MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING OVERVIEW :

GLOBAL AND INDIAN MICROWAVE PROGRAMME

INCLUDING RISAT JEP

N S PILLAI
SPACE APPLICATIONS CENTRE
AHMEDABAD

JEP MICROWAVE TRAINING PROGRAMME

IIRS, DEHRADUN
JUNE 27, 2005
1
™ MICROWAVE SENSORS WITH THEIR ALL WEATHER AND DAY
AND NIGHT CAPABILITIES TO ACQUIRE DATA AS WELL AS THEIR
SENSITIVITY TO SHAPE, ROUGHNESS, MOISTURE ETC HAVE
MADE THEMSELVES VERY ATTRACTIVE TO THE REMOTE SENSING
COMMUNITY.

™ HOWEVER, THEIR USE EXCEPT IN ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN

RELATED APPLICATIONS HAS NOT REACHED THE OPERATIONAL
STATUS DUE TO THE COMPLEX AND UNFAMILIAR NATURE OF THE
DATA.

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™ THERE HAS BEEN A TREMENDOUS EFFORT
WORLD WIDE TO ACQUIRE AND UNDERSTAND
THIS DATA AND HARNESS IT FOR VARIOUS
APPLICATIONS.

™ MANY NEW EXCITING TECHNIQUES LIKE

POLARIMETRY, INTERFEROMETRY, ETC HAVE
EMERGED WITH EXCITING NEW APPLICATIONS.

3
THE MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES CAN BE
BROADLY CLASSIFIED AS :

PASSIVE SENSING – USING RADIOMETERS AND

SOUNDERS

ACTIVE SENSING – USING SYNTHETIC APARTURE

RADARS (SAR)
SCATTEROMETERS
ALTIMETERS AND
OTHER VARIANTS OF RADARS
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¾ MICROWAVE RADIOMETERS RECEIVE THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION EMITTED BY THE TARGETS
IN SPECIFIC FREQUENCES. THE ENERGY RECEIVED IS
PROCESSED AND ANALYSED TO DERIVE GEOPHYSICAL
PARAMETERS OF INTEREST LIKE MOISTURE, SALINITY, SEA
SURFACE TEMP, ETC.

¾ ACTIVE MICROWAVE SENSORS LIKE SYNTHETIC APERTURE

RADAR, SCATTEROMETER, ALTIMETER, ETC. ILLUMINATE
THE TARGETS WITH THEIR OWN ENERGY AND THE
SCATTERED/REFLECTED ENERGY BY THE TARGET IS
RECEIVED AND PROCESSED TO GENERATE HIGH
RESOLUTION IMAGERY OF THE TARGET/SCENE AS WELL AS
COMPUTE THE OCEAN WIND VECTOR,WAVE HEIGHT,
GEOID, ETC. 5
• AS THE PRESENT TRAINING BEING ORGANISED BY
JEP-MICROWAVE DATA UTILISATION PROJECT IS
FOCUSED AT THE MOMENT ON THE APPLICATIONS
OF IMAGING RADAR DATA, THIS OVERVIEW WILL
FOCUS ON SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADARS (SAR)
ONLY.

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SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR (SAR) IS A HIGH RESOLUTION
IMAGING RADAR MOUNTED ON AN AIRCRAFT OR SPACECRAFT
THAT ACHIEVES VERY HIGH RESOLUTION USING THE DOPPLER
SIGNAL DUE TO THE RELATIVE MOTION. SAR ALSO USES THE
HIGH BAND WIDTH SIGNAL TO ACHIEVE VERY HIGH
RESOLUTION IN THE ACROSS TRACK DIRECTION.

Across track Resolution Using

High Band Width Signal
Aircraft ANTENNA BEAM

na
ten
ALTITUDE An am
Be Along
resolution
using Doppler
Aircraft Signal
SWATH
Across Track

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THE FIRST MAJOR SPACEBORNE SAR PROGRAMME WAS THE
SEASAT-A LAUNCHED BY NASA IN 1978.

MAJOR SPECIFICATIONS SEASAT-A

FREQUENCY/BAND L-BAND
POLARISATION SINGLE/LINEAR
RESOLUTION 25M X 25M(4LOOKS)
SWATH 100 KMs

UNFORTUNATELY IT WORKED ONLY FOR THREE MONTHS. HOWEVER THE

HIGH QUALITY DATA GENERATED DURING THIS PERIOD HELPED TO KICK
START THE GLOBAL SAR PROGRAMME.

8
 THIS WAS FOLLOWED BY ERS-1 (ESA,1991),JERS-1 (NASDA, 1992)
AND ERS-2 (ESA, 1995). WHILE JERS-1 WAS SIMILAR TO SEASAT
OPERATING IN L-BAND, ERS-1 & 2 WERE OPERATING IN C-BAND.

JERS-1
ERS-1
The SAR provides cloud-free radar images of

Frequency 1.3 GHZ L-band
Polarization HH
Swath Width 75 km
Incidence Angle 35 degrees
Resolution 18 m
SAR: The JERS-1 SAR is a high-resolution,
all-weather imaging radar that can map
the topography and geological
characteristics of the earth's surface.
mainly the Earth's surfaces, monitoring and
vegatation and growth, floadings, cultivation
of land. When two consecutive images are
merged though the technique of
interferometry (INSAR), the instrument can
even detect landslides and depressions over
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an approximately 100x100 km area.
THOUGH NASA DID NOT FOLLOW UP SEASAT WITH SAR
SATELLITES, THEY PURSUED SAR RESEARCH WITH
SHUTTLE-BORNE SAR SYSTEMS VIZ. SIR-A, SIR-B AND
SIR-C. SIR STANDS FOR SHUTTLE IMAGING RADARS.
SIR-C PROVIDED THE FIRST OPPORTUNITY FOR THE
USER TO EXPERIENCE THE MULTI FREQUENCY (L, C&X)
MULTI POLARISATION (V V, VH, HV & HH) DATA.

THOUGH THE SHUTTLE RADARS OPERATED FOR A

LIMITED PERIOD OF 15 DAYS ONLY, THE KIND OF DATA
COLLECTED OPENED THE DOOR FOR POLARIMETRY ETC. 10
ESA FOLLOWED UP THE ERS-1 AND ERS-2 SATELLITES WITH
ENVISAT CARRYING AN ADVANCED SAR (ASAR). ASAR
OPERATES IN C-BAND WITH MUTIPOLARISATION AND VARIABLE
LOOK ANGLES.

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 ENVISAT-AN ERS-1/2 FOLLOW-ON MISSION
SATELLITE
ASAR CHARACTERISTICS
FREQUENCY 5.331 GHz (C band)

IMAGE : 30 m x 30 m

WAVE : 30 m X 30 m
RESOLUTION IN MODE
WIDE SWATH : 150 m x 150 m

GLOBAL MONITORING : 1000 m

x 1000 m

ANTENNA 10 m x 1, 2 m

RADIATED POWER 1,500 W (ALTERNATING

POLARIZATION)

AVERAGE RADIATED POWER 100 W (ON TYPICAL ORBIT)

ELEVATION BEAM STEERING + / - 13 °

NUMBER OF TILES 20

MASS 850 KG

DATA RATE 100 MB/s

Launch: 2002
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 ENVISAT

INSTRUMENT MODE SWATH / RESOLUTION LOOK POLARISA

KM ANGLE TION
DEG.
C-band SAR Image 56-100 30 15-45 HH or VV

ALTPOL 56-100 30 15-45 HH/VV or

HH/HV or
VV/VH

Wide 400 150 15-45 HH or VV

Global 400 1000 15-45 HH or VV

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CANADIAN SPACE AGENCY LAUNCHED THE RADARSAT
SERIES WITH THE LAUNCH OF RADARSAT-1 IN 1995.
RADASAT-1 CARRIED A C-BAND SAR WITH SCANSAR
MODE WHICH CAN PROVIDE A WIDE SWATH COVERAGE
AT THE COST OF RESOLUTION.

RADARSAT-2 SCHEDULED FOR LAUNCH IN 2004 BUT

DELAYED WILL BE CARRYING A C-BAND SAR WITH 3M
RESOLUTION AND POLARIMETRIC CAPABILITY.

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RADARSAT-1

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 RADARSAT-1

Frequency / Wavelength 5.3GHz/C-band 5.6 cm

RF Bandwidth 11.6, 17.3 or 30.0 Mhz

Transmitter Power (peak) 5 kW

Transmitter Power 300 W

(average)
Maximum Data Rate 85 Mb/s (recorded) - 105 Mb/s
(R/T)
Antenna Size 15m x 1.5m
Antenna Polarization HH
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 RADARSAT-1

IMAGING MODES

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 IMAGING MODES RADARSAT-1
Mode Nominal No. of Swath Incidence Angles
Resolution (m) Positions / Width (km) (degrees)
Beams
Fine 8 15 45 37 - 47
Standard 30 7 100 20 - 49

Wide 30 3 150 20 - 45
ScanSAR 50 2 300 20 - 49
Narrow

ScanSAR 100 2 500 20 - 49

Wide

Extended 18 - 27 3 75 52 - 58
High

Extended 30 1 170 10 - 22
Low 18
SOME OF THE MAJOR ADVANCES
THAT HAVE TAKEN PLACE DURING
THIS PERIOD ARE :

9INTERFEROMETRY
9 POLARIMETRY
9 SPOT LIGHT MODE OPERATION

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 INTERFEROMETRY

¾IT HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED THAT USING THE PHASE C

DIFFERENCE IN THE RETURN SIGNALS TAKEN AT TWO
DIFFERENT TIMES ( REPEAT PASS ) OR USING TWO
ANTENNAS SEPARATED BY A SPECIFIC DISTANCE.ONE
COULD GET VERY ACCURATE INFORMATION ON THE
ELEVATION

¾REPEAT PASS INTERFEROMETRY USING ERS-1 SAR AND

TANDEM OPERATION OF ERS-1 AND ERS-2 , SAR
INTERFEROMETRY APPLICATIONS HAVE BEEN
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DEMONSTRATED EXTENSIVELY
 POLARIMETRY

¾SAR SYSTEMS WERE OPERATING WITH VV OR HH

POLARISATION. LATER CROSS POLARISATION LIKE , VH &
HV WERE INRODUCED. THESE ADDITIONAL CROSS
POLARISED SIGNALS GREATLY ENHANCHED THE DATA
INTERPRETAION

¾BY PRESERVING THE PHASE INFORMATION , TRULY

POLARIMETRIC SYSTEMS ARE BEING REALISED GIVING
FURTHER ENHANCEMENT IN DATA INTERPRETATION /
INFORMATION EXTRACTION. RADARSAT-2 , RISAT etc WILL
HAVE POLARMETRIC CAPBILITIES 21
 SPOT LIGHT MAPPING

¾THE AZIMUTH RESOLUTION OF SAR IS DIRECRLY

PROPORTIONAL TO THE LENGTH OF THE ANTENNA

¾ONE CAN NOT REDUCE THE ANTENNA DIMENSION

BEYOND A LIMIT AS THE GAIN OF THE ANTENNA IS ALSO
DIRECTLY PROPOTIONAL TO THE ANTENNA DIMENSION

¾IN ORDER TO OVERCOME THIS BARRIER IN REALISING

FINER AZIMUTH RESOLUTION , SPOT LIGHT CONCEPT IS
USED
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 SRTM
February 2000 SRTM radar system flew
onboard Space Shuttle Endeavour
Gathered topographic data over
approximately 80% of the land surfaces of
the Earth
Creating the first-ever near-global data set
of land elevations
To acquire topographic (elevation) data, SRTM payload
utfitted with two radar antennas One antenna located in
the Shuttle's payload bay & other on the end of a 60
meter (200 foot) mast that extended from the payload
pay once the Shuttle in space.

Shuttle with SRTM 23

Instrument
 RADARSAT-II

MAGING MODES
Fine Beam 10 meters over 50 km

Standard Beam 25 meters over 100 km

Wide Beam 25 meters over 150 km

Low Incidence 10-20 degrees TECHNICAL DATA

Frequency C-Band
High Incidence 50-60 degrees
Data Rate 105 Mbps
ScanSAR ide 100 meters over 500 km
Wide Beam 25 meters over 150 km
ScanSAR Narrow 50 meteres over 300 km
Satellite
1258 kg
Launch Mass
Standard Quad
25 meters over 25 km
Pol Design Life 7 Years
Fine Quad Pol 11 meters over 25 km
Repeat cycle 24 Days

Ultra-Fine Wide 3 meters over 20 km Revisit

(Equator) 2-3 days
Capability
Ultra-Fine 24
3 meters over 10 km Operating
Narrow Temperature
(Daily) >70 Degrees
RADARSAT-2

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 ADVANCED LAND OBSERVATION SATELLITE
(ALOS)
ALOS WILL BE
CARRYING A
PHASED
ARRAY L-BAND
SAR (PAL SAR)

ALOS will be used for ALOS was scheduled

cartography, regional observation, to be launched in
disaster monitoring, and resource 2004 by NASDA..26
surveying.
 PALSAR CHARACTERISTICS
MODE FINE SCAN SAR POLLARIMETRIC
CENTER FREQUENCY 1270 MHz (L-BAND)
CHIRP BANDWIDTH 28 MHz 14 MHz 14 MHz, 28 MHz 14 MHz

POLARIZATION HH or VV HH + HV + or HH + VV HH + HV + VH + VV
VV + VH
INCIDENT ANGLE 8 ~ 60 DEG. 8 ~ 30 DEG. 18 ~ 43 DEG. 8 ~ 30 DEG.
RANGE RESOLUTION 7 ~ 44 M 14 ~ 88 M 100 M (MULTI LOOK) 24 ~ 89 M

OBSERVATION SWATH 40 ~ 70 KM 40 ~ 70 KM 250 ~ 350 KM 20 ~ 65 KM

BIT LENGTH 5 BIT 5 BIT 5 BIT 3 OR 5 BITS

DATA RATE 240 MBPS 240 MBPS 120 MBPS, 240 MBPS 240 MBPS
NE SIGMA ZERO *2 <-23DB (SWATH WIDTH 70KM) <-25DB <-29DB
<-25DB (SWATH WIDTH 60KM)
S/A *2, *3 >16DB (SWATH WIDTH 70KM) > 21DB >19DB
>21DB (SWATH WIDTH 60KM)
RADIOMETRIC SCENE : 1DB / ORBIT : 1.5 DB 27
ACCURACY
TERRA SAR

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 BASIC SATELLITE AND INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISITCS
Satellite
ƒ 1023 kg wet mass
ƒ 800 W orbit average power
Instrument
ƒ Active array antenna (electric beam steering / multipol
ƒ X-band multi-mode SAR Sensor (left and right looking
- Scan SAR mode (16 m resolution, 100 km swath width)
- Strip Map mode (3 m resolution, 30 km swath width)
- Spot Light mode (1…2 m resolution, 5…10 km x 10 km)
Downlink
ƒ No direct data transmission to the ground
ƒ 256 Gbit on-board data storage (global coverage)
ƒ 300 Mbit/sec downlink data dump in Z-Band 29
 TerraSAR-X Imaging Modes

Strip Map Mode Scan SAR Mode Spotlight Mode

Resolution : 3m x 1.5m .. 3.5m Resolution : 3m x 1.5m .. 3.5m Resolution : 1m x 1.5m .. 3.5m
Scene Size : 100 km x 30 km Scene Size : 100 km x 100 km Scene Size : 5 km…10km x10 km

ƒ The data collection incidence angle range is from 150 to 600

ƒ Dual polarisation data acquisition is possible in all operational models
ƒ 300 MHz experimental mode with ca.0.6 m slant range resolution
ƒ Further experimental modes are feasible due to the Dual Receiving
Antenna
30
 TerraSAR-X Products

Product Coverage Resolution Polarisation NESZ Full

Performance
Range
300 MHz 10 x 5 km2 (0.6-1.5)m x Full pol
Exp. Mode 1m

High Resol. 10 x 5 km2 (1.2-3) m x Full pol <-19 db 20 – 550

Spotlight 1m
Spotlight 10 x 10 km2 (1.2-3) m x Full pol <-19 db 20 - 550
2m
Stripmap 1 30 km 3 m x 3m Full pol <-19 db 20 - 550

Stripmap 2 30 km 3 m x6 m Full poll <-19 db 20 - 550

ScanSAR 100 km 16 mx16 m Full pol <-19 db 20 - 550

(5 looks)
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COSMOS
SKYMED

32
 COSMO– SKY MED SYSTEM– SPACE SEGMENT
‰ ORBIT
™ 4 satellites phased at 900
™ Phased sun-synchronous 14+1316
™ Altitude 619 km
™ Phased sun-synchronous 14+1316
™ Equator cross time around 6h00

‰ SATELLITE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

™ Mass : 1700 kg
™ 300 Gbit On-Board-Memory
™ On-board data compression and encryption
™ 300 mbps X-band down-link capability
™ 24 hours on-board operational autonomy
™ Three axis stabilized
™ Very high pointing accuracy
™ Right and Left looking
™ High GPS receiver and star tracker accuracy
™ 5 years lifetime 33
 COSMO – SKY MED SYSTEM– SPACE SEGMENT
™ SAR Payload General Characteristics

• COSMO SAR is multi-mode sensor, a programmable system

which is able to operate providing different performance in
terms of swath dimension, spatial resolution and polarization.
• The radar transmitter and receiver operate through an
electrical steerable multi-beam antenna which concentrates the
transmitted energy in a narrow beam, along a direction normal
to the satellite track, while the characteristics of the transmitted
pulses and of the reception timing determine spatial resolution
and coverage.
• COSMO SAR provides the user with a set of standard
operational modes; nevertheless the operational policy is fully
flexible and all the parameters which are necessary in order to
define a beam are selectable by means of ground commands.34
 COSMO – SKY MED SYSTEM – SPACE SEGMENT
™ SAR acquisition modes
Modes with one polarisation selectable
among HH, VV, HV or VH :

™ SPOTLIGHT
- Resolution : order of the m or less
- Spot area : tens of km2
™ HIMAGE (Stripmap)
- Resolution : few meters
- Swath width : several tens of km
™ WIDEREGIO
- Resolution : order of the m or less
- Spot area : tens of km2 35
SAR - LUPE

Basic Operational Performance Requirements

• All-weather, day and night X-Band SAR
capability
• Global coverage 800N – 800S
• Geometrical resolution <1m
• Size of a standard scene at > 5x5 km2
highest resolution
• System response time < 36 h
• Images per day > 30
• Lifetime 10 years

36
 Micro SAR

FREQUENCY : X-BAND
POLARISATION : HH
ACCESS CAPABILITY : >500Km (either side of nadir)
RADAR BEAM POINTING: : +1 Km at 500Km off nadir
DOWNLINK : X-BAND (100Mb/s, QPSK)

MASS 200-300kg
SIZE OPERATING MODE STRIPMAP SCANSAR

stowed -1.5mx1.3m dia (3 sub-swaths)

deployed -2.5mx1.2mx0.6m SWATH WIDTH : 15-20 km 40-50 km

SPATIAL RESOLUTION : 5-10M 30M
SENSITIVIY : -20dB (-25dB) -20dB(-25dB)

Orbit nominal Polar, sun sync 500-600km 37

RADAR IMAGING SATELLITE
(RISAT)

38
 RISAT : MAJOR SYSTEM PARAMETERS
ALTITUDE 586.87 KM
FREQUENCY 5.35 Ghz
ORBIT SUN SYNCHRONOUS
POLARISATION SINGLE / DUAL/ QUAD POLARISATION
RESOLUTION (IN METER) SINGLE POL DUAL POL QUAD POL
HH / HV / VV / VH. HH+HV / VV+VH HH+HV+VV+VH
High Resolution Spotlight Azimuth 1m Azimuth 1m
HRS Sl. Range 0.7 m Sl. Rang 0.7 m
Fine Resolution Strip map Azimuth 3m Azimuth 3m Azimuth 9m
FRS Sl. Range 2m Sl. Range 2m Sl. Range 4m
Medium Resolution SCANSAR Azimuth 24 m Azimuth 24 m
MRS Sl. Range 8m Sl. Range 8m
Coarse Resolution SCANSAR Azimuth 50 m Azimuth 50 m
CRS Sl. Range 8m Sl. Range 8m
SWATH 10 km x 10 km SPOT (HRS)
(IN km) 30 km STRIP (FRS)
120 km STRIP (MRS)
240 km STRIP (CRS)
LOOK ANGLE COVERAGE 18.7 degrees to 44.3 degrees
INCIDENCE ANGLE COVERAGE 20.5 degrees to 49.7 degrees

SWATH SELECTABILITY EITHER SIDE OF FLIGHT DIRECTION

FROM 200 km TO 600 km FROM THE SUBSATELLITE TRACK
TOTAL NO. OF BEAMS 41 39
ON BOARD STORAGE 240 Gbits
OPERATING FREQUENCY :5.35 GHz
HIGH RESOLUTION SPOTLIGHT (HRS)
FINE RESOLUTION STRIPMAP-1 (FRS-1)
FINE RESOLUTION STRIPMAP-2 (FRS-2)
FRS-1 FRS-2
MEDIUM RESOLUTION SCANSAR (MRS)
SWATH 30 km 30 km
COARSE RESOLUTION SCANSAR (CRS)
RES. 3m 9m

POL. SINGLE/ QUAD

DUAL

FRS1/FRS2
MODE

HRS

HRS SPOT 10 km x 10 km
MODE
RES. 1m
586 km
POL. SINGLE/DUAL
20
km 0

40
0
km MRS CRS

MRS/CRS SWATH 120 km 240 km

MODE RES. 25 m 50 m

POL. SINGLE/ SINGLE/40

DUAL DUAL
 OTHER SAR MISSIONS

ALMAZ-1a (RUSSIA) S-BAND HH 15 M

KOSMOS-1870 (RUSSIA) S-BAND HH 25 M
RESURS-DK2 (RUSSIA) 1M
RESURS-DK3 (RUSSIA) 1M
CONDOR-E (RUSSIA) 10 M
TERRASAR-L (EUROPE) 1M
TECHSAR (ISRAEL)
BISTATIC SAR (FRANCE)

THERE ARE SPACEBORNE SAR SYSTEMS OPERATING WITH

BETTER THAN 1M RESOLUTION IN THE CLASSIFIED
DOMAIN. AND MANY MORE ARE IN THE PIPELINE. 41
 JEP – MICROWAVE DATA UTILISATION

WITH THE PLANNED LAUNCH OF RISAT IN 2006-07, ISRO

HAS INITIATED ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE THE USERS FOR
UTILISING THE RADAR DATA. JEP-MICROWAVE LIKE THE
EARLIER JEP WHICH PREPARED THE USERS FOR IRS DATA
UTILISATION AIMS AT :

“ CARRYING OUT APPLICATIONS STUDIES JOINTLY

WITH THE USER AGENCIES USING THE RADAR
DATA FROM RADARSAT, ENVISAT ETC.

“ CARRYING OUT SPECIFIC CAMPAIGNS FOR

COLLECTING DATA IN MULTIBAND AND
MULTIPOLARISATION (USING ISRO’S C-BAND
AIRBORNE SAR AND DLR E-SAR) 42
 JEP – MICROWAVE DATA UTILISATION

“ CARRYING OUT FUNDAMENTAL STUDIES TO

ENHANCE THE UNDERSTANDING OF MICROWAVE
SIGNATURES

“ DEVELOPING SPECIFIC SOFTWARES / TOOLS FOR

ANALYSING MICROWAVE DATA

“ ORGANISING SPECIALISED TRAINING PROGRAMME

43
 PRESENT STATUS

“ PROJECT APPROVED AND EXECUTION DOCUMENT

PREPARED

“ PROJECT EXECUTIVES AND PI’s IDENTIFIED

“ CAMPAIGN USING DLR ESAR AND ISRO ASAR

CARRIED OUT

“ DATA IS PROCESSED

“ TRAINING PROGRAMME INITIATED

44
 AIRBORNE SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR (ASAR)

SPECIFICATIONS
FREQUENCY: 5.35 GHz
SWATH: 25 KM
RESOLUTION: 6 m
LOOK ANGLE: 7-74 DEG
AIRCRAFT VEL: 120 m/sec.
ALT: 8 Km

45
Experimental Airborne SAR : E-SAR

¾ Flexible multi-channel SAR-system

¾ P-, L-, S-, C- and X-Band
¾ Full polarimetric in P- and L-Band
¾ High resolution Imaging
(up to 0.5m resolution in azimuth)
¾ Along- and Across-Track
Interferometry
¾ Real-time SAR Processing
¾ Innovative Imaging Modes
(polarimetric SAR interferometry and
tomography)
46