1

Afferent nerves (also known as sensory nerves):

nerves that relay sensory information from receptors in skin or muscle by ascending the spinal
cord

Autonomic nervous system:

governs our automatic or involuntary movements (movements that occur without our conscious
control), and innervates our digestive system, various glands, and smooth muscle

Brainstem:

pons, and medulla oblongata and midbrain

Central nervous system:

the brain and spinal cord

Corpus callosum:

a bundle of nerves that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain

Dorsal roots:

the back-facing side of the spinal cord that contains bundles of sensory, or afferent, fibers

Efferent nerves:

(also known as motor nerves) exit (down) the spinal cord to relay motor information or
commands from the brain to our muscles

Grasping reflex:

a neonatal reflex in which an infant tightly clasps its hand around an object placed in the palm

Peripheral nervous system:

all nervous tissue excluding the brain and spinal cord

Neonatal reflexes:
 2

an innate, normal, and expected response to a stimuli; appears as a newborn and disappears
sometime during infancy

Neurotransmitters:

chemical messengers that transmit messages from a neuron cell to a target cell

Parasympathetic nervous system:

a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that designed to conserve energy and promote
rest through “rest-and-digest” responses

Rooting reflex:

a neonatal reflex where an infant turns their cheek toward the side their cheek is touched in the
hopes of finding the mother’s nipple

Somatic nervous system:

a subdivision of the nervous system as a whole that governs our voluntary movements and
innervates skeletal muscle; contrasted with the autonomic nervous system

Suckling reflex:

a neonatal reflex where an infant sucks on an object placed in the mouth

Sympathetic nervous system:

a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that governs physiological responses to stressors
or “fight-or-flight” responses

Ventral roots:

the belly-facing side of the spinal cord that contain bundles of motor or efferent fibers

Experimental study

(a study where we test to prove a causal relationship between the independent variable and
dependent variable. Participants are randomly assigned to different groups or levels of the
independent variable. Between-subjects and within-subjects designs are common experimental
studies)
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Between-subjects

design (participants are randomly assigned to to an experimental group in the study, such that a
participant only participates in one group),

Within-subjects

design (also known as repeated-measures design, it is when a participant is exposed to every

level of the independent variable. Gives you higher power because you are using more "subjects"
in your study by using the same person in multiple conditions, and that you decrease individual
difference effects seen in between-subjects designs.)

Longitudinal study

(a study that is conducted over a long period of time, usually uses a specific cohort of people.
One example is to study incidence of heart disease in people over time, while monitoring things
like their diet or smoking habits)

Correlational study

(study that attempts to determine if there is simply a relationship between two variables. The
predictor variable is the correlational studies analog to an independent variable, while the
criterion variable is an analog to a dependent variable. These are observational studies that do not
prove causation between variables, while experimental research design does)

Retrospective study

(an observational study type where we look back at information in the past to try and find a trend
between events in the past and current outcomes. One example would be conducting an
experiment on people who suffer from Alzheimer's disease and looking back at their medical
records to set up a relation between factors in the past and the current outcome. This type of
study helps to develop and find potential risk factors for disease.)

Prospective study

(a study where we follow groups of people and see how their behavior in that time influence
future outcomes. This kind of study is looking into the future, while retrospective studies are
looking into the past. One popular example of this kind of study is by following nurses to
determine long term health outcomes by looking at factors like stress, smoking, and level of
exercise.)
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Mixed-method research design

(a study where you use both qualitative and quantitative measures to conduct your study. One
example would be using quantitative measures like how would you report your like for this
product on a scale of 1 through 10, and then later following up with people who answered either
negatively or poorly and asking them for their qualitative opinion.)

Psychological disorder:

a characteristic set of feelings, thoughts, or behaviors that differ from the cultural norm and can
cause distress to the individual suffering from them

Biomedical approach:

views the root of psychological disorders as a biomedical imbalance or disturbance

Biopsychosocial approach:

broader view of psychological disorders that considers biomedical, psychological, and social
factors when defining the origin of a disorder

Direct therapy:

helping the individual resolve their psychological disorder with medication or periodic meetings

Indirect therapy:

increasing support for the individual with help from family, friends, or other components of the
individual’s social network

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM):

standardized resource to assist clinicians classify these disorders

Psychotic disorders:

a group of disorders that result in at least one of the following: delusions, hallucinations,
disorganized thought or behavior, catatonia, or negative symptoms

Schizophrenia:
 5

prototypical psychotic disorder; involves a period of prodrome before the onset of psychotic
symptoms, which may include both negative and positive symptoms

Prodromal phase/prodrome:

phase that occurs before the diagnosis of schizophrenia; often involves social withdrawal,
deterioration, peculiar behavior, and other similar symptoms

Positive symptoms:

behaviors or thoughts that are added on to normal behavior, such as a nervous tick or
hallucinations

Negative symptoms:

symptoms that represent the absence of normal behavior, like the inability to eat, or lack of
emotion

Delusions:

false beliefs not observed in reality and not shared by others in the individual’s culture; can
include delusions of reference, persecution, or grandeur

Hallucinations:

false observations that are not based in reality but are perceived as such; auditory hallucinations
are more common than visual

Disorganized thought:

a positive symptom that refers to expressed words and thoughts strung together in a way that
makes them very difficult to follow. 

Catatonia:

abnormal movements as a result of a disturbed mental state; can include spontaneous movements
or the inability to move

Flat affect:

when there is virtually no evidence of emotion

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Inappropriate affect:

when presented affect is discordant with the individual’s speech or behavior

Avolition:

lack of engagement or participation in goal-driven activities. 

Downward drift hypothesis:

postulates that schizophrenia leads to a decline in socioeconomic status--which in turn can lead
to worsening symptoms; causes a vicious cycle of worsening schizophrenia and socioeconomic
status

Major depressive disorder:

a mood disorder and characterized by at least one major depressive episode; a major depressive
episode must last a period of at least 2 weeks

Anhedonia:

loss of interest in activities that used to be interesting

Dysthymia:

a depressed mood that isn’t severe enough to be classified as major depressive disorder

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD):

a major depressive disorder with a seasonal onset, typically the winter months

Manic episodes:

episodes of extremely elevated mood lasting at least one week

Hypomania:

an increased level of energy or optimism; distinguished from mania as it does not impair
functioning and does not involve psychotic features

Bipolar I disorder:
 7

alternating manic episodes that may or may not include depressive episodes

Bipolar II disorder:

hypomania with at least one major depressive episode

Cyclothymic disorder:

a combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia

Monoamine/catecholamine theory of depression:

states that too much of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin lead to mania, while
too little leads to depression

Generalized anxiety disorder:

refers to a persistent worry about many different factors in the environment

Specific phobias:

 irrational fears that are associated with specific objects or situations, such as spiders
(arachnophobia) or the fear of enclosed spaces with no escape (agoraphobia)

Social anxiety disorder:

anxiety in social situations that could lead to embarrassment. 

Panic disorder:

consists of repeated panic attacks, characterized by fear, sweating, and hyperventilation

Obsessive-compulsive disorder:

characterized by obsessions (thoughts that repeatedly return to the individual and are repetitive to
the point of detriment) and compulsions (behaviors that relieve the tension caused by the
obsession)

Body dysmorphic disorder:

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disorder in which the individual has an unrealistically negative perception of their personal
appearance

Anorexia nervosa:

body-weight disorder in which individuals are overly concerned with being thin; often appear
very thin and have a dangerously low body mass index

Binging and purging:

cycle of eating large quantities of food (binging), and subsequently self-inducing vomiting to
expel the food that was eaten (purging)

Bulimia:

similar body-weight disorder to anorexia; individuals engage in the same patterns of binging and
purging and typically appear to be of healthy body weight

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):

is onset after experiencing a traumatic event such as war, death, or other tragedies; individuals
who suffer from this disorder experience intrusive symptoms, avoidance symptoms, negative
cognitive symptoms, and arousal symptoms

Dissociative disorders:

marked by an apparent “escape from reality” to avoid stressors in the environment

Dissociative amnesia:

inability to recall past events; patients will dissociate themselves from reality by presenting with
amnesia that is not due to any underlying neurological conditions

Dissociative fugue:

a sudden departure from normal daily activities; individuals in dissociative fugue may even
forget who they are or assume a new identity

Dissociative identity disorder (DID):

formerly known as “multiple personality disorder”; an individual appears to have two or more
personalities that share control of the individual
 9

Depersonalization:

when an individual feels separated from their own mind and body

Derealization:

when an individual feels separated from their surroundings, and the world appears with a
dreamlike quality

Somatic symptom disorder:

typically diagnosed when an individual has a somatic symptom that is not necessarily linked to
an underlying medical condition

Conversion disorder:

similar to somatic symptom disorder in that individuals present with an unexplained somatic
symptom; these symptoms typically follow traumatic events

Illness anxiety disorder:

a person is consumed with the thought of having an illness or disease

Cluster A disorders:

include paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid personality disorders; may be well-remembered as

the “weird” disorders

Cluster B disorders:

include antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders; may be well-
remembered as the “wild” disorders

Cluster C disorders:

include antisocial, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders; may be well-

remembered as the “worried” disorders

Stress-diathesis theory:
 10

postulates that genetics provide a biological predisposition for schizophrenia, but environmental
stressors elicit the onset of the disease

Neuroleptics:

dopamine receptor antagonists used to treat schizophrenia

Dementia:

severe loss of cognitive ability beyond what would be expected from normal aging

Beta-amyloid plaques:

abnormal clusters of proteins found in the brain; a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease

Neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein:

abnormal clusters of proteins found in the brain; a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease

Parkinson’s disease:

characterized by poor control of fine motor movements; seems to be caused by decreased

dopamine production in the substantia nigra

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT):

commonly used treatment for behavioral psychological disorder; a therapist or trained medical
professional works with the patient to investigate the patterns of negative thinking or reevaluate
trigger events that may have led to the psychological disorder

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s):

common therapy for depressive disorders;  slow down the process of resorbing serotonin from
synaptic clefts in the brain

Consciousness:

an awareness of ourselves and the environment we live in

Electroencephalogram (EEG):
 11

non-invasive test that uses electrodes to detect the brain’s electrical activity and determine the
active state of the brain at any given time

K complexes and sleep spindles:

bursts of unique electrical activity interspersed among theta waves during stage 2 sleep

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep:

also known as paradoxical sleep; a late stage of the sleep cycle characterized by quick eye
movement, vivid dreams and imagery, and high electrical activity in the brain

Activation-synthesis theory:

states that dreams serve no real purpose and are simply the result of random EEG waves

Circadian rhythms:

the body’s natural and internal regulation of a sleep-wake cycle that repeats roughly every 24
hours

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN):

the brain’s internal clock

Melatonin:

a compound that triggers drowsiness and decreases alertness

Stimulant:

a consciousness-altering drug that increases physiological function and stimulate the sympathetic
nervous system

Opiates:

consciousness-altering drugs that act at the opiate receptors, which are responsible for alleviating
pain

Hallucinogens:
 12

drugs that act at serotonin receptors to amplify the senses and distort the perception of both the
external and internal reality

Depressants:

drugs that decrease physiological function and suppress the sympathetic nervous system

Sensory threshold:

a minimum stimulus intensity that is required from a sensation before activating the sensory
signal to be sent to the brain for processing; include absolute thresholds and difference thresholds

Weber’s law:

states that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion--rather than a constant difference--to
be subject to the same perceived change

Photoreceptors:

light receptors in the retina

Retinal:

a specialized molecular compound that triggers the phototransduction cascade when struck by a
photon, converting from cis- to trans-formation

Mechanoreceptors:

receptors that are activated by touch or vibration or physical movement

Nociceptors:

receptors that detect pain, either on the inside or outside of the body

Thermoreceptors:

receptors that detect changes in temperature

Baroreceptors:

receptors that detect changes in pressure

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Sensory adaptation:

a natural process that allows us to filter out unnecessary sensory information from the brain

Desensitization:

a technique that is used to reduce the body’s sensitivity to a stimulus

Feature detection theory:

states that different areas of the brain are activated when different features of the image are
processed

Monocular cues:

visual cues that allow us to perceive depth from a 2D retinal image

Gestalt theory:

a visual philosophy that states that images are perceived from the top-down

Proprioception:

the means by which we are able to sense and perceive the self in relation to the environment

Cognition:

the way our brain processes and interprets the information presented by our environment

Language:

a tool that allows us to communicate our cognitive processes with others; composed of
phonemes, syntax, pragmatics, and semantics

Language explosion:

period of time around the second year of life during which vocabulary words are learned at a
rapid pace

Social interactionist theory:

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states that language acquisition is driven by the desire of children to interact with their
environment and others

Nativist theory:

states that humans have an innate ability to speak and use language; centers upon a hypothesized
language acquisition device, a specialized neurological pathway that allows young children to
automatically acquire language by observing the world around them

Critical period:

period of time after which it becomes much more difficult to learn a language

Learning theory:

proposes that language is acquired through operant conditioning, or a through process of trial and
error in which correct language is rewarded

Whorfian hypothesis:

suggests that our perception of the world is somewhat shaped by the language that we use

Schemas:

thought patterns that may include a mental construction of an object, socialized behavior
patterns, or other understood ways of interacting with the world; new information can be
assimilated or accommodated into previously existing schemas

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development:

include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages 

Dual-coding theory:

states that the brain uses multiple cues to process and store information, including both
vocabulary or linguistic words and visual memories

Information processing model:

states that thinking requires sensory information to flow through a series of stages in order to be
useful
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Intelligence quotient (IQ):

calculated through a comparison of the “mental age” of an individual compared to their

chronological age

Gardner’s multiple intelligences:

includes linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,

interpersonal, and intrapersonal

Spearman’s G factor:

a suggested additional factor that accounts for the amount of intelligence an individual has

Functional fixedness:

a phenomenon that occurs when we are unable to see a new use for an object beyond its original
purpose

Intuition:

the ability to understand a problem and answer it immediately, without the need for conscious
reasoning or factual evidence to back it up

Heuristics:

unconscious tools that we use to speed up problem-solving; include the representativeness

heuristic, availability heuristic, and base rate fallacy

Biases:

mental shortcuts that can lead us to incorrect answers during problem solving; include
confirmation bias and belief perseverance
Trial and error
refers to trying many different solutions until one works, with no real methodology.
Algorithms
are a set series of steps that are followed to solve a particular problem. Algorithms are
guaranteed to arrive at a correct solution, but may be extremely time-intensive and laborious. 
Inductive reasoning
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also known as bottom-up reasoning, uses specific details to find commonalities and arrive at a
general conclusion for the final result. 
Deductive reasoning
also known as top-down reasoning, refers to the use of general rules that become more and more
specific based on previous conclusions that are drawn. 

Heuristics

are unconscious tools that we use to speed up problem-solving. They are quicker methods of
problem-solving but may lead us to miss information and arrive at erroneous conclusions.

representativeness heuristic

refers to how well we can categorize items based on how they fit into a representation of a
category. For instance: we may decide what occupation someone holds based on their hobbies. If
they like to attend orchestra concerts and music festivals, we may assume that they are more
likely to be a musician than a cattle rancher. 
availability heuristic
helps us decide the likelihood of an event based on how easily we can think of similar events.
For instance: if we are asked to think of whether there are more robberies in a specific area
compared to another and we have seen news about several carjackings in area A recently, we
may falsely assume that area A has more robberies simply because more examples come to
mind. 
base rate fallacy
refers to when we use stereotyped, misleading factors instead of real statistical information to
come to conclusions. 
Confirmation bias
occurs when we selectively focus on information that already fits previously existing beliefs.
Similarly, we selectively reject information that does not agree with them. This results in a
perpetuation of our previously held beliefs, regardless of the information to the contrary that
exists. 
Belief perseverance
refers to the inability to acknowledge that our previously held beliefs are incorrect, even when
we encounter new information that contradicts those beliefs. 
Assimilation:
the process of adding new information to previously held schemas. For example, because a
giraffe is a living creature that is not a human or a plant, it may be classified in the “animal”
schema.
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Accommodation:
changing existing schemas to include new information. For example, a previously existing color
schemata may include red, yellow, and blue. Upon seeing the color green for the first time, a
child may accommodate for the color green by changing the color schema to include it as well. 
Broca’s area:
an area within the frontal lobe used for speech and the production of language. 
Wernicke’s area:
an area within the temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension. 
arcuate fasciculus:
a structure relaying information between Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
Alpha waves
are typical of an awake and resting or drowsy state. These waves show a low amplitude and
high-frequency pattern.
Beta waves
are typical of either an awake and alert state or REM sleep. These waves demonstrate a sawtooth
pattern with low amplitude and high frequency.
Theta waves
are typical of the early stages of sleep (Stage 1 & 2). These waves show a moderate amplitude
and moderate frequency.
Delta waves
are found in deep stages of sleep (Stage 3 & 4). These waves are characterized by large
amplitude and low frequency.
Awakeness
though technically not part of the sleep cycle itself, is characterized by beta waves. During
awakeness, individuals are conscious of their surroundings and go about their daily living.
Drowsiness occurs when individuals have their eyes closed and are relaxing. This stage is
characterized by alpha waves.
Stage 1 is the first stage of sleep.
This stage of light sleep is characterized by theta waves. The eyes are slowly rolling and the
muscles begin to relax.
Stage 2
is also composed of theta waves and occurs when entering medium sleep. This stage is
characterized by unique EEG features called K complexes and sleep spindles, which are bursts
of unique electrical activity interspersed among theta waves.
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Stage 3
marks the beginning of deep sleep. In this stage, which is characterized by large slow delta
waves, the heart rate continues to fall.
Stage 4
comprises the bulk of deep sleep. Characterized by delta waves, we achieve the deepest sleep in
this stage. This is where the body undergoes the most repair, memory consolidation, and growth
hormone release.
REM (rapid eye movement) stage
occurs after Stage 4, and is characterized by the same sawtooth beta waves which are found in
the awake state. Also referred to as paradoxical sleep: in which the mind is alert but the body is
motionless. During this stage, there is also quick eye movement, vivid dreams and imagery, and
high electrical activity in the brain. To prevent the body from receiving the brain’s signals and
acting out any harmful actions in dreams, the body’s muscles enter a temporarily paralyzed state.
Proximity:
If objects are close together, they are considered to be a group. 
Similarity:
If objects have similar characteristics, they are considered to be a group.
Continuity:
If objects are connected by smooth continuous lines, they are considered to be a group.
Closure:
If there are narrow gaps between objects, the brain will automatically fill these gaps to perceive
them as a group.
Common fate:
if objects appear to move in the same direction or in the same manner, they are considered to be
a group.
Connectedness:
if objects are linked to each other, they are considered to be a group.
The frontal lobe
governs executive function, initiates voluntary motor movement, and is responsible for
producing speech. 
The parietal lobe
governs spatial processing, proprioception, and somatosensation. 
The occipital lobe
 19

governs visual processing. 

The temporal lobe
governs learning, memory, speech perception, and auditory perception. An important language
center known as Wernicke’s area is located here.
Maintenance rehearsal:
the process of repeating information to store it in memory (e.g. through flashcards)
Mnemonics:
developing acronyms and rhymes that consolidate lists of information
Method of loci:
organizing information in a list and associating each item with a spatial location along an
imagined physical space
Peg-words:
organizing information by associating words with images (e.g. thinking of an apple whenever
one hears the word “red.” 
Chunking:
organizing lists of information into smaller groups, or “chunks,” of related items. Chunking can
be useful in memorizing telephone numbers; instead of memorizing a random string of 10 digits,
it is much easier to memorize “chunks” of 3 or 4 digits.

Implicit memory

also known as procedural memory, includes skill-based knowledge, such as riding a bike or
driving a car. While we do not actively think of the steps involved in these processes, we
implicitly know them and can perform the task passively when needed. Conditioned responses
and behaviors (described later in this guide) and other memories that result from automatic
processing are also stored in implicit memory. 

Explicit memory

holds memories that require active recall. There are two types of explicit memory: semantic and
episodic memory.

Semantic memory

stores explicit facts and pieces of knowledge (e.g. the capital cities of the 50 U.S. states)

episodic memory
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stores events and occurrences that have been lived through. 

Flashbulb memory

is a special type of memory that captures elements of both semantic memory and episodic
memory. It typically results from important or emotionally shocking events: such as graduating
from college or witnessing a traumatic event. Not only enlists episodic memory to capture the
emotions and experience of the event, but also involves semantic memory to retain information
about important event details—descriptions of an assailant, time of day, location, etc. This
memory can be incorrect, however, because emotions and context can often alter the recall of
memories. 

Elaborative rehearsal

is one process by which information in short-term memory is moved to long-term memory,

often by relating knowledge that has previously existed in long-term memory. This relation-
based method is useful because it provides our memory with “hooks,” or connectors, for new
memories to hold onto—which demonstrates why many of the most effective memorization
techniques draw upon making connections to prior knowledge.

Encoding:

the process of committing new information to memory

Self-reference effect:

information that is most pertinent to one’s past experience is most easily encoded and retrieved.

Confabulation:

creation of made-up stories to fill in gaps in our memory

Source-monitoring error:

occurs when the details of an event are correctly remembered, but the origin or context of the
information is incorrectly attributed

Misinformation effect:

occurs when the information or context of a memory drastically changes the perception of an
event
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Sensory memory:

information that is received from the environment by the senses

Long-term potentiation:

strengthening and increasing the physiological activity of receptors in a neuronal path in order to
encode information into the long-term memory

Retroactive interference:

when new information displaces old information

Proactive interference:

when old information prevents the encoding and storage of new information

Retrieval:

the ability to recall and use information that has been previously encoded into memory storage

Recall:

the ability to recreate information that has been stored in memory without the use of any
contextual cues

Serial position effect:

phenomenon in which the position of an item in a list will affect the ability of the list to be
accurately recalled

Recognition:

the ability to use contextual cues to retrieve information that is related

Spreading activation:

the activation of highly related concepts that are interconnected within the semantic network

Priming:
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a cue related to a semantic memory is presented in an attempt to prompt the memory

Neuroplasticity:

the ability of the brain to form new connections quickly to encode memories

Synaptic pruning:

neuronal connections that are used often will strengthen, and those that are rarely used will be
broken

Observational learning:

the result of watching and mimicking the actions of others

Associative learning:

learning that occurs as a result of associating a behavior or stimulus with an additional

environmental stimulus; can be classical or operant conditioning

Generalization:

the extension of the conditioned stimulus to encompass similar things, which will then elicit the
same conditioned response

Discrimination:

the ability of the subject to distinguish between stimuli that are similar, and respond only to the
actual stimulus that was presented during conditioning

Spontaneous recovery:

when there is a sudden conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus in the subject after a
period of extinction

Reinforcers:

consequences stipulated by a conditioner that will always encourage--or increase the frequency
of--the behavior

Punishers:
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consequences stipulated by a conditioner that will always discourage--or decrease the frequency
of--the behavior

Reinforcement schedule:

frequency and format in which behavior is repeated during operant conditioning; can be fixed- or
variable- interval or ratio

Shaping:

rewarding increasingly specific behaviors to train an extremely specific pattern of activity

Primary reinforcers:

similar to unconditioned stimuli, but instead rely on controlling a voluntary behavior. 

Secondary reinforcers:

associated with the primary reinforcer through conditioning

Preparedness:

when an organism learns a behavior similar to what it is naturally predisposed to do

Instinctive drift:

the idea that some behaviors are harder to teach and retain if they go against innate natural
behaviors that animals perform

Behavioral sequences:

series of ordered actions that must be performed in a sequence

Emotions:

subjective experiences that we have as the result of an internal or external stimulus

Components of emotion:

the physiological, cognitive, and behavioral responses to a stimulus

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Adaptive role of emotion:

Darwin’s theory that it is evolutionarily advantageous for human beings to be able to both
express and understand emotions

Universal emotions:

facial expressions that people across all countries and cultures can recognize; includes fear,
anger, sadness, disgust, happiness, and surprise

James-Lange theory:

the body’s physiological response to a stimulus and our subsequent perception of that response is
what makes us feel emotion

Canon-Bard theory:

the body’s physiological response and experience of emotion happen simultaneously, but
independently 

Schacter-Singer theory:

emotional experience is the result of our body’s physiological response being interpreted
cognitively based on the specific situation we are in

Limbic system:

the system of the brain responsible for our experience of emotion

Amygdala:

brain structure that conducts our emotional experiences and is integral to fear and aggression

Hypothalamus:

brain structure that hypothalamus controls our physiological response to a stimulus through the
autonomic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system:

 25

component of the peripheral nervous system that is responsible for our automatic physiological
responses

Thalamus:

our brain’s sensory processing center that sends information to other parts of the brain. 

Hippocampus:

brain structure that contributes to emotional processing by encoding the emotions that we
associate with our memories. 

Prefrontal cortex:

brain structure responsible for our executive functions

Executive functions:

the brain’s capacity for higher-level decision making

Sympathetic nervous system:

responsible for our “fight-or-flight” reaction

Parasympathetic nervous system:

responsible for our “rest-and-digest” state

Yerkes-Dodson Law:

elevated levels of arousal improve performance up to a point, but past that optimal point,
performance decreases

Stress:

a feeling in response to a disconcerting situation

Stressor:

a distressing stimulus or event

 26

Stress reaction:

a person’s response to the stressor

Appraisal:

how we interpret the stressor

Primary appraisal:

our interpretation of the immediate stressor

Secondary appraisal:

our assessment of actions to take in response to the stressor

Daily stressor:

minor hassles in everyday life

Life events:

significant changes in one’s personal life

Catastrophic events:

large scale happenings that are out of an individual’s control

Endocrine response:

release of epinephrine and norepinephrine by the adrenal medulla in response to a dangerous

threat

Cortisol:

steroid hormone that suppresses the immune system and utilizes energy from fat instead of
glucose

Anhedonia:

diminished ability to experience pleasure 

 27

Learned helplessness:

when a person feels no control over the outcomes of their life because of repeated stressful
events

Intrinsic motivation:

directed by internal rewards, or one’s internal desire to do something for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation:

directed by external rewards from the environment;  completing a task because it offers some
sort of reward: such as receiving money, food, or the avoidance of punishment

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

emphasises the attainment of “lower” needs (depicted at the base of the pyramid), before
“higher” needs can be attained

Self-actualization:

the last need that humans can achieve in their lifetime, according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Drive reduction theory:

says that all motivation arises from the goal of fulfilling these biological needs, or drives

Drives:

natural needs that include hunger, thirst, temperature, and other biological needs

Instinct theory:

states that we are all born with instincts, or innate tendencies for certain behaviors, that enable
us to survive

Arousal theory:

states that each person has an optimal level of arousal, and that we are motivated to pursue
behaviors that will help us maintain this optimal level
 28

Incentive theory:

says that people are motivated to behave in ways that lead to rewards (such as food and money)
and are demotivated from behaving in ways that lead to negative consequences (such as fines
and criminal punishment)

Freud’s theory of psychosexual development:

involves 5 stages that are each oriented around resolving libido; fixation in a stage results in
psychological disorder and inability to progress to the next stage

Oedipus complex:

proposed by Freud; describes a young boy’s feelings of guilt and fear that come with a young
boy’s attraction to his mother and simultaneous feelings of hostility towards his father

Electra complex:

proposed by Freud; describes  a young girl’s attraction to her father and hostility towards her
mother

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development:

involves 8 psychosocial stages that require the resolution between  the individual’s needs
(psycho-) and society’s expectations (-social)

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development:

describes different levels of maturity and moral understanding as individuals progress through
life

Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development:

describes the role of learning from a more knowledgeable other, who guides an individual
through applying mental functions in the zone of proximal development

Zone of proximal development:

area of knowledge where the most important and sensitive instruction should be given; the link
between being able to do something and not being able to do something

Psychoanalytic perspective:
 29

Freud’s major contribution to psychology; states that the human psyche is made up of 3
components: the id, ego, and superego. 

Humanistic perspective:

states that humans inherently good and seek out growth, and that this motivation to seek growth
is what shapes people’s personalities

Social cognitive perspective:

states that learning through observation and social interaction plays a vital role in the
development of the future self

Behaviorist perspective:

states that people’s personalities can be shaped by the environment and controlled by society
through reinforcement

Biological perspective:

states that personality is shaped largely by innate biological traits, or characteristics, that stay
with us throughout life

Dramaturgical perspective:

states that our behaviors and actions change depending on a frontstage or backstage context;
frontstage refers to our actions that are seen by others, while backstage refers to our actions that
no one sees
id
is the pleasure center: it seeks reward (fueled by the libido) and avoids pain.
The superego
serves the opposite role as the id. It is the center of moral judgment and perfection. While your
id tells you to go party, your superego is what holds you back and tells you to study for the
MCAT because it’s the “right thing to do.” 
The ego
is the mediator between the id and superego. The ego works to find compromise and balance
between these two centers. The ego would say something like, “let’s study for 2 hours then we
can go party for the remainder of the night.” These 3 components of the psyche inhabit different
portions of the conscious, subconscious, and unconscious mind. They work together to make
decisions and motivate behavior. 
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Collective behavior

describes behavior demonstrated by groups of people that is largely spontaneous, rapidly

changing, and unrepresentative of societal norms. This kind of behavior is often fleeting, can
produce very ambiguous norms, and may be destructive or dangerous. There are several major
forms of collective behavior, including: fads, mass hysteria, and riots.

Fads

are fleeting behaviors that gain popularity incredibly fast and lose popularity just as fast. Fads
typically do not provide obvious value or change norms, and are adopted very quickly by large
groups of people. In recent years, social media and video streaming platforms have enabled the
rapid spreading of fads in the form of viral trends.

Mass hysteria

occurs when a large group of people simultaneously experience a sense of anxiety and
delusional thinking. This delusional thinking may be the result of receiving information out of
context, or in the form of a threat. In recent years, the availability of information through news
outlets has increased the availability of information that may induce anxiety-driven behavior.

Riots

occur when large groups of people engage in deviant and often destructive or dangerous
behavior: including vandalism and looting. The people involved in riots collectively engage in
such behavior to demonstrate defiance and anger about a certain important issue. Riots generally
occur as a result of a society’s frustration; rioting and acts of extreme destruction may be seen as
the only way to make a group’s opinions heard or to bring about change.

Identification

refers to the desire to be like all other members of a group. Consider an individual who newly
encounters a group of people who love cars. The newcomer will most likely desire to identify
with that group, either to fit in or due to fear of sticking out. This desire may arise even if the
newcomer does not enjoy cars. 

Internalization

on the other hand, refers to the act of adopting others’ values or beliefs as one’s own because
they have an appreciation for them. When this newcomer is with a group of car enthusiasts and
they begin to internalize this love for cars, they begin to engage with them in car-related
discussions and go on trips to car shows with them because they enjoy it. They will think or do
these things regardless of whether or not it adds social value. 
 31

Conformity
is generally defined as the tendency to act, think, or believe in a way that is alike others in a
group. Conformity is an incredibly powerful social phenomenon, one that is pervasive in many
aspects of society. Solomon Asch performed an experiment to demonstrate how powerful
conformity can be.

Deviance

describes the violation of social norms. Deviance of norms leads to sanctions that are placed on
the offender by the community. These sanctions can either be formal (e.g. legal consequences)
or informal (e.g. stigmatization). There are several theories that explain why an individual might
resort to deviance. 

Differential association theory

states that the more exposure one has to deviance, the more deviant one becomes. 

Labeling theory

states that if a society labels you as deviant, you are more likely to act in deviant ways. This is
also an example of a self-fulfilling prophecy. 

Structural strain

states that if one cannot reach their goals with the means available, one resorts to deviance to
gain the resources that are needed. 

Anomie

describes a general and society-wide reduction of norms and moral order. This often occurs due
to decreased social cohesion, less interpersonal interaction within a society, and increased
individuality.

Norms

are rules, either implicit or explicit, that define acceptable behavior. These rules can either be
formal/written (such as laws) or informal/commonly understood (such as greetings). Norms are
enforced by sanctions by the community, with varying amounts of repercussions enforced if
norms are not obeyed.

Mores
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are types of norms that govern moral behavior. Tend to be strict guidelines that exist for the
greater benefit of the society. For example, some societies hold a more that premarital sex is
immoral and not allowed. Individuals that violate mores may be socially punished by a
community.

Folkways

are less important norms that govern daily behavior. Folkways are enforced by social approval.
For example, saying thank you after receiving a service is considered a social folkway. There are
no repercussions for violating a folkway. 

Taboos

are actions or behaviors that are strictly prohibited in a society due to their morally reprehensible
nature. These things often include things that are disgusting and revolting to even think about.
For example, bestiality is considered to be taboo by most cultures. Individuals that violated a
taboo are often shunned or cast away from the community.

Emotional support

includes empathy, trust, love, acceptance, intimacy, and encouragement. Providing this form of
support lets the individual know that they are valued

Instrumental support

includes food, shelter, financial assistance, material goods, and services. Providing this form of
support allows the individual to meet their logistical needs through direct and concrete needs. 

Informational support

includes advice, guidance, suggestions, wisdom, and information. Providing this form of support
allows someone to problem-solve for themselves.

Companionship support

includes providing a sense of belonging and esteem. This enables the individual to take part in
shared social activities and fulfill the need for socialization.
mere exposure effect
states that people tend to develop a preference or liking for things due to a gained familiarity
with them.
halo effect
 33

states that when one observes a positive characteristic about a new individual, a positive
impression of the new individual is formed. This conditions the observer to form a positive
feeling about the person as a whole, and can often lead them to mistakenly assume the presence
of positive merits. 

Primary reference groups

include one’s primary contacts, or the set of people that one meets and interacts with each day.
This could include family, close friends, or roommates. These individuals have a strong effect on
shaping one’s beliefs, values, and attitudes. 

Secondary reference groups

include more distant contacts, or people that one doesn’t interact with as frequently. These
connections are often impersonal, short-term, and goal-oriented. Classmates and colleagues may
be considered to be in secondary reference groups, as interactions with this group are based
around an academic or professional goal.

tertiary reference groups

include individuals with which there is not necessarily any interpersonal connection.
Interactions with these groups are often transient and transactional.
Social control theory
states that these relationships collectively encourage individuals to conform with societal norms
and values.

Status

is a socially defined role or position within a society. An individual can simultaneously hold
many statuses. There are also many different ways that an individual holds a status.

Ascribed status

is a status that is automatically assigned by society, regardless of one’s efforts. This can include
things like race, sex, and age. Caste systems are societies in which an ascribed status determines
a profession and other social stratification factors.

Attained status

one that is earned through an individual’s conscious efforts. This can include things like one’s
profession, the number of education degrees one has, one’s marital status, and so forth. Finally,
 34

master status

is one that defines one’s dominant role or places in society, and can be either ascribed or
attained. It is one that lies at the core of one’s social identity and influences a person’s behaviors
and attitudes when in society. For example, your master status in a few years may be one of
“doctor.”

Social reproduction

is a term coined to describe the perpetuation of a social class or status over multiple generations.
In many societies, it can be very difficult to attain a status different than that of parents or hope
to achieve some other ascribed status.
door-in-the-face
technique works in the opposite way, where a large and often unreasonable request is made at
first. While this request may be immediately turned down, a second, more reasonable request is
made immediately after. The second request is more likely to be agreed to than when this request
is made in isolation. 
The foot-in-the-door technique
is a persuasion technique that gets people to agree to large requests by starting out with a small
request at first. Individuals are more likely to accept these small requests, which then increases
the probability of agreeing to a later, large request. 
Social construct theory
is an extreme view of society and socialization that considers all meanings to be created through
communications between individuals in the society. Through these communications, both weak
social constructs and strong social constructs can be created.
Weak social constructs
are immutable facts about the universe that cannot be altered through human-imposed meaning
(such as the existence of gravity and other fundamental forces), while
strong social constructs
are given meaning through the perspectives and conditions of a certain society. 

Material culture

refers to tangible objects that make up a culture: including objects used in rituals, clothing, and
food.

Symbolic culture

refers to intangible principles, values, social norms, and customs shared by a group of people. 
 35

Transmission

of culture occurs as individuals pass on cultural practices onto younger members of the same
cultural community.

diffusion of culture

occurs as cultural practices spread to members of other cultural communities, and gradually
become adopted. These changes in culture influences the ways that humans live in a process
referred to as sociocultural evolution.

Culture lag

occurs after a new technological innovation or new idea is brought into a culture. As the
innovation is initially new and unproven, individuals are initially unwilling to adopt it—no
matter how good of an idea it is. The culture lag eventually ends when the new innovation is
accepted as part of the culture. 

Culture shock

occurs when an individual encounters a new culture for the first time. The new culture may have
many unfamiliar customs and traditions. This culture shock eventually fades over time, and may
lead to the individual adopting both the material and symbolic culture of the culture. This is a
process known as assimilation. 

Multiculturalism

can occur when multiple cultures exist in the same spatial area. These cultures may also include
subcultures and countercultures.

Subculture

is a type of culture that is not as popular as mainstream culture but does not serve to contradict
or oppose the mainstream culture.

Counterculture

refers to culture that subverts the mainstream culture. 

Ethnocentrism
 36

occurs as one individual values their particular culture as superior to others, and does not engage
with other cultures in a positive manner.

cultural relativism

which is a perspective that states that all cultures should be viewed in light of their own merits
without stereotype or prejudice.

Capitalist systems:

economic systems that are profit-oriented and privately controlled

Conflict theory:

states that the unequal division of power in society drives social behaviors and institutions

Exchange-rational choice theory:

macro sociological theory led by George Homans that assumes people behave perfectly
rationally

Educational segregation and stratification:

the differential access to quality education or a certain set of academic classes based on
characteristics like gender, neighborhood, race, and income

Functionalism:

views the different parts of society as organs that fulfill specific functions toward the
maintenance of a composite society

Hidden curriculum:

the social education that takes place in schools on abstract values and principles that are deemed
to be positive attributes by wider society. Is taught in both conscious and inadvertent ways, such
as respect for authority and punctuality

Kinship ties:

social ties that generate family relationships through blood, adoption, and marriage
 37

Marxism:

a socioeconomic system that argues that the means of production must be controlled by the
workers (which he called the proletariat)

Division of labor:

allocation and training of specific people to specialized roles within complicated processes

Meritocracy:

states that individuals can gain influence and power in society through the virtue of their positive
individual qualities, such as talent, diligence, and charisma

Nuclear families:

family structures that consist of two parents and children

Polygyny:

the practice of a man marrying multiple wives

Polyandry:

the practice of a woman marrying multiple husbands

Polygamy:

the practice of possessing multiple simultaneous partners

Primary kin:

family members who are separated by only one line by blood, adoption, or marriage on a
pedigree chart 

Secondary kin:

family members who are twice separated by blood, adoption, or marriage on a pedigree chart

Socialist systems:
 38

economic systems that are collectively owned and thus produce goods that are equally allocated
and directly used, rather than intended for profit

Symbolic interactionism:

states that symbols gain significance through the social interactions that are generated around
that symbol to communicate specific messages

Social constructionism:

describes the phenomenon of “social constructs”—deeply embedded, influential, and abstract

concepts—that possess meaning as a virtue of existing within a society that actively participates
in the “meaning-making” of the social construct

Teacher expectation:

a type of self-fulfilling prophecy in which the expectations a teacher holds for a student
influences the student’s actual performance

Social capital

describes the connections that an individual has that can lead to economic, social, or personal
benefits. For example, a wealthy individual’s connections through his or her job may allow his or
her child to obtain a coveted internship position in that same company. On the other hand, an
individual with a lower SES may not have access or time to form personal connections that allow
his or her child to obtain a well-paying job.

Cultural capital

describes non-economic resources that allow for economic, social, or personal benefits. Cultural
capital falls into three categories, which include objectified (i.e. personal belongings), embodied
(i.e. how you act or talk), and institutionalized (i.e. education). For example, an individual with a
lower SES may only have access to underfunded educational systems, thereby preventing him or
her from obtaining a better-paying job.  
Intersectionality
describes the interconnected nature of oppressed groups, which leads to overlapping and
compounding disadvantages for individuals. For example, a person of color belongs to a certain
oppressed group, and they may have a low SES, which also makes them an oppressed group.
Intersectionality states that there is a correlation between these different oppressed groups,
leading to a compounded and exacerbated negative effect. It is important to note that
intersectionality, however, has been refuted by some as lacking nuance. 
Incidence:
 39

the number of new cases of a disease per population per unit time (for example: 5 new cases per
1000 people in a year)
Prevalence:
the total number of cases of a disease in a population per unit time (for example: there are 87
total cases per 1000 people every year)
demographic transition model,
which analyzes population changes and shifts over time. The model is broken down into four
different stages: 
 Stage 1: high birth and death rates in a pre-industrial society
 Stage 2: death rate falls due to improvements in public health and healthcare
 Stage 3: birth rate falls due to industrialization and movement away from agriculture
 Stage 4: death and birth rates are low, and the population grows steadily

Social class:

divides society based on socioeconomic status

Socioeconomic status (SES):

the social standing of a group based on a combination of factors, such as social group, income, or
education, among other factors

Social reproduction:

the idea that social inequalities are passed between generations

Intragenerational mobility:

an individual that moves between different SES

Intergenerational mobility:

an individual whose child moves into a different SES than the parent or other relatives

Upward mobility:

movement from a lower SES to a higher SES

 40

Downward mobility:

movement from a higher SES to a lower SES

Horizontal mobility:

movement within a SES

Vertical mobility:

movement out of an SES to another SES

Power:

the ability of an individual to influence the behavior or conduct of others

Privilege:

entitlement or advantage that is unearned and can be used to an individual’s benefit

Prestige:

a reputation an individual with a high SES has and can be a result of either ascribed or achieved
status

Social isolation/social exclusion:

describes the process by individuals with a low SES are excluded from many resources

Social capital:

describes the connections that an individual has that can lead to economic, social, or personal
benefits

Cultural capital:

describes non-economic resources that allow for economic, social, or personal benefits

Intersectionality:
 41

describes the interconnected nature of oppressed groups, which leads to overlapping and
compounding disadvantages for individuals

Marxist theory:

states that as society develops a class consciousness, workers will own their own production
instead of giving it to the upper class

Class consciousness:

an individual’s awareness of his or her position in society

False consciousness:

occurs when an individual does not perceive the true social situation, which leads to inaction and
no social change

Spatial inequality:

describes unequal access or quality of resources depending on geographical location

Residential segregation:

describes the physical separation of individuals along the socioeconomic gradient, leading to a
difference in resources and quality of life

Suburban area:

generally more wealthy areas with individual houses, good school systems, and safe access to
resources

Urban area:

tend to be less safe, have closer living quarters, and poorer access to resources

Urban decay:

portions of the city undergo deterioration over time

Food deserts:
 42

describe places where it is difficult to find healthy and affordable food options, and this
commonly occurs in low-income neighborhoods

Gentrification:

describes the renovation of a housing district that causes middle and high SES individuals to
move in while displacing low SES individuals

Environmental justice:

calls for the equal treatment of all people and right to live in places without environmental or
health hazards

Global inequalities:

different countries have different access to resources

Industrialized economy:

a country that has widespread industries that produce and sell goods

Agriculture-based economy:

economy is centered around agricultural production

Subsistence farming:

an individual farms for his or her family’s own food

Socioeconomic gradient in health:

describes the difference in health outcomes based on an individual or group’s SES

Second sickness:

the worsening of health conditions based on socioeconomic disparities in healthcare

Medical mistrust:

describes the lack of trust of medical providers by an individual or group

 43

Epidemiology:

the study of human disease, generally at a population level

Descriptive epidemiology:

focuses on observational data collection and describes disease distribution or frequency

Analytical epidemiology:

focuses on experimental data collection and searches for cause and effect relationships

Incidence:

the number of new cases of a disease per population per unit time (for example: 5 new cases per
1000 people in a year)

Prevalence:

the total number of cases of a disease in a population per unit time (for example: there are 87
total cases per 1000 people every year)

Demographics:

used to analyze a population by stratifying the population into different groups

Baby boomer generation:

made up of individuals born during the post-World War II baby boom and makes up a significant
part of the US population

Sexual orientation:

defines a person’s identify based on who they are sexually attracted to

Gender:

defines sexual characteristics pertaining to the social and cultural differences of sex

Gender inequality:
 44

describes the empowerment of one gender over another in economic, social, or personal settings

Feminism:

responded to the traditional gender inequality providing males easier access to economic, social,
or personal gain at the expense of women

Race:

groups humans based on perceived shared qualities among members of the group

Racialization:

the process of ascribing race to a social process that does not inherently have a racial component

Ethnicity:

groups people based on cultural identifiers

Immigration:

refers to the influx of people to a new area that leads to an increase in population size

Emigration:

refers to an efflux (or moving out) of people that leads to a decrease in population size

Migration:

a general term discussing the relocation of people and encompasses both immigration and
emigration

Total fertility/mortality:

refers to the rate for an entire population

Crude fertility/mortality:

refers to the rate for a population over a certain time period

Age-specific fertility/mortality:
 45

refers to the rate for a specific age group

Push factors:

lead to emigration, and they often include social or economic hardship

Pull factors:

lead to immigration, and they may include chances for social or economic prosperity

Malthusian theory:

states that population growth is exponential while food growth is linear

Malthusian catastrophe:

there is no longer enough food to support society

Anomie:

the lack of social structure and standards

Demographic transition model:

contains 4 stages and analyzes population changes and shifts over time

Population pyramids:

used to plot age versus the number of people of that age for specific population

Social movements:

groups of people that are organized to achieve a social goal, which may be resisting, promoting,
or undoing social change

Relative deprivation:

the lack of resources to sustain basic human needs and is often the driving factor behind social
movements

Globalization:
 46

describes the growing interconnectedness and interdependence of economies 

 f
47