.
 Thesystem shal
lgenerat
eeachday ,f
oreachcli
nic,ali
stofpat
ientswhoar
eexpectedt
o
att
endappointmentsthatday.
 Eachstaffmemberusingthesy st
em shal
lbeuniquelyi
denti
fi
edbyhisorher8-
digi
t
empl
oyeenumber
.
Requi
rement
simpr
eci
sion
Probl
emsar i
sewhenr equi
rementsarenotpreci
sel
ystated.
Ambi guousrequi
rementsmaybei nt
erpr
etedindi
fferentway
sby
devel
opersandusers.4Considert
heterm`search'
inrequir
ement1
 Userintenti
on-searchforapati
entnameacrossal
lappoi
ntmentsi
nallcli
nics;
 Dev el
operinter
pret
ati
on-searchforapat
ientnamei
nanindiv
idual
cli
nic.Userchooses
cl
i
nicthensearch.
Requi
rement
scompl etenessandconsist
ency
I
npr
inci
ple,
requi
rement
sshoul
dbebot
hcompl
eteandconsi
stent
.
Compl ete
 Theyshoul dincl
udedescr
ipti
onsofal
lfacil
i
tiesr
equir
ed.
Consistent
 Ther eshouldbenoconf l
ict
sorcontradict
ionsinthedescri
pti
onsoft he
system f
acil
it
ies.
 I n pract
ice,itisimpossibl
et o pr
oduce a compl et
e and consi
stent
requir
ementsdocument .

Nonf
unct
ional
requi
rement
s
Thesedefi
nesy
stem pr
oper
tiesandconst
rai
ntse.g.r
eli
abil
i
ty,
responseti
meandstorage
r
equi
rement
s.Const
rai
ntsareI/
Odev i
cecapabil
it
y,sy
stem r
epresent
ati
ons,
etc.
 Processrequi
rement
smayalsobespeci
fi
edmandati
ngapar ti
cularME,pr
ogramminglanguage
ordevel
opmentmethod.
Non-
functi
onalr
equi
rementsmaybemorecri
ti
cal
thanfunct
ionalrequi
rement
s.Ift
hesearenot
met,thesyst
em maybeuseless.
Ty
pesofnonf
unct
ionalr
equi
rement

Non-
funct
ionalr
equi
rement
simpl
ement
ati
on
 Non-functi
onalrequir
ement smayaf fecttheov eral
larchi
tect
ureofasy stem r
atherthanthe
i
ndividualcomponents.
 Forexampl e,t
oensur ethatperf
ormancer equir
ement saremet ,y
oumayhav etoorganizet
he
syst
em t ominimizecommuni cationsbet weencomponent s.
 Asinglenon-functi
onal r
equir
ement ,suchasasecur it
yrequi
rement ,
maygener at
eanumberof
rel
atedfuncti
onal r
equirementsthatdef i
nesy stem servi
cesthatarerequir
ed.
 Itmayal sogenerat
er equir
ementst hatrestri
ctexisti
ng
r
equi
rement
s.
Non-
funct
ionalcl
assi
fi
cat
ions
 Productr
equirement
s
Requir
ementswhichspecif
ythatt
hedel
i
ver
edpr
oductmustbehav
einapar
ti
cul
arwaye.
g.
execut
ionspeed,r
eli
abi
li
ty,
etc.

 Organizati
onalrequir
ement s
Requirementswhi chareaconsequenceofor ganisati
onalpol
ici
esandpr ocedurese.g.pr
ocess
standardsused,implementationrequi
rements,etc.
 Externalr
equir
ement s
Requirementswhi chari
sefrom factor
swhichar eexternal
tothesystem anditsdevelopment
processe.g.i
nteroperabi
li
tyrequir
ements,l
egislati
verequi
rements,etc.

Exampl
esofnonf
unct
ionalr
equi
rement
sint
heMHC-
PMS
Goalsandrequir
ement s
Non-f
uncti
onal r
equirementsmaybev er
ydiffi
cul
ttostat
epreci
sel
yandimpr
eci
ser
equi
rement
s
maybediffi
culttoveri
fy.
Goal
 Agener ali
ntent
ionoft heusersuchaseaseofuse.
Veri
fi
abl
enon- functi
onalrequir
ement
 A st atementusi ng somemeasur ethatcan beobjecti
vel
y
test
ed.Goalsarehel pfultodev el
opersast heyconveythei
ntenti
onsof
thesyst
em users.
Usabil
it
yrequir
ement s
Thesystem shoul dbeeasyt ousebymedicalst
affandshouldbeorgani
zedinsuchawayt hat
usererr
orsar emi ni
mized.(Goal
)
Medicalst
af fshallbeabl
et ouseallt
hesystem f
uncti
onsafterf
ourhoursoftrai
ning.Aft
erthi
s
tr
aini
ng,theav eragenumberofer r
orsmadebyexperiencedusersshal
lnotexceedt woper
hourofsy stem use.(
Testablenon-f
unct
ionalr
equi
rement)

Met
ri
csf
orspeci
fyi
ngnonf
unct
ionalr
equi
rement
s

Thesoftwarer equi
rement sdocument
 Thesof twarerequirementsdocumentistheoffi
cial
stat
ementofwhatisrequir
edofthesyst
em
dev el
opers.
 Shoul di ncl
udebot hadefini
ti
onofuserrequi
rementsandaspecif
icat
ionofthesystem
requir
ement s.
 ItisNOTadesi gndocument .Asfaraspossi
ble,i
tshoul
dsetofWHATt hesy st
em shoul
ddo
ratherthanHOW i tshoul
ddoi t.
Requi
rement
sdocumentvar
iabi
li
ty
 Infor
mat i
oninrequir
ementsdocumentdependsont ypeofsystem andthe
approachtodev el
opmentused.
 Systemsdev el
opedincremental
lywil
l
,typi
call
y,havelessdet
ailinthe
requir
ementsdocument .
 Requirementsdocument sst
andardshavebeendesi gnede.
g.IEEEstandar d.Thesear
e
most l
yappli
cabletotherequi
rementsforl
argesy st
emsengineeringprojects.
Requi rement sanddesi gn
Inpr i
nci ple,requi rement sshoul dst at
ewhatt hesy stem shoul ddoandt hedesi gnshould
descr ibehowi tdoest his.
 I npr act i
ce, r
equi rement sanddesi gnar ei nseparable
 Asy stem ar chi
tect uremaybedesi gnedtost ructuret her equir
ements;
 Thesy stem mayi nter-
operatewithot hersy stemst hatgener atedesi
gnr equi
rements;
 Theuseofaspeci f
icarchit
ecturet osatisfynon- f
unct ional r
equir
ement smaybea
domai nrequi rement .
 Thi smaybet heconsequenceofar egul
ator yrequir
ement .
Natur allanguagespeci fication
 Re quirement sar ewr i
ttenasnat urall
anguagesent encessuppl ementedbydi agramsand
tables.
 Us edf orwr iti
ngr equi rement sbecausei tisexpressive,intuitiveanduni v
ersal.Thi
smeans
thatt her equir ement scanbeunder st
oodbyuser sandcust omer s.
Guidel i
nesf orwr i
ti
ngr equi r
ement s
Inv entast andar df or matandusei tf
orallrequirement s.
 Usel anguagei naconsi stentway .Useshal l
formandat oryr equirements,shouldfordesi
rabl
e
requi r
ement s.
 Uset exthi ghlight ingtoi dent i
fykeypar t
soft herequi r
ement .
 Av oidt heuseofcomput erjargon.4Includeanexpl anation
(rationale)ofwhyar equi rementi snecessar y.
Pr
oblemswi t
hnat urall
anguage
Lackofcl
ar i
ty
 Pr eci
sionisdif
fi
cul
twithoutmakingthedocumentdif
fi
cul
tto
read.Requirementsconfusi
on
 Funct i
onalandnon-f
unctionalr
equi
rementstendt
obemi xed-
up.Requirement samalgamati
on
 Sev eraldi
ff
erentr
equir
ement smaybeexpressedtoget
her.
Exampl
erequi
rement
sfort
hei
nsul
inpumpsof
twar
esy
stem

Str
uct uredspeci fi
cati
ons
Anappr oachtowriti
ngr equir
ement swher ethefr
eedom oftherequi
rementswri
teri
sli
mitedand
requirement sarewritteninast andardway .
 Thi swor kswellforsomet ypesofr equi
rementse.
g.r
equirementsforembeddedcont
rol
system buti ssomet imestoori
gidf orwr i
ti
ngbusi
nesssystem r
equir
ements.
Form- basedspeci fi
cati
ons
 Def init
ionofthefunctionorent i
ty.
 Descr i
pti
onofinput sandwher et heycomef r
om.
 Descri
pti
onofoutput
sandwher et heygoto.
 Inf
ormati
onabouttheinformat
ionneededf ort
hecomput
ati
onandot
herent
it
iesused.
 Descri
pti
onoftheacti
ont obetaken.
 Preandpostcondi t
ions( i
f
appropri
ate)
.
 Thesideeff
ect
s( i
fany)ofthe
f
uncti
on.
Ast
ruct
uredspeci
fi
cat
ionofar
equi
rementf
orani
nsul
inpump

Tabul
arspecification
Usedt osuppl ementnat urall
anguage.
Part
icul
arlyusef ulwheny ouhav etodefineanumberofpossi
blealt
ernat
ivecoursesofact
ion.
 Forexampl e,theinsul
inpumpsy stem basesit
scomputat
ionsontherateofchangeofblood
sugarlev elandt hetabularspeci
ficat
ionexplai
nshowtocalcul
atetheinsul
i
nr equi
rementf
or
diff
erentscenar i
os.
Tabul
arspecificationofcomput at
ionforani nsul
inpump

Requi
rement sengineeri
ngpr ocesses
 Thepr ocessesusedf orREv arywidelydependingontheapplicat
iondomai n,
thepeopl
e
inv
olvedandt heorganisationdevelopingtherequir
ements.
 Howev er,t
herear eanumberofgener icacti
vi
tiescommont oallprocesses
o Requi rement seli
citati
on;
oRequi r
ement sanal ysis;
oRequirementsv ali
dat i
on;
o Requi rement smanagement .
 Inpracti
ce,REi sani t
erativeacti
vi
tyinwhi chtheseprocessesareinter
leav
ed
Aspi
ralvi
ewoft
her
equi
rement
sengi
neer
ingpr
ocess

Requi
rement selicitati
onandanal ysis
Somet imescal l
edr equirement selici
tationorr equirement sdi
scov er
y.
 Involvest echni calstaffworkingwi thcust omer st of mdoutabouttheapplicati
ondomai n,the
serv i
cest hatt hesy stem shoul dprov i
deandt hesy st
em'soperati
onalconstrai
nts.
 Mayi nvolveend- user s,manager s,engi neersinvolv edinmaint
enance,domai nexperts,
trade
unions, etc.Thesear ecal l
edst akehol ders.
Probl
emsofr equi rement sanalysi
s
 Stakehol der sdon'tknowwhatt heyr eallywant .
 Stakehol der sexpr essrequirement sint heirownt erms.
 Differentst akeholder smayhav econf licti
ngrequi rements.
 Organi sational andpol it
icalfactor
smayi nfl
uencet hesyst
em requir
ements.
 Ther equi rement schangedur i
ngtheanal ysi
spr ocess.Newst akeholdersmayemer geand
thebusi nessenv i
ronmentmaychange.

Requi
rement selici
tat
ionandanal ysi
s
 Softwar e engi
neers work withar ange ofsystem st
akehol
derstofind outaboutt he
applicati
on domai n,the serv
ices t
hatthe sy
stem shoul
d prov
ide,t
he requi
red sy
stem
performance,
hardwar econstrai
nts,
othersystems,et
c.
 St agesincl
ude:
 Requi
rement
sdiscovery,
 Requi
rement
scl
assificat
ionandor
ganizat
ion,
 Requi
rement
sprior
it
izati
onandnegot
iati
on,
 Requi
rement
sspecifi
cati
on.
Ther
equi
rement
sel
ici
tat
ionandanal
ysi
spr
ocess

Processact ivities
 Requi rement sdiscov ery
 I nteractingwi thst akeholderstodi scov ert heirrequir
ement s.Domai nr equi
rementsar
e
alsodi scov eredatt hisstage.
Requi rement sclassificati
onandor ganisation
 Gr oupsr elatedr equirementsandor gani sest hem i nt
ocoher entclusters.
 Pr i
or i
tisationandnegot iati
on
 Pr i
oriti
singr equi r
ement sandr esolvingr equirement sconfli
cts.
 Requi rement sspeci fication
 Requi r
ement sar edocument edandi nputi ntothenextr oundoft hespi ral
.
Problemsofr equi rement sel i
cit
at i
on
St akehol der sdon' tknowwhatt heyreallywant .
Stakehol der sexpr essr equirement sintheirown
terms.
 Di fferentst akehol dersmayhav econfli
ctingr equi rement s.
Or gani sational andpol it
ical f
actorsmayi nfluencet hesy stem
requi r
ement s.
 Ther equi rement schangedur ingtheanal ysispr ocess.Newst akehol dersmayemer geand
thebusi nessenv i
ronmentchange.
Requi rement sdi scover y
 Thepr ocessofgat heringinformationaboutt her equiredandexi st
ingsy st
emsanddi st
il
li
ng
theuserandsy stem r equirementsf r
om t hisinf ormat ion.
 I nteract ioni swi t
hsy stem stakeholdersfrom manager stoexternal r
egulators.
 Sy st emsnor mallyhav ear angeofst akehol der s.
St
akehol der sint heMHC- PMS
Patient swhosei nf ormat i
onisr ecordedi nt hesy stem.
 Doct orswhoar er esponsi bl
ef orassessi ngandt reat i
ngpatients.
 Nur seswhocoor di natet heconsul t
ationswi t
hdoct orsandadmi nistersomet reatments.
 Medi cal recept ioni stswhomanagepat ients'appoi ntment s.
 I Tst affwhoar er esponsi bleforinstall
ingandmai ntai ni
ngthesy stem.
 Amedi cal ethicsmanagerwhomustensur et hatthesy stem meet scur r
entethicalgui
deli
nes
forpatientcar e.
 Heal thcar emanager swhoobt ai
nmanagementi nfor mationfrom t hesy st
em.
 Medi calr ecor dsst affthatar eresponsi blef orensur i
ngt hatsy stem inf
ormationcanbe
mai ntained and pr eserved,and t hatr ecord keepi ng pr ocedur es have been pr oper
ly
implement ed.
I
nterviewing
For mal orinf ormal i
nt erviewswi thstakehol dersar epar tofmostREpr ocesses.
 Ty pesofi nt erv i
ew
 Cl osedi nter viewsbasedonpr e-deter minedl istofquest i
ons
 Openi nterviewswher ev ari
ousi ssuesar eexpl oredwith
stakehol ders.

 Ef
fect
ivei
nter
viewi
ng
 Beopen- minded,av oidpre-conceivedideasaboutt herequi
rementsandar ewil
li
ngto
l
i
st entostakeholder s.
 Pr omptt heinterv
ieweet ogetdiscussionsgoi ngusingaspringboardquesti
on,a
r
equirement sproposal ,orbywor ki
ngt ogetheronapr otot
ypesy st
em.
I
ntervi
ewsi npract i
ce
 Nor mallyami xofclosedandopen- endedi ntervi
ewi ng.
 Intervi
ewsar egoodf orgettinganov erall
under standi ngofwhatstakeholdersdoandhow
theymi ghtinteractwiththesy st
em.
 Intervi
ewsar enotgoodf orunder standingdomai nrequi r
ements
 Requi rementsengi neerscannotunder standspeci fi
cdomaint erminol
ogy;
 Somedomai nknowl edgeissof ami l
iarthatpeopl efmdithardtoar ti
cul
ateort
hink
t
hat
i
tisn'twortharti
culat i
ng.
Scenari
os
Scenariosar ereal-
li
feexampl esofhowasy stem canbeused.
 Theyshouldi
ncl
ude
 Adescri
pti
onofthestar
ti
ngsit
uation;
 Adescri
pti
onofthenormalf
lowofev ents;
 Adescri
pti
onofwhatcangowr ong;
 Inf
ormati
onaboutot
herconcurr
entactiv
iti
es;
 Adescri
pti
onofthestat
ewhent hescenari
ofmishes.
Scenar
iof
orcol
lect
ingmedi
calhi
stor
yinMHC-
PMS

Usecases
Use-casesareascenar i
obasedtechniqueintheUMLwhi chidenti
fytheactor
sinaninter
acti
onand
whichdescribethei nt
eract
ionit
self.
 Asetofusecasesshoul ddescribeal
lpossi
bleinteracti
onswi t
hthesystem.
 Hi gh-
levelgraphical
model supplement
edbymor edet ai
ledtabul
ardescri
pti
on(seeChapt
er
5).
 Sequencedi agr amsmaybeusedt oadddetailt
ouse- casesbyshowi ngthesequenceof
eventprocessinginthesystem.
Ethnography
Asoci al scient i
stspendsaconsi derablet imeobser vi
ngandanal ysi
nghowpeopl eactuall
ywork.
 Peopl edonothav et oexplainorar ticulat ethei
rwor k.
 Soci alandor gani sat i
onalfact orsofi mpor t
ancemaybeobser ved.
 Et hnogr aphicst udieshav eshownt hatwor kisusuallyricherandmor ecomplexthan
suggest edbysi mpl esystem model s.
Scopeofet hnogr aphy
 Requi rement sthatar eder i
vedf r
om t hewayt hatpeopl eactuall
ywor kr
atherthanthewayI
whi chpr ocessdef init
ionssuggestt hatt heyoughtt owor k.
Requirement sthatar eder i
vedfr om cooper ationandawar enessofotherpeople'
sactivi
ti
es.
 Awar enessofwhatot herpeopl ear edoi ngleadst ochangesintheway sinwhichwe
dot hings.
Ethnogr aphyi seffect i
v eforunder st
andi ngexi sti
ngpr ocessesbutcannotidentif
ynewf eatur
es
thatshoul dbeaddedt oasy stem.
Focusedet hnogr aphy
Developedi napr ojectst udy i
ngt heai rtrafficcontrolprocess
 Combi neset hnogr aphywi t
hpr ototyping
 Pr ot otypedev elopmentr esult sinunanswer edquest i
onswhi chfocustheethnographic
anal ysis.
Thepr obl em wi thet hnogr aphyi st hatitst udiesexisti
ngpr acti
ceswhi chmayhav esome
histor i
cal basiswhi chi snolongerr elev ant.
Ethnographyandpr otot ypingf orrequi rement sanal y
sis

Requirementsval idation
Concer nedwi t
hdemonst r
ati
ngt hattherequi
rement sdef
inethesy st
em t
hatthecustomer
real
l
ywant s.
 Requi rement ser rorcostsarehighsov ali
dati
oni sveryi
mportant
 Fi xi
ngar equirementserrorafterdeli
verymaycostupt o100t imesthecostoffi
xi
ngan
i
mpl ement at i
on
er ror.
Requirementschecki ng
 Val i
dit
y .Doest hesy stem provi
det hefuncti
onswhichbestsuppor tthe
customer'sneeds?
 Consi st ency .Aret hereanyrequirementsconf l
i
cts?
 Compl et eness.Ar eallf
uncti
onsr equir
edbyt hecustomerincluded?
 Real
ism.Cant herequi
rement
sbeimpl
ementedgi
venav
ail
abl
ebudgetandt
echnol
ogy
 Veri
fi
abi
li
ty.Cantherequi
rement
sbechecked?
Requir
ementsvali
dationtechniques
Requi
rement
sr ev
iews
 Systemat i
cmanual anal
ysi
softher
equir
ements.
 Protot
ypi
ng
 Usinganexecut ablemodeloft
hesyst
em tocheckr
equi
rement
s.

 Dev
elopi
ngt
est
sforr
equi
rement
stocheckt
est
abi
l
ity
.

Requi
rement srevi
ews
 Regularrevi
ewsshoul dbeheldwhil
etherequir
ementsdefmit
ionisbei
ngformulated.
 Bothclientandcontract
orstaf
fshoul
dbei nvol
vedinrev
iews.
 Reviewsmaybef ormal(wit
hcompleteddocuments)orinf
ormal.Goodcommuni cati
ons
betweendev el
opers,customersanduser
scanr esol
veprobl
emsatanear l
ystage.
Review
checks
Ver
if
iabil
it
y
 I stherequi
rementreal
ist
ical
l
ytest
abl
e?
 Compr ehensibi
li
ty
 I stherequi
rementproper
ly
under
stood?
Tr
aceabil
ity
 I st heor igi
noft her equirementcl earlyst ated?
 Adapt ability
 Cant her equi r
ementbechangedwi t
houtal ar geimpactonot herr equi r
ement s?
Requir
ement smanagement
 Requi rement smanagementi st hepr ocessofmanagi ngchangi ngr equirement sdur ingt he
requirement sengi neeringpr ocessandsy st
em dev el opment .
Newr equirement semer geasasy stem isbeingdev el opedandaf terithasgonei ntouse.
 Youneedt okeept r
ackofi ndividualrequi r
ement sandmai ntainl inksbet weendependent
requirement ssot haty oucanassesst hei mpactofr equirement schanges.Youneedt o
establish a f ormalpr ocess f ormaki ng change pr oposal s and l i
nking t hese t o sy stem
requirement s.
Changingrequi rement s
Thebusinessandt echnical environmentoft hesy stem al way schangesaf t
erinstallati
on.
 New har dwar emaybei ntroduced,i tmaybenecessar yt oi nterfacet hesy stem wi t
h
othersy stems,busi ness pr i
orit
ies maychange ( with consequentchanges i nt he
syst em suppor tr equired),andnewl egislationandr egul ati
onsmaybei ntroducedt hat
thesy stem mustnecessar il
yabideby .
 Thepeopl ewhopayf orasy st em andt heuser soft hatsy stem ar er arelythesamepeopl e.
 Sy stem cust omer simposer equi r
ement sbecauseofor gani zati
onalandbudget ary
const raints.Thesemayconf li
ctwi thend- userr equirement sand,af terdel i
v ery,new
feat uresmayhav etobeaddedf orusersuppor tifthesy stem i stomeeti t
sgoal s.
Changingrequi rement s
 Largesy stemsusual lyhav eadi verseusercommuni ty
,wi thmanyuser shav i
ngdi fferent
requirement sandpr i
or i
ti
est hatmaybeconf l
ictingorcont radictory.
  Thef inalsyst
em r
equi
rementsareinev
itabl
yacompromi sebet
weenthem and,wit
h
exper
ience,i
tisof
tendiscov
eredt
hatthebalanceofsupportgi
vent
odiff
erentuser
s
hastobechanged.
Requi
rement
sevolution

Requi
rementsmanagementpl anning
Establ
i
shesthelevelofrequi
rementsmanagementdetai
l
thati
srequi
red.Requir
ement smanagementdeci
sions:
 Requi r
ementsidentifi
cation: Eachr equir
ementmustbeuni quel
yidenti
fiedsothatit
canbecr oss-
referencedwi thotherr equir
ement s.
 Achangemanagementpr ocess: Thisisthesetofact ivi
ti
esthatassesst heimpactand
costofchanges.Idi scusst hispr ocessinmor edet aili
nt hefol
lowingsecti
on.
 Tr aceabil
it
ypolici
es: Thesepol i
ciesdef i
nether el
ationshipsbetweeneachr equi
rement
andbet weentherequi rement sandt hesy st
em designt hatshouldberecorded.
 Tool suppor
t:Toolst hatmaybeusedr angef r
om speci al
istr
equirementsmanagement
systemst ospreadsheet sandsi mpl edatabasesystems.
Requi
rement
schangemanagement
Deci
dingifar
equirement schangeshoul dbeaccepted
 Probl
em analysisandchangespeci fi
cati
on
 Duringthisstage,theproblem orthechangeproposal i
sanalyzedtocheckt hat
iti
sv al
id.Thisanal ysi
sisfedbackt othechanger equestorwhomayr espond
withamor especificrequi
rementschangepr oposal,ordeci
det owi t
hdrawt he
request.
 Changeanalysisandcost i
ng
 The ef fectof t he proposed change i s assessed using t r
aceabi
lit
y
inf
ormat ionandgener alknowledgeofthesystem requirements.Oncethis
analysi
si scompl eted,adecisi
oni smadewhet herornott opr oceedwi t
h
therequirementschange.
 Changeimplementati
on
 Ther equi
rementsdocumentand,wherenecessar
y,thesyst
em desi
gnand
implementat
ion,ar
emodifi
ed.Ideal
l
y,thedocumentshoul
dbeorgani
zedso
thatchangescanbeeasi
lyi
mplemented.