Constitutive Relations

Dr. Rakesh K Kapania

Aerospace and Ocean Engineering Department
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA

AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures

Summer, 2016

2016
c Rakesh K. Kapania, Mitchell Professor, Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061-0203.
Stress-Strain Relation

Thus far, we have described the relation between the stress vector acting
at a point on a plane with the given unit normal ~n and the components
of the stress tensor, τij (Cauchy Relation) and the strain-displacement
relationships. Both these relations are independent of the material. The
former relation is obtained from Statics (i.e. equilibrium of the forces acting
on a vanishingly small body) and the latter from Geometry. These two
relations are derived independently.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 2
Cauchy’s Relation

~ (~v ) = τij vj ~ei

T
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 3
Strain - Displacement

ds ∗2 − ds 2 = 2eij dXi dXj = 2ηij d ζ i d ζ j

For infinitisimal strains,
 
1 ∂ui ∂uj
eij ' ηij ' +
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 4
Experimental Stress-Strain Relation

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 5
Stress-Strain Relation (Hooke’s Law)

We now need to relate the stress components to the strain components.

This relationship between the stress components τij and the strain compo-
nents ekl is called Constitutive Relations and these relations are different
for different materials. Note that, in general, each of the 9 components of
the stress tensor may be related to each of the 9 strain components. This
relationship, often obtained experimentally, may be linear or nonlinear.

The relationship, when linear, is called Hooke’s Law.

A material is called Elastic if it returns to its undeformed configuration when
it is completely unloaded, inelastic otherwise. Note that an elastic material
need not be linear, e.g. Rubber.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 6
Hooke’s Law

In this course, we will assume the material to be Linearly Elastic.

Mathematically, Hooke’s Law, can then be expressed as:

τij = Cijkl ekl

This is a set of 9 equations and the tensor Cijkl is a tensor of rank 4 and
thus has 81 constants.Its components will transform from one coordinate
system to another as:

eijkl = aim ajn ako alp Cmnop

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 7
Hooke’s Law

As we shall see, subsequently, we really do not need 81 constants to express

a material. The fact that we have only 6 independent stress components
(due to the symmetry of the stress tensor) and similarly we have only 6
independent infinitesimal strain components means that we really need only
36 constants. From the energy considerations, it can be shown that the
stress-strain matrix is symmetric. This implies that we only need 21 material
constants to express a general anisotropic material.
A material is called anisotropic if it has different properties in different
directions.
A material is called inhomogeneous if it has different material properties at
different points.
Anisotropy does not imply inhomogeniety.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 8
Isotropic Material

Subsequently, we will also show that an isotropic material, materials that

have same material properties in all directions and every plane is a plane of
symmetry (to be explained later), we need only 2 material constants. These
two constants can be taken from any of the three constants:
I E , the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity;
I ν, the Poisson’s Ratio; and
I G , the Shear Modulus.
The three constants for an isotropic material are related as:
E
G =
2(1 + ν )

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 9
Strain Energy Density

To see why the constitutive relations tensor for a Linear Elastic material is
symmetric, we first visit the concept of Strain Energy and Strain Energy
Density

Consider a bar subjected to axial loads. As we increase the load on the bar
the axial strain in the bar, e11 increases. As we increase the strain by an
infinitisimal amount δe11 , the incremental work done per unit volume, δW ,
due to this additional strain is given as:

δW = τ11 δe11

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 10
Strain Energy Density

Total External work done per unit volume on the bar from e11 = 0
to a final value e11 becomes:
Z e11
W = τ11 d (e11 ) = u
0
This external work done on the bar is stored in the bar and is available
in the form of energy. This is called STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY and
is represented as u. Note that for axial bar:
∂u
τ11 =
∂e11
2 /2
For a bar made of linear elastic material: u = τ11 e11 /2 = E e11

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 11
Strain Energy Density for a 3D case

For a general 3D case, where we have nine strain components and

nine stress components, the strain energy density becomes:
Z e11 Z e11
u = τ11 d (e11 ) + τ12 d (e12 )
0 0
Z e13 Z e21
+ τ13 d (e13 ) + τ21 d (e21 ) + · · ·
0 0
Z e32 Z e33
+··· τ32 d (e32 ) + τ33 d (e33 )
0 0
Z eij
= τij d (eij )
0

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 12
Strain Energy Density for a 3D case

Here, we have obtained the Strain Energy Density for the 3 − D state
of stress, by adding the work done by each stress component τij in
increasing the corresponding strain component eij from 0 to a some
final value eij . The stress component τij can then be expressed as:
∂u
τij =
∂eij
For linear elastic material:
1 1
u= τij eij = Cijkl ekl eij
2 2

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 13
Symmetry of the C Tensor

The strain energy density for a linear elastic material can be written
as:
1
u= { e }T [C] { e }
2
Here {e} represents a vector of 9 strain components and [C] represents the
matrix of material constants.
For a linear elastic material, starting from the undeformed configuration, the
value of u must be positive. That means the matrix [C] must be positive
definite, and thus symmetric. If it is not positive definite, it would be
possible for us to come up with a strain vector for which the value of u can
become negative.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 14
Symmetry of the C Tensor

That means instead of we doing the work to achieve a deformed configura-

tion, the structure will be releasing the energy when it goes from undeformed
configuration to that final configuration. That is impossible.

Hence, from the energy considerations, we infer that the tensor of material
constants for a linear elastic constants is a symmetric tensor.

Cijkl = Cklij

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 15
Number of Material Constants

I Due to symmetry of [C], we only need 54 material constants,

not 81.
I Due to Symmetry of Stress Tensor, and using six strain ( 3
normal + 3 engineering shear strains) components, we reduce
the size of the matrix of elastic constants to 6 × 6.
I Symmetry of [C] reduces the number to 21 constants.

AN ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL IS CHARACTERIZED BY 21

CONSTANTS.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 16
Stress-Strain Matrix (Contracted Notation)

In expanded form, the stress-strain matrix, using the so-called Con-

tracted Notation is written as:
    

 σ1 = τ11 
 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 
 e1 = e11 




 σ2 = τ22 



 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 

 e2 = e22 


   
σ3 = τ33  C31 C32 C33 C34 C35 C36 e3 = e33
  
= 

 σ4 = τ23 

 C41 C42 C43 C44
 C45 C46 
 e4 = 2e23 

=  C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56 e5 = 2e31
   


 σ5 τ31









σ6 = τ12 e6 = 2e12
 
C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66
 

• We reiterate that for a conservative process, the above 36 constants

reduce to 21 stiffness constants for a general anisotropic linear elastic
material.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 17
Strain Energy Density

The strain energy density can be written as,

 T   

 e1 = e11 
 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 
 e1 

 e2 = e22 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26

 
   e2 

 
  
1  e3 = e33   C31
 
C32 C33 C34 C35 C36  
e3
u=  
2 e4 = 2e23 

 C41
 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46 
 e4 

e = 2e31  C51 C52 C53 C54 C55 C56
   
e5
 5

 
 
 

   
e6 = 2e12

C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66
 
e6

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 18
Strain Energy Density

Or as,
 T  

 σ1 = τ11 
 
 e1 = e11 




 σ2 = τ22 






 e2 = e22 



1 
σ3 = τ33
 
e3 = e33

u=
2 σ4 = τ23 
 
 e 4 = 2e23 

 σ5 =  e5 = 2e31
   

 τ31 







σ6 = e6 = 2e12
   
τ12

1 1 1
u= { e }T [C] { e } = { σ }T { e } = { e }T { σ }
2 2 2

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 19
Strain Energy Density

Recall:

γ23 = 2e23
γ31 = 2e31
γ12 = 2e12

are called Engineering Shearing Strains.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 20
Reduction in Material Constants

We will show that we can further reduce the number of material constants
by using conditions of material symmetry. To understand the concept of
material symmetry, let us start with a simple case of symmetry about one
plane. Let us assume that the plane x1 − x2 is a plane of symmetry.

• This is called Monoclinic Symmetry and a material with such a symmetry

has 13 independent constants.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 21
Reduction in Material Constants

Let Cij are the material constants in the xi system and Cij0 be the material
constants in a new-co-ordinate system, xi0 , such that

x10 = x1
x20 = x2
x30 = −x3

A material is said to possess Monoclinic Symmetry if the material constants

stay invariant under a co-ordinate transformation of the type given above,
i.e. Cij = Cij0 .

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 22
Monoclinic Symmetry

Let σ0 and e0 represent the stress and strain vector, respectively, in the
xi0 co-ordinate system, These components can be obtained from the stress
and strain components in the xi system using co-ordinate transformation
described earlier.

The matrix of direction cosines for the xi0 system is given as:
 
1 0 0
a= 0 1 0 
0 0 −1

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 23
Monoclinic Symmetry

The stress and strain tensors in the new co-ordinate system are given:

   
τ11 τ12 −τ13 e11 e12 −e13
[τ 0 ] =  τ21 τ22 −τ23  , [e0 ] =  e21 e22 −e23 
−τ31 −τ32 τ33 −e31 −e32 e33

Here we have used τij0 = aik ajl τkl and eij0 = aik ajl ekl

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 24
Monoclinic Symmetry

In contracted Notation, we have:

 0   0 
 σ1 = σ1   e1 = e1 
σ20 = σ2  e 0 = e2

  
 

 20

 
 
 

 0
   
σ3 = σ3 e3 = e3
 
and

 σ40 = −σ4 
 
 e40 = −e4 

σ50 = −σ5  e 0 = − e5

  
 

 50

 
 
 

 0
σ6 = σ6 e6 = e6
 

Expanding σ1 and σ10 , we get:

σ1 = C11 e1 + C12 e2 + C13 e3 + C14 e4 + C15 e5 + C16 e6 (1)

σ10 = 0 0
C11 e1 0 0
+ C12 e2 0 0
+ C13 e3 0 0
+ C14 e4 0 0
+ C15 e5 0 0
+ C16 e6
σ1 = C11 e1 + C12 e2 + C13 e3 − C14 e4 − C15 e5 + C16 e6 (2)
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 25
Monoclinic Symmetry

Here we have used σ10 = σ1 , and Cij0 = Cij .

Comparing (1) and (2), we get: C14 = C15 = 0 for a material with mono-
clinic symmetry.
We can similarly show that:

C24 = C25 = 0
C34 = C35 = 0
C64 = C65 = 0

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 26
Monoclinic Symmetry

The constitutive matrix for a monoclinic material becomes:

 
C11 C12 C13 0 0 C16

 C21 C22 C23 0 0 C26 

 C31 C32 C33 0 0 C36 
 ; Cij = Cji

 0 0 0 C44 C45 0 

 0 0 0 C54 C55 0 
C61 C62 C63 0 0 C66

13 independent constants.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 27
Orthotropic Materials

Example:
(i) Wood
(ii) A Composite
Laminate

Three axes and three planes of symmetry.

i.e. if we reverse the direction of the co-ordinate axes, the material
constants do not change.
Using similar arguments, we can show that, for an orthotropic
material:
(i) There is no normal-shear strain coupling.
(ii) There is no coupling among the three shears strain either.

(iii) The number of constants reduces to 9.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 28
Orthotropic Materials

The constitutive matrix for an orthotropic material becomes

 
C11 C12 C13 0 0 0

 C21 C22 C23 0 0 0 


 C31 C32 C33 0 0 0 


 0 0 0 C44 0 0 

 0 0 0 0 C55 0 
0 0 0 0 0 C66

For symmetry conditions

Cij = Cji

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 29
Lames Parameters for Isotropic Materials

Material properties are independent of the orientation of the co-ordinate

system.

Only two independent constants, termed Lame’s Parameters, λ and µ, are

sufficient to express the linear elastic isotropic behavior. Mathematically, the
stress-strain behavior is given as:

τij = 2µeij + λδij ekk

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 30
Lames Parameters for Isotropic Materials

Or

1 λ
eij = τij − δij τkk
2µ 2µ(2µ + 3λ)

Here δij represents Kronecker’s Delta and ekk represents sum of normal
strain components, i.e. ekk = e11 + e22 + e33 . Similarly, τkk represents
sum of the normal stress components; τkk = τ11 + τ22 + τ33 .

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 31
Lames Parameters for Isotropic Materials

In expanded form, the stress-strain relationship for an isotropic ma-

terial is given as:

τ11 = 2µe11 + λ(e11 + e22 + e33 )

τ22 = 2µe22 + λ(e11 + e22 + e33 )
τ33 = 2µe33 + λ(e11 + e22 + e33 )
τ12 = 2µe12
τ23 = 2µe23
τ31 = 2µe31

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 32
Relationship Between Lame’s Parameters and
Engineering Constants

Recall, we have three commonly used engineering constants, Young’s mod-

ulus, E , the Poisson’s Ratio, ν, and the Shear Modulus, G .

The Young’s Modulus, E , is obtained by taking a prismatic bar and deter-

mining the slope of the stress-strain diagram in the linear range. The state
of stress is such that all stress components other than τ11 are zero. Note
that for such a state of stress, the three normal strain components, namely,
e11 , e22 , and e33 are non-zero, but the three shear strain components are
zero. This is because, for isotropic materials, a normal stress component
does not give rise to shear strains.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 33
Relationship Between Lame’s Parameters and
Engineering Constants

τ11 µ(2µ + 3λ)

E = =
e11 µ+λ

The Poisson’s Ratio, ν, is given as:

e22 e33 λ
ν=− =− =
e11 e11 2( µ + λ )

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 34
E and ν in terms of Lame’s Parameters

Recall: τij = 2λeij + λδij ekk , and for a uniaxial state of stress, τ22 = τ33 =
0
We get:

τ11 = 2µe11 + λ(e11 + e22 + e33 ) (1)

0 = 2µe22 + λ(e11 + e22 + e33 ) (2)
0 = 2µe33 + λ(e11 + e22 + e33 ) (3)

From (2) and (3)

0 = 2µ(e22 + e33 ) + 2λ(e11 + e22 + e33 ) [From (2) and (3)]

0 = −2µe11 + (2µ + 2λ)(e11 + e22 + e33 )

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 35
E and ν in terms of Lame’s Parameters

µe11 = (λ + µ)ekk
or
µ
ekk = e11
λ+µ

Substituting ekk in the expression for τ11 gives:

λµ
τ11 = 2µe11 +
λ+µ
µ(2µ + 3λ)
= e11
λ+µ
| {z }
E

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 36
E and ν in terms of Lame’s Parameters

The Poisson’s Ratio, ν, is defined as:

e22 e33
ν=− =−
e11 e11
or
e22 = e33 = −νe11
From the previous slide, we have:

2(e22 + e33 )(λ + µ) = −2λe11

2(−2νe11 )(λ + µ) = −2λe11

This leads to:
λ
ν=
2( λ + µ )
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 37
Shear Modulus

The Shear Modulus, G , is defined as the ratio of a shear stress com-

ponent, say τ12 to the corresponding engineering shear strain com-
ponnet, 2e12 , i.e.
τ12 E
G =µ= =
2e12 2(1 + ν )

Similarly, we can show that:

νE
λ=
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
The Strain-Stress relations can be expressed as:
1
eij = [(1 + ν)τij − νδij τkk ]
E
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 38
Bulk Modulus for Isotropic Materials

Let a solid is subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure, p, and results in

normal strain components e11 , e22 , and e33 . Uniform hydrostatic pressure
leads to a state of stress given as:
 
−p 0 0
[ τ ] =  0 −p 0 
0 0 −p

e = e11 + e22 + e33

1
= [τ11 + τ22 + τ33 − 2ν(τ11 + τ22 + τ33 )]
E
1 − 2ν
ekk = τkk
E

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 39
Bulk Modulus for Isotropic Materials

Or

The change in the volume e assuming infinitesimal strains is given as:

1 − 2ν
 
e = ekk = −3p
E

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 40
Bulk Modulus for Isotropic Materials

The Bulk Modulus, K , is defined as the ratio of the pressure p and the
change in volume.
E
K =
3(1 − 2ν)

Bulk Modulus is also called Modulus of Volume Expansion.

Since the bulk modulus cannot be negative, i.e. a uniform pressure cannot
lead to an expansion in the volume, the Poisson’s ratio cannot be greater
than 0.5.

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 41
Bulk Modulus for Isotropic Materials

Materials with Poisson’s ratio of 0.5 are called Incompressible media. Rubber
is a good example of that.

The Bulk modulus can be expressed in Lame’s parameters as:

τkk= 2µekk + 3λekk

−3p = ekk (2µ + 3λ)
 
p 2µ + 3λ 2µ
K = − = = λ+
ekk 3 3

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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 42
Constitutive Relation for Isotropic Materials

   

 τ11 
 C11 C12 C12 0 0 0



 τ22 




 C12 C11 C12 0 0 0 

C12 C12 C11 0 0 0
 
τ33  
= 

 τ23 


 0 0 0 C44 0 0 

0 0 0 0 C44 0
 
τ
 31

 
  
 

τ12 0 0 0 0 0 C44

C11 = 2µ + λ
C12 = λ
1
C44 = µ = [C11 − C12 ]
2

Ref: P.L. Gould, Introduction to linear Elasticity; Springer-Verlag,

New York, 1983.
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c K. Kapania AOE 5024, Vehicle Structures 43