Moro reflex

is present in children from ages 0-6 months old. In response to a startling sound or abrupt change
in the infant’s position, the infant will rapidly reach its arms outward with outspread hands and
then draw its arms closer together.

Computerized tomography (CT)

scan is formed by composing several x-ray images together. After a patient is placed into a CT
scanner, multiple x-ray images are taken from multiple angles. Together, these images can be
stitched together to form a rough three-dimensional image of the inside of the patient’s body.
While this form of imaging is fast and relatively cheap, there are limitations. Importantly, CT
lacks the ability to resolve fine detail and accurately model the soft tissues of the brain.

A positron emission tomography (PET)

scan may be considered an “improvement” on a CT scan. While the imaging setup is exactly the
same, the patient must also be injected with a radioactive tracer beforehand. The type of
radioactive tracer that is injected may be tailored to a specific cell activity that must be detected.
For instance, a tracer may be used that behaves like glucose and is thus consumed by cells with
high metabolic rates. The radioactive tracer releases gamma rays with high energy that can be
detected by specialized cameras.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and (functional magnetic resonance imaging) fMRI

scans offer high-resolution images of both soft and hard tissues within the body. These scanners
use highly powerful electromagnets to create magnetic fields around the body, which interact
with the nuclei of atoms within the body. The energy released by these interactions can be
detected by a sensor, which creates highly detailed images in nearly real-time. 

Schizotypal personality disorders

are characterized by eccentric thinking unaccepted by the cultural norm.

Schizoid personality disorder

applies to individuals who are disinterested in or detached from personal relationships with
others. This cluster may be well-remembered as the “weird” disorders.
Antisocial personality disorder

is marked by a disregard for the rights, emotions, or desires of others. It has also come to be
known as sociopathy, and is characterized by a lack of remorse for one’s actions.

Borderline personality disorder

is marked by instability in mood, interpersonal relationships, self-esteem, and behavior, and

tends to be diagnosed more often in females.

Histrionic personality disorder

is marked by high amounts of attention-seeking behavior: particularly through seductive actions

or wearing colorful clothing.

Narcissistic personality disorder

applies to individuals with exaggerated demand for attention and reinforcement of self-esteem.
This cluster may be well-remembered as the “wild” disorders.

Avoidant personality disorder

is characterized by an incredible fear of rejection. Individuals with avoidant personality disorder

may isolate themselves from social situations even though they long for interaction to avoid
failure and rejection.

Dependent personality disorder

is marked by a constant need for reassurance and comfort from others. Individuals with
dependent personality disorder are unable to act on their own and are very codependent.
Individuals with

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

appear to have a strict need for order and neatness; they do not like to change their minds or
routines and are very stubborn. (Note that this is not the same disorder as obsessive-compulsive
disorder, which is discussed below.) This cluster may be well-remembered as the “worried”
disorders.

Conversion disorder

is similar to somatic symptom disorder in that individuals present with an unexplained somatic
symptom. However, these symptoms typically follow traumatic events, such as feeling numbness
in an arm after watching someone else lose a limb--though the muscles of the arm and the motor
neurons have no noticeable injuries.
The substantia nigra

is a region of the brain that helps promote the proper functioning of the basal ganglia through
the use of dopamine. The basal ganglia are used to control smooth motor movements. L-DOPA
is a dopamine precursor that is converted to dopamine in the brain, which can help
therapeutically replace the dopamine that is lost due to Parkinson’s.

Stem cell therapy

has also been proposed as treatment for Parkinson’s disease and other neurodegenerative
diseases. Under this treatment method, stem cells would be used to regenerate and develop
certain types of cells: including cells that develop dopamine, in the case of dopamine-deficient
patients. When successful, stem cell therapy can become a long-term treatment solution.

Narcolepsy

is a sleep disorder in which patients fall asleep and often at inappropriate times during the day. 
It is often associated with cataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle tone. Patients with these disorders
may pose harm to themselves or others, as they are unable to control when they fall asleep and
may be unable to protect themselves in dangerous situations. 

Parasomnias

are a group of sleep disorders that refer to abnormal behavior during, directly before, or directly
after sleep. They are most commonly found in children, and often spontaneously resolve by
adolescence. Parasomnias include sleepwalking, night terrors, and sleep paralysis.

Notable examples of stimulants include

caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines, and MDMA. 

Notable examples of opiates include

morphine, fentanyl, heroin, oxycodone, hydrocodone, and methadone. 

Notable examples of hallucinogens include

LSD, psilocybin (“shrooms”), mescaline (peyote), DMT, and PCP. 

Notable examples of depressants include

alcohol and barbiturates (also known as tranquilizers). 

An absolute threshold

is the minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to activate a sensory receptor at least 50% of the
time. This threshold can change due to aging or other factors. For example, the absolute
threshold of hearing decreases over time as hair cells die, either due to age or constant exposure
to extremely loud sounds (e.g. concerts, etc.)

A difference threshold, or the just-noticeable difference (JND)

is the minimum noticeable difference between two stimuli that can be recognized. A commonly
used application is in the determination of the two-point threshold, a test where two pinpoints are
placed simultaneously on the patient’s skin. When the two points are very far apart, the patient
can easily identify them as two separate stimuli. However, as the pinpoints are placed closer and
closer, they reach a point when they can no longer distinguish between the two different stimuli.
This distance is the difference threshold.

Place theory

states that differing locations within the cochlea register differing frequencies: the base of the
cochlea registers high-frequency sounds, while the apex (or tip) registers low-frequency sounds.

Parallax

is a visual phenomenon that occurs when the position or movement of an object appears to be
different based on where the observer is viewing it from. Think to your own experience in a train
or other fast-moving vehicle: objects in the background appear to move more slowly than objects
in the foreground. This is a feature of depth perception that allows the brain to perceive the 2D
images on the retinas as a 3D representation of the world.

Retinal disparity:

in which a greater difference between the two retinal images means the object is closer

Convergence:

in which the eyes facing at a more inward angle indicates the object is closer

Fluid intelligence
refers to problem-solving skills and critical thinking. This type of intelligence peaks in early
adulthood and remains stable until old age. 

Crystallized intelligence

refers to concrete facts, skills, and knowledge. It peaks in the elderly years (around 60 to 70
years of age), then declines. 

vicarious emotions

or emotions felt as a result of another individual’s experience, such as empathy. 

semantic encoding

is the process of putting things into a meaningful context to help store it in one’s memory (such
as memorizing a number by tying it to a birthday or the address of a familiar building). Semantic
encoding is highly effective, as it allows for the storage of new information by tying it to already
encoded information. The ease of semantic encoding leads to the self-reference effect, in which
information that is most pertinent to one’s past experience is most easily encoded and retrieved.

Korsakoff’s syndrome

caused by a nutritional deficiency of thiamine and most often found in alcoholics, also generally
results in amnesia. However, patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome often experience both
retrograde and anterograde amnesia: resulting in the forgetting of prior memories and an
inability to create new memories.  

State-dependent memory

is based on a similar phenomenon: information learned in a particular emotional or affective

state will be better recalled when the person is in the same state as when they learned the
information, as compared to a different state. 

self-concept

is deeply shaped by factors such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and perceived locus of control.

Self-esteem
refers to the perception of one’s identity, self-respect, and role in society.

Self-efficacy

refers to the perceived capabilities and independence within society. If an individual believes
that a situation is out of their control and is deeply influenced by other factors, they can be
thought of as relying on an external locus of control. Alternatively, an individual with an
internal locus of control may think of themselves as very self-sufficient and capable, thereby
holding a highly positive self-concept. A perception of self may also be deeply influenced by the
identities of others in primary or reference groups.

self-serving bias

explains how individuals explain their own successes or failures. If an individual is successful at
a task, they are more likely to attribute that to an internal locus of control (such as their own hard
work and dedication). If an individual fails at a task, they are more likely to attribute that to an
external locus of control (such as through making excuses for themselves or blaming others).

The fundamental attribution error

states that individuals are more likely to attribute the failures of others to inherent personality
faults.

The elaboration likelihood model

states that persuasion occurs through two simultaneous pathways. 

central route.

The central route includes the logical characteristics of the persuasive argument and the rational
arguments it presents. 

peripheral route.

Includes additional factors that do not affect the central argument, such as the physical
appearance of the speaker and use of props. While these visual cues do not directly affect the
message presented in the central route, they can serve to improve any emotional components of
attitudes held by the target audience. 
looking-glass self

states that society’s perception of an individual—which can be thought of as a reflection in a

mirror—will ultimately affect the way the individual perceives themselves. This is related to the
theory of the I and the me, in which the “me” of an individual represents the perception of how
society perceives the individual, and the “I” describes the individual as a response to the “me.”
These two elements of the self—the perceived image and its reaction—continually respond to
one another.

inclusive fitness

theory suggests that altruism among related organisms ensures the passing of related genes to be
passed onto the following generations. For example, organisms may forego having offspring to
better contribute their resources to ensuring the success of the offspring of others. In this way, it
is ensured that at least some of the offspring will continue to reproduce--an evolutionary
advantage to the species, even if not to the individual. 

Marx, a philosopher and economic theorist, wrote about the exploitation of the proletariat

(the common wage worker) by the bourgeoisie

(the owners of the means of production, including factories and farms). He believed that once the
proletariat overthrows the bourgeoisie and seizes the means of production, exploitation would
finally end. This event would be the key resolution in society and would provide justice for all
social classes.

According to the sociologist Max Weber, an ideal bureaucracy is characterized by several

factors:

 detailed rules and regulations for work

 clear definitions of hierarchy 

 impersonal relationships between subordinates and superiors

 division of labor into specialized jobs

McDonaldization, so named after a fast-food franchise that has become extremely profitable
and efficient. The McDonaldization of society is characterized by:

 efficiency: optimizing the time and monetary resources dedicated to producing a product

 predictability: developing a consistent product that a customer can reliably receive time
after time

 calculability: setting standards and goals for employees that can be measured and
compared against one another

 control: using a central authority to standardize employee work

iron law of oligarchy

states that all institutions and organizations will eventually come under the control of a few
powerful authority figures, who value power and elitism over the rights of the many who work
for the organization.

Tra High Low

it

O Openness Curious, Resist change

creative

C Conscientiousness Competent, Irresponsible

orderly

E Extraversion Outgoing, Shy, introverted

gregarious

A Agreeableness Goes with High

the flow maintenance,
opinionated

N Neuroticism Anxiety, Cope well with

anger, stress
impulsive