GEOMETRY:

Power P, 𝑄𝑄̇ ,𝑊𝑊̇ ,𝐸𝐸̇ W

2
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ = 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷
Pressure P Pa
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
J
Specific heat 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝
𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 kg ∙ K
m3
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 Specific volume ν
kg
𝜋𝜋 2
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐷𝐷 Temperature T °C, K
4
W
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 Thermal conductivity k
m∙K
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2 C
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐿𝐿 Thermal resistance R °
4 W
m
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷3 Velocity V, u, v, w
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ = s
6 kg
Viscosity, dynamic μ
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 m∙s
m2
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 2𝑤𝑤 + 2𝑡𝑡 Viscosity, kinematic ν
s
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS: Volume V m3

m3
Dimension Variable Units Volume flow rate 𝑉𝑉̇
s
m
Acceleration, a
s2

Area A m2

kg
Density ρ
m3
E, Q, W, U,
Energy J
H

Force F N

W
Heat flux 𝑞𝑞̇
m2

Heat generation 𝑒𝑒̇𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 W/m3

W
Heat transfer coefficient h
m2 ∙K

Length L, x, y, z, t m

Mass m kg

kg
Mass flow rate 𝑚𝑚̇
s

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 1 · INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

Mach number:

𝑉𝑉
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
𝑐𝑐

Newton’s second law:

𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Mass:

𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

Weight:

𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Unit conversions:

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝑚𝑚
1 𝑁𝑁 = 1
𝑠𝑠 2

1 𝐽𝐽 = 1 𝑁𝑁 ∙ 𝑚𝑚

𝐽𝐽
1 𝑊𝑊 = 1
𝑠𝑠

𝑁𝑁
1 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 1
𝑚𝑚2

Mass flow rate:

𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉 = 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉̇

Volume flow rate:

𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚̇
𝑉𝑉̇ = =
𝑡𝑡 𝜌𝜌

Energy:

𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸̇ ∆𝑡𝑡

Work:

𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹∆𝑧𝑧

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 2 · PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝛽𝛽 = � � =− � �
𝜈𝜈 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑃𝑃 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑃𝑃
Density:
1
𝑚𝑚 𝛽𝛽𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
𝜌𝜌 = 𝑇𝑇
𝑉𝑉
Density variation with temperature and pressure:
Specific gravity:
Δ𝜌𝜌 = 𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼Δ𝑃𝑃 − 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽Δ𝑇𝑇
𝜌𝜌
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝜌𝜌𝐻𝐻2𝑂𝑂 Speed of sound:

Specific weight: 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝑘 � �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇
𝛾𝛾 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑐𝑐 = √𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Ideal gases:
Specific heat rate:
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝
Internal energy and specific heats: 𝑘𝑘 =
𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣
∆𝑢𝑢 ≅ 𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑇𝑇
Mach number:
∆ℎ ≅ 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
𝑐𝑐
Enthalpy:
Shear stress:
𝑃𝑃
ℎ = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑢𝑢 +
𝜌𝜌 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡
𝜏𝜏 =
𝐴𝐴
Total energy of a system:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜏𝜏 = 𝜇𝜇 �
𝑉𝑉 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦=0
𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Total energy of a flowing fluid: 𝜏𝜏 = 𝜇𝜇 �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟=𝑅𝑅
𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 2 Kinematic viscosity:
𝑒𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑢𝑢 + + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = ℎ + + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜌𝜌 2
𝜇𝜇
Coefficient of compressibility: 𝜈𝜈 =
𝜌𝜌

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 Capillary rise or drop:

𝜅𝜅 = −𝑣𝑣 � � = 𝜌𝜌 � �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇
2𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠
ℎ= cos 𝜙𝜙
𝜅𝜅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑃𝑃 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌

Isothermal compressibility:

1 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝛼𝛼 = =− � � =− � �
𝜅𝜅 𝜐𝜐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑇𝑇

Coefficient of volume expansion:

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 3 · PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS

Gage pressure:

𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Vacuum pressure:

𝑃𝑃𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = −𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

Pressure variation with elevation/depth:

∆𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃2 − 𝑃𝑃1 = −𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌∆𝑧𝑧 = −𝛾𝛾∆𝑧𝑧

𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌|∆𝑧𝑧| = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝛾𝛾|∆𝑧𝑧|

𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ

𝑃𝑃𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ

Hydrostatic forces on submerged plane surfaces:

𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 = (𝑃𝑃0 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ𝑐𝑐 )𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴

Average pressure (relative to the atmosphere):

𝑏𝑏
𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶 = �𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 �𝑠𝑠 + � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠� for a tilted rectangular plate
2

𝑏𝑏
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = �𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 �𝑠𝑠 + �� for a vertical rectangular plate
2

𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐 = (𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ) for a horizontal rectangular plate

Line of action:

𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥,𝑐𝑐
𝑦𝑦𝑃𝑃 = 𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐 +
𝑃𝑃0
�𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐 + � 𝐴𝐴
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 sin 𝜃𝜃

𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥,𝑐𝑐
𝑦𝑦𝑃𝑃 = 𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃0 = 0
𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴

For a submerged rectangular plate:

𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 3
𝑏𝑏 12
𝑦𝑦𝑝𝑝 = 𝑠𝑠 + +
2 �𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑃𝑃0 � 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
2 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 sin 𝜃𝜃

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 2
𝑦𝑦𝑝𝑝 = 𝑠𝑠 + +
2 12 �𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑃𝑃0 �
2 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 sin 𝜃𝜃

Buoyancy and stability:

𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 = 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 4 · PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS

Acceleration field:

�⃗ 𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉 �⃗
𝑎𝑎⃗(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡) = = �⃗ ∙ 𝛻𝛻�⃗)𝑉𝑉
+ (𝑉𝑉 �⃗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

�⃗ 𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉 �⃗ �⃗
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 �⃗
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 �⃗
𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
𝑎𝑎⃗(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡) = = + 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑤𝑤
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 5 · BERNOULLI AND ENERGY EQUATIONS 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃 + 𝜌𝜌 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2
Mass flow rate:
𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 2
+ + 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉 = 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉̇ 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔

Volume flow rate: Stagnation pressure:

𝑉𝑉̇ = 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝜌𝜌
2
Conservation of mass:
2(𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑃𝑃)
𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉 = �
�⃗ ∙ 𝑛𝑛�⃗) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
� 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 + � 𝜌𝜌(𝑉𝑉 𝜌𝜌
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Conservation of mass (incompressible): Energy equation (steady, incompressible):

𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉12 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉22

+ 𝛼𝛼1 + 𝑧𝑧1 + ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 = + 𝛼𝛼2 + 𝑧𝑧2 + ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒 +
= � 𝑚𝑚̇ − � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝐿𝐿

Conservation of mass (steady): 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉12 𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 2

𝑚𝑚̇ � + + 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧1 � + 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚̇ � 2 + 2 + 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧2 � +
𝜌𝜌1 2 𝜌𝜌2 2

� 𝑚𝑚̇ = � 𝑚𝑚̇ 𝑊𝑊̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝐸𝐸̇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉12 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉22
+ + 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑤𝑤𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = + + 𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 +
𝜌𝜌1 2 𝜌𝜌2 2
Conservation of mass (steady, incompressible):
𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

� 𝑉𝑉̇ = � 𝑉𝑉̇ Useful pump head and extracted turbine head:

𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

Efficiencies: 𝑤𝑤𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 = = =
𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔
Δ𝐸𝐸̇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ,𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢
𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒 𝑊𝑊̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒 𝑊𝑊̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑊𝑊̇𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒 = = =
𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔
Δ𝑊𝑊̇𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑊𝑊̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = = Irreversible head loss:
�Δ𝐸𝐸̇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ,𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 � 𝑊𝑊̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒
𝑒𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐸𝐸̇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑊𝑊̇𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝐿𝐿 = =
𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔
𝑊𝑊̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑊𝑊̇𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑡,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
𝑊𝑊̇𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝜂𝜂𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜂𝜂𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

The Bernoulli equation:

𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 2
+ + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝜌𝜌 2

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 6 · MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS 1
𝐾𝐾𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = 𝐼𝐼𝜔𝜔2
2
Newton’s second law:
Shaft work:
� 𝐹𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎⃗
𝑊𝑊̇𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛̇ 𝑀𝑀

Forces: Angular momentum equation (unsteady):

∑ 𝐹𝐹⃗ = ∑ 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + ∑ 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + ∑ 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + ∑ 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑

��⃗ =
� 𝑀𝑀 �⃗)𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 + � (𝑟𝑟⃗ × 𝑉𝑉
� (𝑟𝑟⃗ × 𝑉𝑉 �⃗)𝜌𝜌 (𝑉𝑉
�⃗ ∙ 𝑛𝑛�⃗) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Kinetic Energy:
Angular momentum equation (unsteady, algebraic form):
1
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 𝑚𝑚𝑉𝑉 2
2 𝑑𝑑
��⃗ =
� 𝑀𝑀 �⃗)𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 + � 𝑟𝑟 × 𝑚𝑚̇𝑉𝑉
� (𝑟𝑟⃗ × 𝑉𝑉 �⃗ − � 𝑟𝑟 × 𝑚𝑚̇𝑉𝑉
�⃗
Linear momentum equation: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝑑𝑑 Angular momentum equation (steady):

� 𝐹𝐹⃗ = � 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉�⃗𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉�⃗(𝑉𝑉
�⃗ ∙ 𝑛𝑛�⃗) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
��⃗ = � (𝑟𝑟⃗ × 𝑉𝑉
� 𝑀𝑀 �⃗)𝜌𝜌 (𝑉𝑉
�⃗ ∙ 𝑛𝑛�⃗) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Linear momentum equation (unsteady, algebraic form): 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

𝑑𝑑 Angular momentum equation (steady, uniform):

� 𝐹𝐹⃗ = � 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉�⃗𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚̇𝑉𝑉
�⃗ − � 𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚̇𝑉𝑉
�⃗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
��⃗ = � 𝑟𝑟 × 𝑚𝑚̇𝑉𝑉
� 𝑀𝑀 �⃗ − � 𝑟𝑟 × 𝑚𝑚̇𝑉𝑉
�⃗
Linear momentum equation (steady): 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

� 𝐹𝐹⃗ = � 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉
�⃗(𝑉𝑉
�⃗ ∙ 𝑛𝑛�⃗) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

Steady flow (algebraic form):

� 𝐹𝐹⃗ = � 𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚̇𝑉𝑉
�⃗ − � 𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚̇𝑉𝑉
�⃗
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

Angular momentum:

��⃗ = 𝐼𝐼𝛼𝛼⃗
� 𝑀𝑀

��⃗ = 𝑟𝑟 × 𝐹𝐹⃗
𝑀𝑀

Angular velocity and acceleration:

𝑉𝑉
𝜔𝜔 =
𝑟𝑟
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝛼𝛼 =
𝑟𝑟

𝑉𝑉 2
𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 = = 𝑟𝑟𝜔𝜔2
𝑟𝑟

𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛̇ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛̇ � �= � �
min 60 𝑠𝑠
ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet
Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 7 · DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODELING

Method of repeating variables:

1. List the n parameters (variables and constants) in the

problem.
2. List the primary dimensions of each parameter.
3. Guess the number of reductions, j, usually equal to
the number of primary dimensions in the problem.
a. If the analysis does not work out, reduce j
by one and try again.
b. The number of expected Π’s (k) is equal to n
minus j.
4. Wisely choose j repeating parameters for
construction of the Π’s.
a. Never pick the dependent variable.
b. The chosen repeating parameters must not
by themselves be able to forma
dimensionless group.
c. The chosen repeating parameters must
represent all the primary dimensions.
d. Pick common parameters since they may
appear in each of the Π’s.
e. Pick simple parameters over complex
parameters whenever possible.
5. Generate the k Π’s one at a time by grouping the j
repeating parameters with each of the remaining
variables or constants, forcing the product to be
dimensionless, and manipulating the Π’s as
necessary to achieve established nondimensional
parameters.
6. Check your work and write the final functional
relationship.

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 8 · INTERNAL FLOW 𝜀𝜀 1.11
1 6.9 𝐷𝐷
≅ −1.8 log � +� � � 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 4000
Reynolds number: �𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 3.7

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = Minor losses:
𝜐𝜐 𝜇𝜇

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 2300 → 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉 2

ℎ𝐿𝐿 =
2𝑔𝑔
2300 < 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 4000 → 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
ℎ𝐿𝐿,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ℎ𝐿𝐿,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + ℎ𝐿𝐿,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 4000 → 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖2 𝑉𝑉𝑗𝑗 2
Hydraulic diameter: ℎ𝐿𝐿,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 + � 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿,𝑗𝑗
𝐷𝐷 2𝑔𝑔 2𝑔𝑔
𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗
4𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
𝐷𝐷ℎ = Energy equation:
𝑝𝑝

Hydrodynamic entry length: 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉12 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉22

+ 𝛼𝛼1 + 𝑧𝑧1 + ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 = + 𝛼𝛼2 + 𝑧𝑧2 + ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒 +
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 2𝑔𝑔

𝐿𝐿ℎ,𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ≅ 0.05𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ℎ𝐿𝐿

𝐿𝐿ℎ,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≅ 10𝐷𝐷 𝑤𝑤𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 𝜂𝜂𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑊𝑊̇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

ℎ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑢𝑢 = = =
𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔
Fully developed laminar flow:
𝑤𝑤𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒 𝑊𝑊̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒 𝑊𝑊̇𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡,𝑒𝑒 = = =
𝑢𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑔𝑔 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔 𝜂𝜂𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔

∆𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷2
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
32𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

∆𝑃𝑃𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 4
∀̇= 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 =
128𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

32𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
∆𝑃𝑃 =
𝐷𝐷2

Pressure loss and head loss:

𝐿𝐿 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2
∆𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = 𝑓𝑓
𝐷𝐷 2

∆𝑃𝑃 𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉 2
ℎ𝐿𝐿 = = 𝑓𝑓
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝐷𝐷 2𝑔𝑔

𝑊𝑊̇ = ∀̇∆𝑃𝑃

Friction factor:

64
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 2300
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝜀𝜀
1 𝐷𝐷 2.51
= −2.0 log � + � 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 4000
�𝑓𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅�𝑓𝑓

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 10 · APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS OF THE NAVIER-
STOKES EQUATION

Reynolds number:

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 = =
𝜇𝜇 𝜈𝜈

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≅ 5 × 105

Shear stress:

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 = 𝜇𝜇 �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑦𝑦=0

𝜌𝜌𝑈𝑈 2
𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 = 0.332
�𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥

Friction coefficient:

0.664
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓,𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
�𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥

0.059
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓,𝑥𝑥 ≅ 1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
(𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 )5

Boundary layer thickness:

𝛿𝛿 4.91
= 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥 �𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥

𝛿𝛿 0.38
≅ 1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥
(𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 )5

Displacement thickness:

𝛿𝛿 ∗ 1.72
= 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥 �𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥

𝛿𝛿 ∗ 0.048
≅ 1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥
(𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 )5

Momentum thickness:

𝜃𝜃 0.664
= 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥 �𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥

𝜃𝜃 0.037
≈ 1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥
(𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 )5

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.
CHAPTER 11 · EXTERNAL FLOW: DRAG AND LIFT 𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿
𝐹𝐹𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 =
𝐴𝐴
Reynolds number:
Minimum safe flight velocity:
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 = =
𝜇𝜇 𝜈𝜈 2𝑊𝑊
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = �
𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐴𝐴
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 = =
𝜇𝜇 𝜈𝜈

𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≅ 5 × 105

Average friction coefficient:

1.33
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 < 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
�𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿

0.074
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 ≅ 1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
(𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 )5

Combined laminar and turbulent flow:

0.074 1742
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 ≅ 1 − 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 > 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿
(𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝐿𝐿 )5

Rough surface:

𝜀𝜀 −2.5
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = �1.89 − log �
𝐿𝐿

Drag and lift:

𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 = 𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷,𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

1
𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐴 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2
2
1
𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿 = 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴 𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉 2
2

Power:

𝑃𝑃 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

Cruising at constant altitude:

𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿 = 𝑊𝑊

Cruising at constant velocity:

𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 = 𝑇𝑇

Wing loading:

ENGR 3235 Fluid Mechanics Equation Sheet

Prepared by Dr. David Calamas
Equations shown as presented in Çengel and Cimbala, 2018, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, NY.