Manuel S.

Enverga University Foundation

Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Since Dmitri Mendeleev’s time (published his periodic table in1869), a number of
different arrangements of elements have been proposed like pyramids, spirals and three
dimensional models of various shapes. Many of these have some unique qualities, but
only received wide acceptance which is the LONG-FORM PERIODIC TABLE.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The modern periodic table is a tabular arrangement of elements according to the
increasing atomic number.
 The vertical columns are called groups or families (arranged according to
physical and chemical properties)
o There are 16 vertical divisions into groups or families
 The horizontal rows are called periods or series (arranged according to
increasing atomic number)
o There are 7 horizontal rows or periods, with each of the first 6 periods
ending with a noble gas.

MAJOR CLASSIFICATION
METALS
 Generally found in the left 2/3 of the periodic table
 They are malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity and have a
metallic luster

NON METALS
 Generally found in the right 1/3 of the periodic table
 They are non conductors, non malleable, non ductile and have no metallic luster

METALLOIDS
 Are also Semi metals
 Are elements that form a diagonal separation zone between metals and non
metals in the periodic table.

Some of the elements in the vertical columns have given special names, such as:
 GROUP 1-A ELEMENTS – Alkali Metals
 GROUP II- A ELEMENTS – Alkaline Earth Metals
 GROUP VII A – Halogens
 GROUP VIIIA- Noble Gases

Other groups that have special names from the first element of the column are:
 GROUP IIIA – Boron Family
 GROUP IVA – Carbon Family
 GROUP V A- Nitrogen Family
 GROUPVI A- Oxygen Family

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 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

On the basis of their position in the periodic table, metals are often grouped into
families as follows:

THE ALKALI METALS

 Consists of lithium, potassium, sodium, rubidium, cesium and francium
 They are light metals that are soft and silvery in color.
 They tarnish rapidly on exposure to air and react violently in water by releasing
hydrogen gas
 Consist of very active metals
 Also forms very strong bases, which turn red litmus paper to blue.
 If it reacts with halogen, they produced salts.
o Na can react with Cl to form NaCl.
 Cesium and francium are the most reactive elements in this group.
 They have low densities and melting point and properly vary in regular way with
increasing atomic number.

THE ALKALINE EARTH METALS

 It includes beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium or the
Group IIA
 They are all active metals but are somewhat harder than alkali
 They exhibit increasing activity with increasing atomic weight.
 They all forms chloride that are water soluble and carbonates that are insoluble
in water.
 They have low densities and most of them are relatively soft and have low
melting points.
 They also have the high electrical and thermal conductivity characteristics of
metals.
o These properties are due largely to the presence of two valence electrons
on each atom, which leads to stronger metallic bonding than that occurs in
Group IA.
o Because of their activity, the alkaline earth metals are not found free in
nature.

THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS

 Are elements that intervene between the Group IIA and group IIIA elements.
 They are ductile, malleable, and good conductors of heat and electricity.
 They are called as transition metals because some or all the 3d electrons can
also be used along with 4s electrons in chemical bonding.
 The valence electrons of these metals are present in more than one orbital.
 This is the reason why they often exhibit several common oxidation states.

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 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS

They are divided into two series;
The Lanthanide
 Includes the 14 elements that proceed lanthanum (atomic number 57) from
atomic numbers 58 to 71
 The lanthanide series correspond to filling of 4f and 5d energy levels.
 Because of the closeness of those two levels, there is considerable uncertainty in
some electron configuration assignments.
 All lanthanide family has properties that are alike and are difficult to separate
from each other.

The Actinide
 it includes the 14 elements that precede actinium (atomic number 89) from
atomic numbers 90 to 188.
 They are almost nonexistent in nature
 These elements are not so similar in chemical properties unlike the lanthanide
elements.
 The electron configurations of the actions are even more uncertain than the
lanthanides because of the closeness of the energy levels.
 The actinides also seem to show a variety of oxidation states, unlike the
lanthanides.

THE HALOGENS
 elements belonging to this group are:
Fluorine- Pale yellow
Chlorine - Greenish yellow
Bromine- liquid bromine, which is reddish brown in color is one of the most
dangerous of the common laboratory reagents, because of its
effect on the eyes and nasal passages and because it causes
severe burns on contact with the skin.
Iodine- solid iodine, which is deep violet in color has a low vapor pressure,
enough to evaporate so that the its odor is easily detected in a
closed space.
Astatine
 The most reactive among non metals
 they belong to the Group VIIA family
 the term halogen came from the Greek word “HALOS,” meaning SALT FORMER
 it easily combines with metals to form “salts”
 Their melting points increase as their atomic weight increases.
 All four elements are extremely irritating to the nose and throat.
 They exist in room temperature in all three states of matter.
 They are poor conductor of heat and electricity

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 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

THE NOBLE GASES

 Or inert gases
 Consist of the six elements;
o Helium- Constituents of radioactive minerals and traces of the former
were found in the atmosphere. It is used for filling meteorological balloons
or dirigibles, unlike hydrogen, it is not combustible
o Neon
o Argon- the most abundant of the inert gases found in the air, it is used for
filling electric light bulbs
o Krypton
o Xenon- the least abundant
o Radon
 These gases are extremely inactive, so inactive that they form no stable
compounds with other elements.
 They are colorless and atoms show little tendency to gain or lose electrons.
 Neon, helium and argon are used in” neon signs”

THE HYDROGEN
 The first element in the periodic table and the most abundant in the universe.
 Estimated to make up more than 90% of the universe
 These elements are rare in earth and occasionally can be found in volcanic
gases and in the upper atmosphere
 They are odorless, colorless tasteless gases that are slightly soluble in wat
 They are also used in the synthesis of a number of useful compounds such as
ammonia and methanol.
 It also serves as a reducing agent in the production of tungsten and as cooling
agent for large generator and transformer.
 They are better conductor of heat than air
 Large amounts of hydrogen are used to convert liquid fats into solid fats, such
fats are used for food and soap making.

THE METALLOIDS
 Elements B, Si, As, Te, and At
 Semi conductors, they have properties of both metals and non metals
 They conduct heat and electricity better than non metals but not as well as
metals.
 They can be shiny or dull and their shape is easily changed.
 All are solid at room temperature.

NATSCIE/MEBDO
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

PERIODIC TRENDS
There are several patterns in the periodic table, this is prove that there are different
features in a certain element, it includes the size and its electronic properties.
Electronegativity, ionization energy, electron affinity, atomic radius, melting point and
metallic characters are the main periodic trends.
These patterns help chemists with important information to predict the properties of an
element. Also, because of the similarities of the atomic structure of elements within their
respective group families or periods and because of the nature of the elements.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract and bind with electrons. This exists
because of the electronic configuration of atoms. Most atoms follow the octet rule,
because elements on the left side of the periodic table have less than a half-full valence
shell, the energy required to gain electrons is significantly higher compared with the
energy required to lose electrons.
As a result, the elements on the left side of the periodic table generally lose electrons
when forming bonds. Conversely, elements on the right side of the periodic table are
more energy-efficient in gaining electrons to create a complete valence shell of 8
electrons
 From left to right across a period of elements, electronegativity increases.
 If the valence shell of an atom is less than half full, it requires less energy
to lose an electron than to gain one. Conversely, if the valence shell is
more than half full, it is easier to pull an electron into the valence shell
than to donate one.
 From top to bottom down a group, electronegativity decreases.
 This is because atomic number increases down a group, and thus there is
an increased distance between the valence electrons and nucleus, or a
greater atomic radius.
 Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble
gases, lanthanides, and actinides.
 The noble gases possess a complete valence shell and do not usually
attract electrons. The lanthanides and actinides possess more
complicated chemistry that does not generally follow any trends. Therefore,
noble gases, lanthanides, and actinides do not have electronegativity
values.

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 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

 As for the transition metals, although they have electronegativity values,

there is little variance among them across the period and up and down a
group.
 This is because their metallic properties affect their ability to attract
electrons as easily as the other elements.

IONIZATION ENERGY TREND

This is the energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom in its gaseous
phase. It is the opposite of electronegativity. The lower the energy is, the more readily
the atom becomes a cation, and the higher the energy is, and the more likely it will
become cation.

TRENDS
 The ionization energy of the elements within a period generally increases from
left to right. This is due to valence shell stability.
 The ionization energy of the elements within a group generally decreases from
top to bottom. This is due to electron shielding.
 The noble gases possess very high ionization energies because of their full
valence shells as indicated in the graph. Note that helium has the highest
ionization energy of all the elements.
 Some elements have several ionization energies; these varying energies are
referred to as the first ionization energy, the second ionization energy, third
ionization energy, etc. The first ionization energy is the energy required to
remove the outermost, or highest, energy electron, the second ionization energy
is the energy required to remove any subsequent high-energy electron from a
gaseous cation, etc.

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 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

 Generally, any subsequent ionization energies (2nd, 3rd, etc.) follow the same
periodic trend as the first ionization energy.

ELECTRON AFFINITY
The ability of an atom to accept an electron. Unlike electronegativity, electron affinity is
a quantitative measurement of the energy change that occurs when an electron is
added to a neutral gas atom. The more negative the electron affinity value, the higher
an atom's affinity for electrons.

TRENDS

 Electron affinity increases from left to right within a period. This is caused by the
decrease in atomic radius.
 Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a group. This is caused by
the increase in atomic radius.

NATSCIE/MEBDO
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

ATOMIC RADIUS

Atoms are normally bound together in the same way, they may be covalent, and some
are attracted to each other in ionic crystals, and others are held in metallic crystals.
Nevertheless, it is possible for a vast majority of elements to form covalent molecules in
which two like atoms are held together by a single covalent bond. The covalent radii of
these molecules are often referred to as atomic radii. This distance is measured in
picometers. Atomic radius patterns are observed throughout the periodic table.

TRENDS

 Atomic size gradually decreases from left to right across a period of elements.
This is because, within a period or family of elements, all electrons are added to
the same shell.
 However, at the same time, protons are being added to the nucleus, making it
more positively charged. The effect of increasing proton number is greater than
that of the increasing electron number; therefore, there is a greater nuclear
attraction.
 This means that the nucleus attracts the electrons more strongly, pulling the
atom's shell closer to the nucleus.
 The valence electrons are held closer towards the nucleus of the atom. As a
result, the atomic radius decreases.

NATSCIE/MEBDO
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

MELTING POINT TREND

The melting points is the amount of energy required to break a bond(s) to change the
solid phase of a substance to a liquid. Generally, the stronger the bond between the
atoms of an element, the more energy required to break that bond. Because
temperature is directly proportional to energy, a high bond dissociation energy
correlates to a high temperature. Melting points are varied and do not generally form a
distinguishable trend across the periodic table.

TRENDS
 Metals generally possess a high melting point.
 Most non-metals possess low melting points.
 The non-metal carbon possesses the highest boiling point of all the elements.
The semi-metal boron also possesses a high melting point.

NATSCIE/MEBDO
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

METALLIC CHARACTER TREND

This trend describes how atom readily can lose an electron.

TREND

 Metallic characteristics decrease from left to right across a period. This is caused
by the decrease in radius (caused by Zeff, as stated above) of the atom that
allows the outer electrons to ionize more readily.
 Metallic characteristics increase down a group. Electron shielding causes the
atomic radius to increase thus the outer electrons ionizes more readily than
electrons in smaller atoms.
 Metallic character relates to the ability to lose electrons, and nonmetallic
character relates to the ability to gain electrons.
 Another easier way to remember the trend of metallic character is that
moving left and down toward the bottom-left corner of the periodic table, metallic
character increases toward Groups 1 and 2, or the alkali and alkaline earth metal
groups. Likewise, moving up and to the right to the upper-right corner of the
periodic table, metallic character decreases because you are passing by to the
right side of the staircase, which indicate the nonmetals. These include the
Group 8, the noble gases, and other common gases such as oxygen and
nitrogen.
 In other words:
 Move left across period and down the group: increase metallic character
(heading towards alkali and alkaline metals)
 Move right across period and up the group: decrease metallic character (heading
towards nonmetals like noble gases)

NATSCIE/MEBDO
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
In order to understand the electronic behavior of an atom, we must know its electronic
configuration.

 Electronic configuration is the distribution of electrons in the orbital’s of an atom.

 An electron in the ground state normally occupies orbitals in the lowest energy
level. However, Pauli’s Exclusion Principle tells us that only two electrons can be
accommodated in any single orbital. Thus, orbitals are filled in order of increasing
energy, with no more than two electrons per orbital.
 To summarize the allowable number of electrons per orbital:

NATSCIE/MEBDO
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

Energy levels Type of Orbitals Number of electrons

allowable
n- 1 s 2
n- 2 d 6
n- 3 d 10
n- 4 f 14

 In writing the electronic configuration of an atom in a ground state, we should

know the number of electrons that should be distributed. At ground state, the
number of electrons is equal to the number of protons of a given element.
 Example, to know the electronic configuration of Hydrogen.
o Hydrogen has an atomic number that is equal to 1, and it has 1 electron
found in the 1st energy level.
o This is represented as 1H = 1s1, it has the following significant meaning:

Symbol of element no.of electrons in the orbital

Atomic number H = 1s1

1 denotes the type of orbital

Denotes the energy level or principal quantum

number, n

PRINCIPLES IN DERIVING IN DERIVING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

1. Aufbau Principle
2. Pauli Exclusion
3. Hunds Rule

AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
 States that an electron in the ground state normally occupies orbitals in the
lowest energy level
 Each electron (e-)occupy the orbital according to increasing energy with the
lowest orbital filled first

THE ORDER OF FILLING ORBITALS

1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s

NATSCIE/MEBDO 2p 3p 4p 5p 6p 7p

3d 4d 5d 6d 7d
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

THE ABOVE FILING OF ORBITALS WAS PROPOSED BY AUFBAU, THUS:

1s2, 2s 2, 2p6 ,3s2,3p6,4s2,, 3d10 , 4p6, 5s2 , 4d10 ,5p6 , 6s2 , 4f14 , 5d10 ,
6p6 , 7s2 ,5f 14, 6d 10, 7p6, 6f14, 7d10, 7f14

HUND RULE
 States that the most stable arrangement of electrons in sub-shells is the one with
the greatest number of parallel spin.
 Electron must occupy orbital singly first before pairing and with parallel spin in
degenerating orbitals to minimize electron repulsion.
 Also known as ORBITAL DIAGRAM.
 It make use of boxes to denote the orbitals and the electrons are represented by
arrows of opposite direction.
 Thus, from the example above:

1H =
1 s

 To illustrate;
6C = = 1s22s22p2

1S 2S 2p

7N = = 1 s22s22p3

1s 2s 2p

PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

 Tells us that only two electrons can be accommodated in any single orbital, thus,
orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy, with no more than two electrons
per orbital.

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 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
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 Orbital can only hold 2 electron on opposite direction and can be paired.
 To illustrate;

1s1

1s2

1s2 2s1

1s2 2s2

FOUR QUANTUM NUMBER

The Bohr model was a one-dimensional model that used one quantum number to
describe the distribution of electrons in the atom. The only information that was
important was the size of the orbit, which was described by the n quantum number.

Schrodinger's model allowed the electron to occupy three-dimensional space. It

therefore required three coordinates, or three quantum numbers, to describe the
orbitals in which electrons can be found.

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 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

The three coordinates that come from Schrodinger's wave equations are the principal
(n), angular (l), and magnetic (m) quantum numbers. These quantum numbers describe
the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom.

THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)

 Describes the size of the orbital.
 Orbitals for which n = 2 are larger than those for which
n = 1, for example. Because they have opposite
electrical charges, electrons are attracted to the
nucleus of the atom.
 Energy must therefore be absorbed to excite an
electron from an orbital in which the electron is close
to the nucleus (n = 1) into an orbital in which it is
further from the nucleus (n = 2).
 The principal quantum number therefore indirectly
describes the energy of an orbital.

THE ANGULAR QUANTUM NUMBER (l)

 Also known as the Azimuthal
 describes the shape of the orbital.
 Orbitals have shapes that are best described as spherical (l = 0), polar (l = 1), or
cloverleaf (l = 2). They can even take on more complex shapes as the value of
the angular quantum number becomes larger.

There is only one way in which a sphere (l = 0)

can be oriented in space. Orbitals that have
polar (l = 1) or cloverleaf (l = 2) shapes,
however, can point in different directions.

The names of the orbitals are designated as;

s = 0
p= 1
d= 2
f = 3

NATSCIE/MEBDO
 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

THE MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (mι),

 describe the orientation in space of a particular orbital. (It is called the magnetic
quantum number because the effect of different orientations of orbitals was first
observed in the presence of a magnetic field.)
 it has values between ι and –ι including 0.

THE ELECTRON SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (ms)

 conclusive proof that electrons indeed spin in
either clockwise or counterclockwise.
 Values of ms are either +1/2 or -1/2, these
values corresponds to the two possible spinning
motions of the electrons.

The Pauli exclusion principle (Wolfgang Pauli, Nobel

Prize 1945) states that no two electrons in the same
atom can have identical values for all four of their
quantum numbers.
 What this means is that no more than two electrons can occupy the same orbital,
and that two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
 Because an electron spins, it creates a magnetic field, which can be oriented in
one of two directions. For two electrons in the same orbital, the spins must be
opposite to each other; the spins are said to be paired. These substances are
not attracted to magnets and are said to be diamagnetic.
 Atoms with more electrons that spin in one direction than another contain
unpaired electrons. These substances are weakly attracted to magnets and are
said to be paramagnetic.

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 Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
Lucena City, Philippines
………………………………………………………
Granted Autonomous Status

CORRELATION BETWEEN THE QUANTUM NUMBER AND THE ELECTRONIC

CONFIGURATION

Example no.1
Determine the four quantum numbers of Aluminum’s valence electron 27
Al
13
STEPS:
1. Write the electronic configuration of aluminum then draw the electron distribution
using the arrow method.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

3p1

The last filled energy level is the third energy level so n= 3

The last filled sublevel is 3p so ι = 1
The last filled p orbital is the first so mι = -1
The last orbital is only half filled so ms = +½

Example no.2
An atom has a valence electron with the following quantum numbers. Find the atomic
number and the name of the element.
n=3 ι=1 mι = 0 ms = +1/2

since n = 3, the last energy level occupied is the third.

If ι = 1, the last orbital occupied by the electron was the p orbital
Since ms = +1/2 , this suggests that the middle sub orbital was filled
-1 0 +1

Thus, the electronic configuration would be 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 and the atomic
number is 17 which correspond to chlorine.

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