INTRODUCTION

A picture is worth million words

‘vision is one of the chief gateways of educative experience.visual aids increase the spped of
learning and improve the quality of self education. What our eyes percieve,our minds with
due consideration should quickly appreciate and long retain

EDWARD FITZGERALD

DEFINITION

Audio visual aids are any devices that can be used to make the learning experience more
concrete, more realistic and more dynamic

-Kinder S James

Audio visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process of
learning i.e motivation,classification and stimulation.

- Carter V Good

PSYCHOLOGY OF USING AV AIDS

Research done by Cobun indicated that:

 1 percent of what is learned is from sense of taste

 1.5 percent of what si learned is from sense of touch
 3.5 percent of what is learned is from sense of smell
 11 percent of what is learned is from sense of hearing
 83 percent of what is learned is from sense of sight
Cobun concluded that people generally remember :-
 10 percent of what they READ
 20 percent of what they HEAR
 30 percent fo what they SEE
 50 percent of what they HEAR AND SEE
 70 percent of what they SAY
 90 percent of what they SAY as they do a thing.
 PRINCIPLES IN THE USE OF AV AIDS

 Relevance
 Accuracy
 Comprehensible
 Realism
 Control Overcrowding
 Interest
 Availability
 Costs
 Language
 Presentation
 Location
 Evaluation

CLASSIFICATION OF AV AIDS

CLASSIFICATION OF AV AIDS

NON- PROJECTED AIDS

PROJECTED AIDS
ACTIVITY AIDS

CAI
THREE DIMENSIONAL AIDS Demonstration
Models Dramatics
Specimens Fieldtrips
Films
Moulage Programmed instruction
Filmstrips
Epidiascope Mock up
Slide projector Puppets
Overhead Projector
LCD Projector VISUAL AIDS AUDIO VISUAL AIDS

Blackboard Television
Bulletin board Sound
Flannel board Motion pictures
Cartoons
Leaflets,pamphlets
booklets AUDIO AIDS
Diagrams
Radio
Flashcards Recordingss
 PROJECTED AIDS
AIDSAIDS

MOVING STILL

LCD projectors Epidiascope

Film Slide projector
Film strips OHP
Television

1. FILM

2. FILMSTRIPS

3. SLIDE PROJECTOR

4. OVER HEAD PROJECTORS

5. LCD PROJECTORS

EPIDIASCOPE
The epidiascope is an instrument which can project images or printed matter or small opaque
objects on screen, or it can project images of a 4” x 4’’ slide. With the help of epidiascope
any chart, diagram, map, photograph and picture can be projected on the screen without
tearing it off the book. No slide is required for this purpose. It works on the principle of
horizontal straight line projection with a lamp, plane mirror and projection lens. A strong
light from the lamp falls on the opaque object. A plane mirror placed at an angle of 45 degree
over the project reflects the light so that it passes through the projection lens forming a
magnified image on the screen.

PURPOSE

 It works as epidiascope when it is used to project on opaque object

 It works as diascope when it is used to project slides

ADVANTAGES

 The original color of the picture of photograph can be projected

 The projections on the screen can be held for sometime till the teacher explains the
concept
 PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING EPIDIASCOPE

 The room should be completely dark

 Delicate pictures or objects such as preserved specimens should not be exposed to
the light of the head lamp for a longer duration
 Practical training is required to insert slides on horizontal platform of the machine
and to put slides in an epidiascope

OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
The overhead projector is a versatile and popular device for projecting transparencies, with
brilliant screen images suitable for use in lighted room. It is a very vital teaching aid which has
made projections very simple and easy.

 Over head projector is a device for projecting a matter written or drawn on a

transparent sheet of acetate on a screen

 It produces an image behind the teacher or over the head of the teacher

PARTS OF THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR

 An OHP consist of a metal box a 1000 w/ 600 watt halogen lamp

 Projection head lens and mirror

 Focus wheel

 Glass plate/ transparency stage

 Fresnel lens

 Switch to intense or dimmer

 Switch for cooling fan

 Adjustment feet

 Overhead projector

OHP TRANSPARENCY PREPARATION

 Transparencies should be simple, preferably expressing a single concept on one sheet

 18cm x 22 cm size acetate should be used

 Use of temporary or permanent ohp markers

 Additions and alteration can be done in between the class by using a damp cloth to rub the
written material
  No more than 6 words in each line and 8 lines in each sheet

 Letters should not be less than 8 mm in size. In between space 5 mm

 Simple lettering should be used in writing.

 Figures and diagrams should be relevant to the content

 Only key messages should be emphasized , overcrowding should be avoided

 Contrasting colors to use legibly and systematically . Preferable colour use- black, blue,
green .

 Put margins appropriately

 Avoid copying from a printed book as it contains much in formation

EFFECTIVE USE OF TRANSPARENCY

 The placement of ohp should be such that every student can see every part of
the sheet.

 OHP should be on with the transparency in position as and when required.the

fan switch if provided should not be switched off until the light source cools
down

 The main plug and the switch should not be turned off soon after using the
projector

 Transportation of OHP avoided if the lamp is still hot

 Never hold pointer in hand to avoid silhouetting effect

 Projection of whole of the transparency avoided rather optimal progressive

disclosure is helpful

 Never leave a visual on the screen which is already discussed

 Turn of the projector by keeping the fan on when you are actually not projecting
the transparency

 Transparency can also be made with overlays -additional acetate sheets can be
placed over the base transparency to add new features or colors.

 Opaque objects can be projected by using silhouetting effect,leave the sheet for
long time on the screen to allow students to read and absorb the information
PRINCIPLES FOR EFFECTIVE USE OF OVER HEAD PROJECTOR

Preparation phase

The principles for effective use of OHP can be discussed in following phases:

The screen should be so kept that that all students can view it without difficulty; lower
border of the screen should be in level with the heads of audience.

 Collect all the required materials well ahead

 Focus the projection lens until the image is sharp
 Keep the transparencies in sequence
 Use appropriately masking strategies; reveal the transparency only when it is
required
 Explain clearly and concisely

Presentation phase

Switch on the OHP only while showing the transparency to the audience. Overheating the
bulb may blow it off. Switch off when:

 Placing the transparency on table

 Removing the transparencies
 Explaining the concept or idea
Use pointer to indicate, preferably on the transparency rather than on the screen.
Use mask to reveal points in step by step fashion, whenever required
Do not move the OHP when the bulb is switched on, as the filament of the bulb may
break due to jerks during shifting.
When the content presented consume more than 3 to 4 minutes, switch off OHP
while giving oral explanations . Organize the content in such a way that every 3 to 4
minutes the OHP should be switched off.Switch it on after a minute or two.

Aftercare of the equipment

 Collect the transparencies and preserve them for further use.

 Never move the machine , while the lamp is still hot.
 Do not disconnect it from main supply while the fan is operating.
 Clean the lens with a moist pad and detergent cleaner
 Cover the OHP and keep it safely.
ADVANTAGES OF OHP

 Permits face to face teaching situation

 Gives large bright picture
 Materials prepared easily
 Helps in sequential learning
 Can be used with other AV AIDS more easily
 Quite cheaper than other projected aids
 Easy to operate
 Can be used for a large group of students

DISADVANATGES OF OHP

 Apparatus is quite costly; if the bulb blows off, a spare lamp is sought for, which is
costlier
 Electrical power consumption is high
 Requires extensive maintenance
 Teacher/ students may become dependent on OHP

SLIDE PROJECTOR
Definition : A slide is a still transparency of 70 mm,35 mm or 6 mm size which is optically
enlarged and projected on a screen as a real image. It is actually a small piece of film or
other transparent material on which a single pictorial image or scene or graphic image has
been photographed or reproduced otherwise.

Slides are small transparent visual aids which can be viewed with the help of a slide
projector. They are effective promoters of discussions, making abstractions concrete and
realistic.

TYPES OF SLIDE

Normally, slides are of three types:

1. Photographic slides
2. Handmade slides
3. Computer made slides

Slides in series or linked together in a sequence make a film strip or film slide or strip film.
Film strip is a roll of 35 mm positive film which has sprocket holes in both sides and contains
a sequence of picture like slides.
PREPARING SLIDES: Slides are prepared easily and with inexpensive materials. Plain,
colored or etched glass, binding tape, cellophane, colored pencils and colored ink are the
materials required for producing slides. Handmade slides are prepared by drawing or writing
on the transparent films. Photographic slides can be prepared using positive films. The latest
method of preparing slides is by using computer graphics on the colour screen.

ADVANTAGES OF SLIDES

 Visible to a large group

 Useful for learning for all groups of learner, especially for adult groups
 Availability of slides dealing with various of subjects
 Easy transport
 Magnification obtained
 Stimulates interest

DISADVANTAGES

 Costly
 Darkening prevents the students to take down necessary notes during session
 Need efficient operation

LCD PROJECTORS
LCD means Liquid Crystal Display , it is a type of projector for displaying video, images or
computer data on a screen or other flat surface. It is a modern analog of the slide projector

HOW IMAGES ARE DISPLAYED

To display images ,LCD projectors typically send light from a metal halide lamp through a
prism that seperates light to three poly silicon panels- one each for the red , green, and blue
components of the video signal. As polareized light passes through the panels (combination
of polarizer,LCD panel and analyzer),individuals pixels can be opened to allow light to pass
or closed to block the light. The combination of open and closed pixels can produce a wide
range of colours and shades in the projected image.

Metal halide lamps are used because they output an ideal colour temperature and
ideal spectrum of colour. These lamps also have the ability to produce an extremely large
amount of light within a small area.
PROJECTION SURFACES

These small halide lamps have the ability to project an image on any flat surface. Even so
the best image quality is found using a blank, gray or white surface, so dedicated projection
screens are often used. White surfaces are best suited for natural colour tones.

USES OF LCD PROJECTORS

Classroom purpose

 Watching educational videos in classroom

 As image can be projected in a well lit environment, students can write notes during
class.
 Projectors become powerful teaching tools, particularly when instructing a class how
to operate computers.
 Can be installed in a fixed manner in a class, hall and image can be magnified to
reach a larger number.

Meetings and small conferences

 Problem points and issues can be displayed on large screen and can be easily verified
and thus facilitate more effective , smother following discussions.

Mobile presentation

When presentations are made out of the campus , the uses of LCD projectors enables us to
present highly appealing and communicative deliveries, on a large screen, that holds the
attention of the audience completely.

Large Conferences

Projectors are now indispensible for conferences and seminars at large venues.

Exhibitions

Projector generated images coupled with explanatory panels allow the staging of more
dynamic presentations to achieve a greater impact at events such as exhibition.
DISADVANTAGES OF LCD PROJECTORS

 Clarity reduced in well lit environment

 Smooth white, flat surface is required to project
 Projectors do not have self playing ability. It requires input from computer
 Expensive and less affordability
 Technical knowledge and skill is essential to use the projector effectively

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION
Microsoft powerpoint is a versatile tool for developing computer based graphical
presentations.

Criteria for developing Power Point Presentations

 Powerpoint presentations are meant for use as a presentation aid with a speaker. It
is not best for presentations without a speaker.
 Powerpoint slides comprising a presentation should support the message, not
substitute for the presenter or for a more detailed handout.
 A balanced and structured approach is needed for a presentation. Text to give
context for the audience’s understanding of what the presenter will be speaking

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS

 Decide clearly the purpose of presentation

 Select colors that have high contrast so that the text and graphics can be easily seen.
 It is preferred to have a dark background with lightly colored text and vice versa.
 Use fonts that provide a clear visibility
 Never use a font size below 24
 For titles and headings use 36 to 44 font size
 Never use too many fonts
 For title , either bold letters or underline can be used, never use both.
 Use bulleted points and short sentences, preferably phrases consisting of 5 to 6
words, to deliver the key ideas.
 Avoid using moving/ flying text or graphics unless a purpose is there.
 The most preferred effect that is suitable in a presentation is the “appear” effect
 Transitions between slides should be smooth and appealing. Otherwise distraction
may happen from the message being delivered.
 Use graphics, clip arts or photographs only if they add message to the slides
 Avoid overly complex diagrams or charts
 Do not use images that are not relevant to the topic of the slide
 Charts , graphs and tables can be used to present information precisely and concisely
  Never use poor quality of video or audio segments

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

 Never read out the slides as it appears during the presentation. Simply reading
the slides that are jammed with text is an insult to the audience.
 Elaborate the points, phrases, key ideas present on the slides.
 Avoid abrupt jump of the content
 Go back to previous slides if required
 Face the audience and not the projection screen

ADVANTAGES OF POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS

 Saves time and energy

 PPT is portable and can be easily shared with students
 PPT supports multimedia such as videos, audio, images and animation

DISADVANTAGES

 It makes teacher powerless

 Reduces opportunity for classroom interaction
 Can lead to information overload especially with long sentences and paragraphs
 Minimizes opportunity of creative teaching
 If light goes away, teacher feels handicapped

FILMS
Films are one of the widely used and seriously taken teaching strategies. Films have been
used to teach a variety of college subjects including biology, communication, ethics history,
philosophy,political science psychology and religion . Also films have been used extensively
in teaching psychiatry and counseling.

ADVANTAGES

 It increases the attention span

 It stimulates critical thinking
 It motivates the learner
 It helps in easy remembrance of the concepts
 It appeals to the visual learner
 It increases curiosity
 It increases observation skill
 It stimulates interest
 It increases participation
  It can make dry and abstract content alive
 It is accepted by the students
 It can provide shared experiences and learning
 Watching a film in a group can promote group cohesion
 Film creates a social, pleasant environment with fun
 Certain experiences which may not be given a practical learning such as disasters,
violence , etc. can be given through films.

DISADVANTAGES OF FILMS

 Teacher should have control over the students learning, otherwise it will be mere
watching a movie.
 If not facilated by teacher the student may not relate movie with the subject.

STEPS IN USING FILM

 Planning
 Formulate the objective
 Select the topic
 Check for feasibility and facilities available
 Plan for content to be covered
 Choose the movie

Preparation

 Explain the purposes and what should be observed

 Inform objectives
 Project the film
 Discuss the issues
 Clarify the doubts and supplement

EVALUATION

 Evaluation of self
 Student learning
 Film as a teaching strategy

TIPS FOR USING FILMS SUCCESSFULLY

 Buy your own videos and DVDs

 Familiarize yourself with copy right matters
 Videos should be done in an instructional room such as a classroom or an
auditorium
  Films can be shown for educational but not for recreational purpose.
 Videos, not illegal copies, must be used and copyright notice has to be shown.
 Have an alternate film, handouts and discussion questions prepared in case the
video does not work.
 Instruct the students to have pen and paper to note down questions or comments.
 Instruct the students what to be observed for.
 Explain what you are doing to other faculty. Do not let them to hear rumors that you
are cutting theory classes to watch movies.

PAMPHLETS, BOOKLETS AND LEAFLETS

“ Printed material in a crisp and concised manner”

Booklet, pamphlets and leaflets are printed material containing relevant information in a
crisp and concise manner. They may be useful to supplement any classroom teaching
method, especially lecture, or to disseminate information to the community in a short
period. They provide opportunity for reading, learning and referring a specific topic or
subject.

A booklet is a small book with a cover page. It is particularly useful for topics which have
high degree of public interest like controlling obesity, care during pregnancy, diabetic care
etc

A leaflet is simple sheet carrying helpful information on useful themes

A pamphlet is a printed material consisting of only a few pages about a specific topic.

A pamphlet or leaflet should be:

 Colorful
 Attractive
 Illustrated with pictures
 Simple and precise
 Informative
 Self explanatory
 Useful

ADVANTAGES

 Information can be reached a large group within a short time

 They are highly economic, flexible and portable
 Facilitates individualized learning
 Can be reproduced in any language
 Can be utilized for any group of people at any context
  Stimulates interest on the part of the learner

DISADVANTAGES

 Presentation if not found attractive will be easily thrown out. It must be attractive.
 Receiving feedback is not possible
 Cannot be used for illiterates
 Cannot be preserved for a longer time
 Printed teaching material is sometimes described as frozen language, which may not
serve its objective.

CARTOONS
A cartoon is a novel way of using pictures or symbols for presenting a message or a point of
view concerning a personality, news, situations or events. It is more attention drawing and
in small space gives a lot of imagination , particularly on the current happenings. The
cartoon is an interpretative illustration which uses symbols to portray an opinion, a scene or
a situation. It makes use of personalized humor, fantasy, incongruity, satire and
exaggeration. In short cartoon is a figurative and subtle graphic aid. It makes strong appeal
to the emotions thus enhancing learning. Beneath a superior exterior, they may portray a
deep penetrating meaning. The main sources of cartoons are periodicals, newspaper,
magazines etc.

FOR A CARTOON TO BE ATTRACT ATTENTION:

 The quality of drawing should be high

 Suitable to the level of the learner
 It should be meaningful and intelligible
 It should be based on educational objectives and background of students
 Should be simple and clear
 Explain the concept without too much explanation/ excessive dialogue
 The symbols used should be familiar
 Should be intellectual though sarcastic and ridiculing

ADVANTAGES OF CARTOON

A cartoon can be effectively used :

 To initiate lessons
 To motivate students to start discussion
 For making teaching lively and interesting
 To reveal truth or reality about the people, events and incidents
  To modify the behavior and develop positive attitude in the learner

DISADVANTAGES

 Instructor should carefully choose to use the cartoons as sometimes it may hurt the
personal feelings of students
 The amount of sarcasm and ridicule has to be balanced with the lesson it gives

 A FLIM STRIP IS A SERIES OF SEQUENCED SLIDES ON A PIECE OF FILM COVERING A LARGE

PORTION OF A LESSON. THERE ARE 20-50 SLIDES ON AN ABOUT HALF METER TO ONE AND
HALF METERS LONG FILM STRIP

OPAQUE PROJECTORS

 THE PROJECTION OF REAL MAGNIFIEDC IMAGES ON A SCREEN DIRECTLY FROM PICTURES

AND DRAWINGS ON PAPERS IS CALLED OPAQUE PROJECTOR

 OPAQUE PROJECTION IS DONE BY AN OPTICAL INSTRUMENT CALLED EPISCOPE

 THE LIGHT REFLECTED FROM THE STRONGLY ILLUMINATED PICTURE IS REVERSED BY MEANS
OF A MIRROR AT 45 DEGREE AND THEN IT IS PROJECTED ON A SCREEN USING CONVEX LENS.
THE ILLUMINATED PICTURE LIES BETWEEN THE FOCUS OF THE CONVEX LENS TO PRODUCE A
MAGNIFIED REAL IMAGE

 PPT

 POWERPOINT USES THE SLIDES WITH A HORIZONTAL OR LANDSCAPE ORIENTATION

PREPARING SLIDES NEEDS PLENTY OF TIME

 VISUALLY IMPAIRED CANT SEE THE SMALL IMAGES SPECIALLY

 COPYRIGHTED MATERIALS BE SURE BEFORE COPYING ANYTHING FROM ONLINE

 MESSAGE INTERPRETATION-ONLY THE PPT WILL BE ENOUGH TO UNDERSTAND OR THEY

NEED ANY OTHER MATERIALS TO READ

 LAPTOP ALONE IS NOT ENOUGH FOR PRESENTATION CABLES DRIVERS LCD IS ALSO NEEDED

 SLIDE CONTENT-RULE OF SIX

 AVOID TEXT DENSE SLIDES-TOO MUCH WRITING IN A SINGLE SLIDE

 USE BRIEF POINTS THAN LONG SENTENCE

  USE PPT TO CUE AND GUIDE THE PRESENTATION

 NUMBER OF SLIDE-RULE OF THUMB-ONE SLIDE PER MINUTE FOR DISCUSSION N STUNENTS

ABSORBTION

 USE ITALICS BOLD AND COLOR

 USE LIGHT BACKGROUND

 USE DIFFERENT COLOR SLIDE BACKGROUND

 AVOID USING UNDERLINES FOR EMPHASIS

 ENSURE THE TYPEFACE IS LARGE ENOUGH TO READ FROM ANYWHERE IN THE ROOM

 TITLES AND THE HEADING SHOULD BE NOT LESS THAN 36-40 POINTS

 SUBTEXT SHUOLD BE NO LESS THAN 32 POINTS

 NON PROJECTED AIDS

a) GRAPHIC AIDS

b) DISPLAY BOARDS

c) 3-D AIDS

d) ACTIVITY AIDS

e) AUDIO AIDS

f) PRINTED AIDS

g) AUDIOVISUAL AIDS

 GRAPHIC AIDS

 CHARTS, POSTERS,FLASH CARDS, PICTURES, FLIP CHARTS, MAPS ,GRAPHS

CHARTS

 A CHART IS A COMBINATION OF PICTORIAL, GRAPHIC, NUMERICAL OR VERTICAL MATERIALS

WHICH PRESENTS A CLEAR VISUAL SUMMARY.

 THE MOST COMMONLY USED TYPES OF CHARTS ARE OUTLINE CHARTS ,TABULAR CHART
AND ORGANIZATION CHARTS.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN MAKING THE CHART

 TITLE FOR EVERY DIAGRAM

 PROPORTION BETWEEN WIDTH AND HEIGHT SHOULD BE MAINTAINED TO PREVENT UGLY

LOOK
 SELECTION OF SCALETHE SCALES SHOWING THE VALUES SHOULD BE IN EVEN NUMBERS OR
IN MULTIPLES OF 5 OR 10 NOT ODD VALUES.

 FOOTNOTES MAY BE GIVEN AT THE BOTTOM OF THE DIAGRAM IN ORDER TO CLARIFY

CERTAIN POINTS

 INDEX AN INDEX ILLUSTRATING DIFFERENT TYPES OF LINES OR DIFFERENT SHADES OF

COLORS SHOULD BE GIVEN SO THAT THE READER CAN EASILY MAKE OUT THE MEANING OF
THE DIAGRAM. THE SIZE OF THE CHART STANDARD ONE IS 90X60CM AND 70X55CM,
CAPTION2-3CMFOR CLASSROOM OF DEPTH6M.THICKNESS OF THE LINES SHOULD BE
BETWEEN 2-3MM

 NEAT AND CLEAN

 SIMPLICITY

 TYPES OF CHART

 THE NARRATIVE CHART-EG TRENDS

 The chain chart- eg-cycles

 Strip chart-eg step by step

 Pull chart-messages on strips pulled out to show

 Flow chart-eg organisational chart

 Tabulation chart-50x75cmchart size numerical datas shown eg advantages anddisadvantages

list

 Time or table chart-tour chart, class time table chart

 Genealogy chart-historical facts,growth and development of the family

 Job chart-responsibilities of specific categories will be listed out

 Tree chart-development or any phenomena shown in a tree form

 Flip chart-related to specific topic that has been tagged together hanged on supporting
stand

 Overlay chart-illustrated sheets.each sheet forms a part of the whole picture

 Pie chart-a circle drawn and divide into various sections each sections coded differently

 Bar chart-facts are exhibited in bars,has both length and width

 posters

 It is good substitute for first hand experience.it varies from a simple printed card to
complicated or artistic design
  Types of poster may include

 Walk past poster-a simple clear message with a maximum of 7 words understable even in
the time some one takes to cross it

 Teaching poster-simple clear pictures non technical simple words one or more messages

 Rules to prepare a poster

 To emphasize pppon one pointit should be attractive so that walking people stands and
watch and then go,use bold letterssimple few words,pleasing colors,timelytell message in
single glance

 graphs

Graphs are visual aids for presenting statistical informations and contrasting the trends or changes
of certain attributes. It makes the data easily interpretable and readily understood.

Bar graph

Line graph

Pie graph

Pictorial graph

histogram or column diagram

Frequency polygon

Cumulative frequency graph

 maps

 A map is a graphic aid representing proportionately the diagrams of the surface of the earth,
world, or parts thereof. A map is always drawn to a scale which is mentioned on one
cornerof it

 Types of maps

 Political maps,physical maps relief maps, weather maps, population maps,picture or tourists
maps, road maps ,railway maps, air maps and sea route maps

 DEFINITION

 THREE DIMENSIONAL AIDS ARE THOSE SUBSTITUTES FOR REAL THINGS WHICH HAVE THREE
DIMENSIONS LIKE LENGTH BREADTH AND HEIGHT

 A VARIETY OF THREE DIMENSIONS ARE ALSO REFERRED AS ‘REALIA’ MEANING SUBSTITUTE

FOR REAL THINGS

 IT IS THE REPLICA OF THE ORIGINALS

  TYPES OF THREE DIMENSIONAL AIDS

 MODELS

 MOCK-UP

 GLOBES

 DIORAMAS

 HOLOGRAMS

 PUPPETS

 MODELS

 MODELS ARE THE THREE DIMENSIONAL REPRESENTATION OF REAL THINGS.

 THEY ARE THE SUBSTITUTES FOR THE REAL THINGS.

 THEY ENABLES TO SIMPLIFY THE MATTER.

 THEY CAN BE WORKING OR STATIC

 TYPES OF MODELS

 SCALE MODEL :prepared to form the correct idea of an object with measurements.

 SIMPLIFIED MODEL:prepared to have the idea of external form of

the object using no exact scale.

 WORKING MODEL:prepared to demonstrate the operation in a simple way

 MOCK-UPS

DEVICES WHICH ARE IMITATIONS OF REAL THINGS .MAY OR MAY NOT BE SIMILAR IN
APPEARENCE,THE NON FUNCTIONING PARTS THAT ARE UNNECESSARY FOR UNDERSTANDING OF
THE OPERATIONAL FUNCTIONS ARE BEING OMITTED