1.

Meaning of Polymers: (PPT)

-PC: Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing carbonate groups
in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in engineering are strong, tough materials,
and some grades are optically transparent. They are easily worked, molded, and
thermoformed.

Process: In this process, the hot polymer melt is pressed through into a mold with high
pressure. The mold when cools, gives the molten polymer its desired shape and
characteristics. This process is generally used to manufacture polycarbonate bottles, plates
etc. Since polycarbonate is a poor-flowing plastic, wall thickness should not be too thin.

Example:

 medical (for example, for dialysis housing and spectacle lenses)

 electro-electronic (for example, sockets, lamp covers,
 fuse-boxes, computer and television housings)
 construction (for example, stadium roofs, signs, skylights)
 optical storage (CDs, DVD, HD-DVDs)
 cars (interior lighting and headlamps, sunroofs, side windows, radiators, grilles,
bumpers)
 packaging (for example, large water bottles)

mechanism: There are many polycarbonates which vary in properties depending on their
molecular mass and structure. As the molecular mass increases, the polymer becomes more
rigid.  Further, the properties are changed by blending it with other polymers, for example,
with ABS and polyesters such as PET. Because of their remarkable properties (they are flame
and heat resistant, tough and transparent), the polymers are very widely used.

-PE: Polyethylene (PE) is an organic polymer made by the polymerization of monomer

subunits. The chemical formula of polyethylene is (C2H4)n. Polyethylene is a combination of
similar polymers of ethylene with different values of n. A typical polyethylene molecule can
contain more than 500 ethylene subunits.
Process:
HDPE
The polymerisation reaction which occurs is a random one, producing a wide distribution of
molecule sizes. By controlling the reaction conditions, it is possible to select the average
molecule size (or molecule weight) and the distribution of sizes around this average
(molecular weight distribution). The chains are highly branched (at intervals of 20 - 50
carbons)
Example:
Packaging Applications – High Density Polyethylene is used in several packaging
applications including crates, trays, bottles for milk and fruit juices, caps for food packaging,
Consumer Goods – Low cost and easy processability make HDPE a material of choice in
several household/ consumer goods like garbage containers, housewares, ice boxes, toys etc.
Fibers and Textiles – Thanks to its high tensile strength, HDPE is widely used in ropes,
fishing and sport nets, nets for agricultural use, Industrial and decorative fabrics, etc.

LDPE
The polyethylene product of this process was found to be much stiffer than any previous with
a density range of about 0.940 - 0.970g cm-3. The increased stiffness and density were found
to be due to a much lower level of chain branching. The new HDPE was found to be
composed of very straight chains of ethylene with a much narrower distribution of molecular
weights (or chain lengths) and a potentially very high average chain length.
Example:
Packaging – Thanks to its low cost and good flexibility, LDPE is used in packaging industry
for pharmaceutical and squeeze bottles, caps and closures, tamper evident, liners, trash bags,
films for food packaging (frozen, dry goods, etc.), laminations etc.

Pipes and Fittings – Low Density Polyethylene is used to manufacture water pipes and hoses
for the pipes and fittings industry due to Its plasticity and low water absorption.

Mechanism: Polyethylene is an addition polymer that is created by the polymerization of

ethylene monomer units as its name implies. Ethylene can be polymerized by a radical
mechanism under very high pressures and temperatures with the addition of an organic
peroxide radical initiator.

-PTFE: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a strong, tough, waxy,

nonflammable synthetic resin produced by the polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene. Known
by such trademarks as Teflon, Fluon, Hostaflon, and Polyflon, PTFE is distinguished by its
slippery surface, high melting point, and resistance to attack by almost all chemicals. These
properties have made it familiar to consumers as the coating on nonstick cookware; it is also
fabricated into industrial products, including bearings, pipe liners, and parts for valves and
pumps.
Process: Granular PTFE is produced in a water-based suspension polymerisation reaction.
The resulting granular resin is often processed into shape through compression moulding.
Example:

O-rings, gaskets, valve stem seals, shaft seals, linings for fuel hoses,
Automotive
power steering and transmission etc.
Coatings for heat exchangers, pumps, diaphragms, impellers, tanks,
Chemical Industry
reaction vessels, autoclaves, containers etc.
Electrical & Electrical insulation, flexible printed circuit boards, semiconductor
Electronics parts
Seats and plugs, bearing, non-stick surfaces, coatings for pipes,
Engineering
fittings, valve and pump parts
 Medical Cardiovascular grafts, ligament replacement, heart patches

Mechanism: Polytetrafluoroethylene is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other

cookware. It is non-reactive, partly because of the strength of carbon–fluorine bonds, and so
it is often used in containers and pipework for reactive and corrosive chemicals.
-PP: Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic “addition polymer” made from the combination of
propylene monomers. It is used in a variety of applications to include packaging for
consumer products, plastic parts for various industries including the automotive industry,
special devices like living hinges, and textiles.
Process: Production of polypropylene takes place by slurry, solution or gas phase process, in
which the propylene monomer is subjected to heat and pressure in the presence of a catalyst
system. Polymerisation is achieved at relatively low temperature and pressure and the product
yielded is translucent, but readily coloured. Differences in catalyst and production conditions
can be used to alter the properties of the plastic.
Example: Polypropylene is most commonly used for plastic moldings, wherein it is injected
into a mold while molten, forming complex shapes at relatively low cost and high volume;
examples include bottle tops, bottles, and fittings.
Mechanism: The density of (PP) is between 0.895 and 0.92 g/cm3. Therefore, PP is
the commodity plastic with the lowest density. With lower density, moldings parts with lower
weight and more parts of a certain mass of plastic can be produced. Unlike polyethylene,
crystalline and amorphous regions differ only slightly in their density. However, the density
of polyethylene can significantly change with fillers.
Explain:
- Picture
Conclusion: Which is safety for drinking and fooding?
Safety material for drinking and fooding is PC,PE,PP
But they are have different functions.

2. Meaning of Ceramics:
ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant materials
made by shaping and then firing a nonmetallic mineral, such as clay, at a high temperature.
Ceramics are classified as inorganic and nonmetallic materials that are essential to our daily
lifestyle.  Ceramic and materials engineers are the people who design the processes in which
these products can be made, create new types of ceramic products, and find different uses for
ceramic products in everyday life. 
-How its use for engine:
Ceramics are used or may be potentially used in combustion engines due to their following
advantages over Metals:
 High strength.
 Refractoriness (high maximum service temperature). Ceramics retain their
properties (including strength and hardness) at elevated temperatures.
 Low density.
 High wear resistance.
 Low coefficient of friction.

-Process:
Ceramic products that use naturally occurring rocks and minerals as a starting material must
undergo special processing in order to control purity, particle size, particle size distribution,
and heterogeneity. These attributes play a big role in the final properties of the finished
ceramic. Chemically prepared powders also are used as starting materials for some ceramic
products. These synthetic materials can be controlled to produce powders with precise
chemical compositions and particle size.
-Purpose: Typically, they will demonstrate excellent strength and hardness properties;
however, they are often brittle in nature.  Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically
conductive materials, objects allowing electricity to pass through their mass, or insulators,
materials preventing the flow of electricity. 
-Drawing

- Explain
3. Mean of aging hardening Aluminium 2024 mechanism and explanation!
The aging characteristics of 2024 aluminium alloy was studied at various temperatures, and
its effects on the tensile strength, yield strength, hardness and ductility were observed at
different intervals of time. The experimental results have revealed that aging at higher
temperatures improves the mechanical properties in much shorter period of time. The over-
aging has adverse effects on the overall properties of the alloy.