BLOA 5/23/17 5:26 PM

Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis and explain how these
principles may be demonstrated in research.
There are biological correlates for behaviour
• Physiological origins for behaviour:
o Neurotransmitters
o Hormones
o Genes
o Specialized brain areas

Based on reductionism
• Explaining complex behavior in simpler terms
• Complex behaviour easier to understand

Newcomer et al. (1999)

• Experiment on cortisol and memory
• Levels of cortisol affecting verbal-declarative memory
• 51 healthy people between ages of 18-30 selected and split into three groups
o high level of stress with high dose of cortisol (160 mg)
o mild level of stress with lower dose of cortisol (40 mg)
o placebo
• done for 3 days
• High level group performed worse versus both low dose group and placebo group on verbal
declarative memory tests
• Low level group did not show memory decrease
o Therefore cortisol can affect memory; there are biological correlates for behaviour

Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain.

• Assumes that certain functions are localized to different parts of the brain
 • Case Study – HM (Henry Molaison)
o MILNER – first to study HM’s brain and on his memory functioning
o CORKIN – MRI scans of HM’s brain, seeing the extent of damage and which parts were
removed
o HM = good case study b/c of intact intelligence and precise lesions in the brain
o Had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia following removal of hippocampus
o Global amnesia as a result of losing both hippocampi (e.g. could not learn new names)
o Only retained learning at subconscious level (e.g. learning to walk with an aid)
o Removal of hippocampus = reduced seizures but caused memory problems
ABOUT LOCALIZATIONS
• Hippocampus is important in memory processing/temporary storage of memories/STM to LTM
conversion
o Procedural memories probably not stored in hippocampus
o Brain has several memory systems
o Memory process is more complicated than previously believed
• EVALUATION HM
o Decreased seizures but caused memory problems, which was unanticipated
o Longitudinal study over 50 years, contributing to the understanding of memory
§ Which lobes correspond to which memories (e.g. medial temporal for retrieval
and storing, etc.)
§ Procedural memories do not come from the hippocampus
§ Cortical areas are for long term memories (e.g. use in daily life)
o Ethical concern of consent given his amnesia
§ However justifiable due to substantial findings
o Generalizable to some extent only (those with similar cases of brain damage)
o Hard to generalize due to case study nature
Explain, using one or more examples, the effects of neurotransmission on human
behaviour.
Neurotransmitter – chemical messengers released via synapses
• Physiological origins of behaviour
• Affects physiological systems, cognition, mood, behaviour
o If not absorbed: re-uptaken/diffused out/destroyed
o If blocked/replaced: message changes

• Dopamine
o Associated with goal-directive, compulsive, pleasure-seeking behaviour
o Feelings of euphoria, happiness
o Released via brain’s reward system
o Can be triggered by environmental factors (e.g. sight of food, cigarettes, etc.)
§ Nicotine – psychoactive ingredient in tobacco which can increase dopamine
levels

• Fisher (2004)
o Romantic Love: An fMRI Study on a Neural Mechanism for Mate Choice
o Sample asked questions about loved ones (eg. “How long have you been in love?”)
and then subjected to fMRI tests
§ Romantic love and dopamine closely related along with similar neurotransmitters
§ Love more of a reward system vs emotion
o When response is given to acts of passion – brain tacks on to positive emotions (eg.
Hope, elation) + regions of prefrontal cortex monitor pursuit (eg. Planning tactics,
weighing pros and cons, monitoring progress towards goal)

Explain, using examples, the function of two hormones on human behaviour.

Hormones – chemical messengers from the glands/cells + physiological origin for behaviour
 • Cause mood swings
• Regulate metabolism
• Involved in puberty, childbirth, menopause
• Cause cravings/induce hunger
• Controls reproductive cycle
• Stimulate or inhibit growth
• Homeostasis (internal balance)
• Contributing factor to behaviour

Adrenaline – fight or flight reaction OR arousal

• Secreted in adrenal glands
• Helps organism deal with external threats
o Increase flow of oxygen and blood to brain
o Increases heart rate as well as alertness overall

STUDY: Shacter and Singer (1962)

• Effects of adrenaline on humans
• Emotions arise from cognition and arousal with help of adrenaline
• College males split into 4 groups, tricked into receiving “Suproxin” but really were receiving
adrenaline
• One group received placebo
o Condition 1- euphoria; played outside
o Condition 2 – completed questionnaire but got more angry as questionnaire became
more personal
• Those told about effects showed little emotion; those not told showed more emotion change
• Adrenaline can contribute to change in emotion, behaviour in humans

Cortisol – stress hormone related to one’s homeostasis

• Secreted by adrenal cortex
 • Prolonged stress = increased cortisol, which can result in hippocampus atrophy and adverse
physiological effects

Newcomer et al. (1999)

• Experiment on cortisol and memory
o Levels of cortisol affecting verbal-declarative memory
• 51 healthy people between ages of 18-30 selected and split into three groups
o high level of stress with high dose of cortisol (160 mg)
o mild level of stress with lower dose of cortisol (40 mg)
o placebo
• done for 3 days
o High level group performed worse versus both low dose group and placebo group on
verbal declarative memory tests
o Low level group did not show memory decrease
• Cause and effect relationship established b/c controlled randomized experiment; adverse effects
were reversible; there was informed consent

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.

• Environmental stimulation
o The way the environment provides stimulation via social interactions and learning
opportunities for animals/humans
o Brain’s nervous system process these experiences, creating new dendritic branches
o Stimulating environments = increased brain plasticity/number of synapses between
neurons
• Enriched environment = several opportunities to learn new things
o Humans not used in experiments for ethical reasons; animals used to study changes in
synapses (e.g. due to deprivation, etc.)
 o Case studies also used of children who grew up under extreme neglect (e.g. little
interaction with others) = shows scientific evidence due to smaller brains, altered brain
functions in terms of intelligence and emotions (Genie, feral child for example)

• Rozenzweig, Bennet, Diamond – Role of environmental stimulation on brain plasticity

o Aim – investigate whether environmental factors such as a rich or impoverished
environment affect development of neurons in the cerebral cortex
o Rats placed in either EC or IC
§ EC – 10-12 rats placed in cage with stimuli and maze training
§ IC – Individual rats under isolation and no stimulation
o 30-60 days in conditions and then brains checked for changes in anatomy
o Findings – Anatomy different for EC and IC
§ EC had bigger brains and more developed acetylcholine receptors in cerebral
cortex (important for memory and learning)
§ IC had smaller diminished brains
o EVALUATION
§ Controlled laboratory experiment = cause/effect relationship
§ Difficult to generalize b/c animal models
§ Follow Up – two hours everyday in EC can produce same results as those
placed in EC 24/7 = brain can adapt and change
§ Assumes humans will also be affected by stimulation (social, intellectual)
§ Brain weight CAN change due to stimulation
§ Ethical issues but justifiable given results

• Environmental stressors
o Stressors = events that can trigger stress responses such as increased stress
hormones, activation of amygdala or fear sensor
o Stressors
§ Acute – sudden, short term
 § Chronic – long-term
o Fight or flight response – how body deals with/anticipates danger/emergencies / coping
mechanism
§ Chronic stress can influence size of hippocampus, which is related to memory
functions
o Trauma/PTSD
§ Traumatic events – situations wherein person cannot escape causes intense
fear
§ PTSD can last for long periods of time/lifetimes
§ Those who suffer from PTSD (combat veterans, child abuse, etc) may suffer
from problems in cognition (forgetfulness, learning)
§ Related to stress-related physiological changes in brain, also further related to
hippocampus and memory

• Bremner – Stress, PTSD, and memory problems related to reduction of hippocampal volume
o Aim – measure the volume of the hippocampus assuming that prolonged stress
increases cortisol levels and thus reduces hippocampal volume
o MRI scans taken of participants + participants partook in memory tests
o All participants with child abuse; some with PTSD; some veterans
o Findings –
§ Deficits in short term memory
§ PTSD patients had smaller hippocampi; smallest were veterans
§ Correlation found between hippocampal volume, memory problems and duration
of trauma
§ Comorbidity may contribute to memory problems (e.g. PTSD and depression)
o EVALUATION
§ Small sample = no definitive conclusions or results
§ Alternative explanations to reduction in hippocampal volume (e.g. comorbidity)
BUT several studies also support combat-PTSD causing reductions
Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour.
Evaluate two relevant studies.
• Cognition
o Mental process of acquiring, processing, and understanding knowledge through
experiences, thoughts and the senses
o Perception, thinking, language, attention, memory, etc.
• Physiology
o How an organism functions – the internal, biological processes and mechanisms of
humans and other living organisms
• Amnesia
o Inability to learn new information or retrieve pre-existing information stored in one’s
memories
o Condition where one fails to recall/make memories
o Episodic more affected VS semantic
o Retrograde – memories prior to cause lost
o Anterograde – memories after cause cannot be made
• Cognition and Physiology
o Memory is a cognitive process that can be affected by changes in physiological states

• Case Study – H.M. (Milner + Corkin)

o HM = good case study b/c of intact intelligence and precise lesions in the brain
o Had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia following removal of hippocampus
o Global amnesia as a result of losing both hippocampi (e.g. could not learn new names)
o Only retained learning at subconscious level (e.g. learning to walk with an aid)
o Removal of hippocampus = reduced seizures but caused memory problems
o Physiological removal of hippocampus affected cognitive process of memory
• EVALUATION HM
o Decreased seizures but caused memory problems, which was unanticipated
 o Longitudinal study over 50 years, contributing to the understanding of memory
§ Which lobes correspond to which memories (e.g. medial temporal for retrieval
and storing, etc.)
§ Procedural memories do not come from the hippocampus
§ Cortical areas are for long term memories (e.g. use in daily life)
o Ethical concern of consent given his amnesia
§ However justifiable due to substantial findings
o Generalizable to some extent only (those with similar cases of brain damage)
§ Hard to generalize due to case study nature

• Sacks – Case Study on Clive Wearing

o Clive Wearing – musician who contracted encephalitis
§ Caused brain damage to hippocampus, impairing memory
o Had both anterograde and retrograde amnesia
§ Could not retain memories for more than a few minutes; thus could not make
and store new ones
§ Could however still talk/read/write/etc.
o MRI Scans = damage to hippocampus and other regions
o Hippocampus and other parts of brain affected = defective cognition (memory)
• EVALUATION SACKS
o Ethics – was there informed consent? Was not aware of being studied?
o Method – case study = hard to generalize and replicate for further study

• It can be said that there is a link between cognitive and physiological aspects of humans
o Brain and memory (hippocampus and memory)
o Other factors such as sociocultural ones should be considered
Discuss the use of brain-imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between
biological factors and behaviour.
• Brain imaging technologies
o Used to examine human brain
o The active brain – where processes take place; localizations; correlations between brain
activity and one’s behaviour
o No clear cause/effect relationships can be established, simply possible relationships

• PET Scan – Positron Electron Topography

o Radioactive glucose tracer injected into brain
o Glucose metabolism = activity
§ Shown through colors; red more activity, blue less
• PROS – PET Scan
o Sensitive resolution
o Can track receptors of hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.
o Can track active processes as well as extent of these activities (e.g. thinking)
• CONS – PET Scan
o Expensive
o Invasive + people may be allergic to tracer
o Longer VS MRIs
o No longitudinal studies can be done

• Tierny et al.
o Aim – investigate bilingual language development following injury
o MA (37 year old man) considered bilingual
§ Normal speech functions + fluent in sign language
§ Had lesion in left frontal lobe due to childhood encephalitis
o PET Scans used while undergoing speech tests and compared to 12 controls
o Findings – MA had increased activity in right lobe
 § Increased language development in right VS left
o PET scans were useful as the active brain could be studied
• EVALUATION
o MA could have been allergic to tracer + subject to discrimination as he is a special
case
o Cannot be generalized to others; but substantial results
o Method is expensive and may not be replicable

• fMRI – Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

o Magnet traces hemoglobin in brain and flow of oxygen
§ Flow of oxygen linked to neural activity
o Used to test localizations in brain = tasks correspond to certain parts of the brain
• PROS – fMRI
o Non-invasive, non-radioactive
o Covers all regions of brain
o Structure + Activity
• CONS – fMRI
o Doesn’t take into account distribution of processing in brain
o Specialist needed to analyze
o Expensive, correlational

• Fisher (2004)
o Romantic Love: An fMRI Study on a Neural Mechanism for Mate Choice
o Sample asked questions about loved ones (eg. “How long have you been in love?”)
and then subjected to fMRI tests
o Romantic love and dopamine closely related along with similar neurotransmitters
o Love more of a reward system vs emotion
 o When response is given to acts of passion – brain tacks on to positive emotions (eg.
Hope, elation) + regions of prefrontal cortex monitor pursuit (eg. Planning tactics,
weighing pros and cons, monitoring progress towards goal)
• EVALUATION FISHER
o Cultural differences in definitions of love
o Gender bias – only mothers asked about children, not fathers
o Expensive method; not replicable
o Analysis depended on specialist’s opinion of results

With reference to relevant research studies, discuss the extent to which genetic
inheritance influences human behaviour.
• Believed that human behaviour is to some extent genetically based
o Physiological research such as gene mapping and twin studies used
o Investigate the effects of genes on behaviour, and potentially determine how much of
behaviour is due to genes or the environment

• Twin Studies + Genetic Inheritance

o Each person has a genotype/genes + phenotype/physical expression of those genes
o Twins are used to study as MZ twins share 100% of their genes with DZ twins share
50%
o Concordance rates (e.g. if one twin has a trait the other will too) help establish
whether traits are inherited or not
o MZ twins raised apart also studied to see possible effects of environment on traits
o High MZ VS Low DZ to check if traits are inherited; differences in MZ are b/c of
environment
• Bouchard et al – Minnesota Twin Study on Intelligence
o MZT (reared together) and MZA (apart) twins tested for concordance rates on things
like IQ
 o Self-selected sample; WAIS IQ test used
o Findings – MZT scored higher (88%) VS MZA (69%)
§ Environmental factors play a role but IQ may be attributed to genetics
§ 70% observed variation in sample is b/c of genetic
§ IQ more likely to be raised via environmental factors
• EVALUATION BOUCHARD
o Self-selected sample = hard to generalize
o Method = caluculations may be unreliable
o Culture = predominantly white, middle class US citizens used
o Aim = concordance rates high but far from 100%

• Gene Mapping
o For determining the effects of specific genes on behaviour
§ E.g. temperament, physiological diseases, etc.
• Caspi et al – Longitudinal study on role of 5-HTT gene on depression following stressful events
o 5-HTT gene related to serotonin levels, which influences mood
o Participants = 5-HTT gene with long allele OR mutated 5-HTT gene with short allele
o Findings – those with mutated allele more likely to become depressed following
stressful events VS those with normal genes
§ Mutated 5-HTT gene could make some more prone/vulnerable to depression
following stress
§ Relationship between gene/behaviour somewhat established
• EVALUATION CASPI
o Method – criteria of stressful events may vary; unequal experiences of stress
o No cause/effect relationship established
o Those with normal gene still affected = more research needed
o Having gene dies not necessarily make you depressed; stress may be the main cause
Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.
• Evolution – traits are inherited in a species over time
• Darwin – Natural Selection
o Those best adapted to environment will live long enough to reproduce and pass genes
o Organisms inherit advantageous traits as these traits helped their species adapt to the
environment
o Reproductive trait – helps organisms reproduce to pass on genes
o Survival – helps organisms survive long enough to pass on genes
• Behaviours that help us survive passed down via evolution

• Disgust as a survival trait

o Helped ancestors live long enough to reproduce and pass on genes; immune systems
go down during first trimester hence the importance of disgust
• Fessler
o Aim: investigate whether disgust can help compensate for low immunity during first
trimester of pregnancy
o ~500 healthy pregnant women asked to rank repulsive situations (e.g. eating maggots,
etc.)
o Women also asked if they’ve experienced morning sickness
o Findings – women in first trimester had higher disgust sensitivity VS others
§ Those with morning sickness particularly responded to food-related scenarios
o Diseases are food-borne; being pickier allows people to stay away from diseases
o Disgust aids healthy birth = evolutionary trait
• Curtis
o Online survey of men and women (77,00 people across 165 countries)
o Repulsive images of infectious and non-infectious diseases shown, asked to rank level of
disgust
o Findings – more people more disgusted with infectious diseases
 § Older people and pregnant women more disgusted – suggests lower immunity
and thus increased disgust = natural instinct to survive from evolution
§ Suggests that disgust is evolutionary and aids survival in order to reproduce
and keep species alive

Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour.

• Ethical considerations in genetic research
o Especially in research regarding abnormal behaviour and genetic influence on diseases,
intelligence, and other traits
• Main concerns:
o Knowledge on specific genes limited = researchers should be cautious in making
conlusions
§ Genetic research is still reductionist in nature and ignores environmental factors
o Genetic research is mostly correlational
§ Conclusions should be made carefully, especially regarding developing diseases
o Genetic research may not be ethically neutral
§ E.g Human Genome Project
§ Historical events where it was unethical (e.g. Nazi Germany twin studies, etc.)
§ Data may be misused by the wrong people
o Genetic research into complex behaviours (e.g. homosexuality) = controversial
§ Given social and cultural contexts (e.g. catholic church and beliefs)
§ Could cause stigmatization and discrimination

• Caspi et al – Longitudinal study on role of 5-HTT gene on depression following stressful events
o 5-HTT gene related to serotonin levels, which influences mood
o Participants = 5-HTT gene with long allele OR mutated 5-HTT gene with short allele
o Findings – those with mutated allele more likely to become depressed following
stressful events VS those with normal genes
 § Mutated 5-HTT gene could make some more prone/vulnerable to depression
following stress
§ Relationship between gene/behaviour somewhat established
• EVALUATION CASPI
o Method – criteria of stressful events may vary; unequal experiences of stress
o No cause/effect relationship established
o Those with normal gene still affected = more research needed
o Having gene dies not necessarily make you depressed; stress may be the main cause
o Misinformation could negatively impact lives

• Ethics regarding DNA research

o Each DNA profile is unique = MZ twins have the same DNA profile
o Most assume genes control behaviour and personalities
§ Genes however only imply potential risks
o Participants in genetic studies must be kept confidential and anonymous
§ Hard to do in twin/family studies
o Has right to know where their genetic information may be used
o Informed consent must be given
o Potential risks of knowing genetic predisposition; stigmatization; information may be
misused
• Bouchard
o Twin study on intelligence using MZA and MZT twins
o MZT twins scored higher VS MZA
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