What is Evolution?

In the biological sciences, evolution is a scientific theory that explains the emergence of new varieties of living things in the past
and in the present; it is not a "theory of origins" about how life began. Evolution accounts for the striking patterns of similarities and
differences among living things over time and across habitats through the action of biological processes such as natural selection,
mutation, symbiosis, gene transfer, and genetic drift. Evolution has been subjected to scientific testing for over a century and has
been (and continues to be) consistently confirmed by evidence from a wide range of fields.

The National Center for Science Education is the only national organization devoted to defending the teaching of evolution in public
schools. This mission is vital because of evolution's central importance to the conceptual foundations of the modern biomedical, life,
and earth sciences.

Excerpt

The question of the emergence of life, of the origin on the Earth of the first living things, raises a
number of important and fundamental problems of natural philosophy. Every man, whatever his
stage of development, has, consciously or unconsciously, put this question to himself and found
some sort of answer to it, for without some such answer one cannot form even the most primitive
picture of the world.

History shows that the problem of the emergence of life has fascinated the human mind from time
immemorial. There has been no religious or philosophic system and no great thinker that has not
devoted serious attention to this problem. In different epochs and at different stages of cultural
development the question of the origin of life has been answered in different ways. This problem
has however always been the focus of a bitter conflict of ideas between two irreconcilable schools
of philosophy--the conflict between idealism and materialism.

At the beginning of our century this conflict did not merely fail to abate but took on a special
bitterness because, although science had already achieved glittering and dizzy successes in many
fields, it seemed unable to give a rational, scientifically based answer to the question of the origin
of life. It appeared that a dead end had been reached as far as this problem was concerned.

Such a state of affairs was by no means fortuitous. It may be explained as follows. About a century
ago almost everybody held that the principle of spontaneous generation prevailed so far as the
origin of life was concerned. They were convinced that living things could originate, not only from
others like themselves, but that they could also come into being spontaneously, appearing all at
once, fully formed and organised, among inanimate objects.

Both idealists and materialists held this point of view. The only point of dispute was: what was the
cause and what the nature of the forces determining this coming into being.
The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living

and fossil organisms have evolved since life appeared on the planet, until the present day. Earth formed about 4.5 Ga (billion

years) ago and life appeared on its surface within 1 billion years. The similarities between all present-day organisms indicate the

presence of a common ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution.[1] More than 99

percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species,[2] that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct.[3][4] Estimates

on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million,[5] of which about 1.2 million have been documented

and over 86 percent have not yet been described.[6]

Properties of life[edit]
1. Organization: Being structurally composed of one or more cells, which are the basic units of life.
 prokaryote: no nucleus
 eukaryote: membrane bound nucleus.
2. Sensitivity: respond to stimuli.
3. Energy Processing
4. Growth and Development
5. Reproduction
 hereditary mechanisms to make more of self; DNA based.
6. Regulation, including homeostasis.
7. Evolution.

Origin of life: 3 hypotheses[edit]

 Extraterrestrial origin (panspermia): meteor, comet borne from elsewhere in universe
 evidence of amino acids and other organic material in space (but often both D & L forms)
 questionable bacterial fossils in Martian rock
-However, this would imply that some other origin of life was likely because it would have had to happen elsewhere before it
could be transported here, and the only difference would be that life did not originate on Earth.

 Spontaneous origin on earth: primitive self-replicating macromolecules acted upon by natural selection
((macro)Evolution is one example of this)
-This is often attacked for the seeming impossibility for life to have been produced by a chemical reaction triggered by lightning
and the ability of any produced DNA to actually be in a sequence that could produce a working model of life if replicated. It is
also attacked for religious reasons, as it bypasses things like the idea of a supreme being directly creating humans. It also
seems unlikely to some that such huge changes are possible in evolution without evidence of an "in-between stage" that is
credible. Many of the stages of man are disputed due to their somewhat shakey grounds. For example, bones from other
animals have been taken accidentally in some cases to be part of a humanoid, and complete skeletons have been sketched out
from a limited number of bones.

 Special creation: religious explanations (Intelligent Design is one popular example of this.) These explanations contend
that life was created by God (or perhaps some other Intelligent Designer).
 Proponents of Intelligent design suggest that the vast complexity of life could only have been intentionally
designed while other creationists cite biblical support.
-This is often attacked for many of the same reasons that religion is attacked, and is often regarded as superstitious and/or
unscientific.

 It is debated as to whether schools should teach one hypothesis or the other when talking about the origin of life.
However, since they are all currently known major hypotheses (and sometimes hypotheses proven wrong are shown for
educational purposes), this wikibook includes what it can without discriminating unfairly against one hypothesis or the other.
The early earth[edit]
It is believed that the Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.

 Heavy bombardment by rubble ceased about 3.8 billion years ago.

 Reducing atmosphere: much free H
 also H2O, NH3, CH4
 little, if any, free O2
 with numerous H electrons, require little energy to form organic compounds with C
 Warm oceans, estimated at 49-88°C
 Lack of O2 and consequent ozone (O3) meant considerable UV energy
Chemical reactions on early earth

 UV and other energy sources would promote chemical reactions and formation of organic molecules
 Testable hypothesis: Miller-Urey experiment
 simulated early atmospheric conditions
 found amino acids, sugars, etc., building blocks of life
 won Nobel prize for work
 experiment showed prebiotic synthesis of biological molecules was possible
Issues

 Miller later conceded that the conditions in his experiments were not representative of what is currently thought to be
those of early earth
 He also conceded that science has no answer for how amino acids could self-organize into replicating molecules and
cells
 In the 50 years since Miller-Urey, significant issues and problems for biogenesis have been identified. This is a weak
hypothesis at this time.
 Conclusion: Life exists, we don't know why.

Origin of cells[edit]
Cells are very small and decompose quickly after death. As such, fossils of the earliest cells do not exist. Scientists have had to
form a variety of theories on how cells (and hence life) was created on Earth.

 Bubble hypothesis
 A. Oparin, J.B.S. Haldane, 1930’s
 Primary abiogenesis: life as consequence of geochemical processes
 Protobionts: isolated collections of organic material enclosed in hydrophobic bubbles
 Numerous variants: microspheres, protocells, protobionts, micelles, liposomes, coacervates
 Other surfaces for evolution of life
 deep sea thermal vents
 ice crystals
 clay surfaces
 tidal pools

The RNA world?[edit]

 DNA → RNA → polypeptide (protein)
 Catalytic RNA: ribozyme
 discovered independently by Tom Cech and Sid Altman (Nobel prize)
 catalytic properties: hydrolysis, polymerization, peptide bond formation, etc.
 Self-replicating RNA molecule may have given rise to life
 consistent with numerous roles for RNA in cells as well as roles for ribonucleotides (ATP)
 relationship to bubble-like structures is uncertain

The earliest cells[edit]

 Microfossils
 ~3.5 by
 resemble bacteria: prokaryotes
 biochemical residues
 stromatolites
 Archaebacteria (more properly Archaea)
 extremophiles: salt, acid, alkali, heat, methanogens
 may not represent most ancient life
 Eubacteria
 cyanobacteria: photosynthesis
 atmospheric O2; limestone deposits
 chloroplasts of eukaryotes
Cyanobacteria

Major steps in evolution of life[edit]

 Prebiotic synthesis of macromolecules
 Self replication
 RNA? (primitive metabolism)
 DNA as hereditary material
 1st cells
 Photosynthesis
 Aerobic respiration
 Multicellularity (more than once)

The early Earth is Earth in its first one billion years, or gigayear.[1] On the geologic time scale, this comprises all of
the Hadean eon (itself unofficially defined), as well as the Eoarchean and part of the Paleoarchean eras of the Archean eon.

This period of Earth's history involved the planet's formation from the solar nebula via a process known as accretion. This period
also included the formation of the earliest atmosphere and hydrosphere. The earliest supracrustals (such as the Isua greenstone
belt) date from the latter half of this period, about 3.8 gya, around the same time as peak late heavy bombardment.

According to evidence from radiometric dating and other sources, Earth was formed about 4.54 billion years ago.[2][3][4] Within its
first billion years,[5] life appeared in its oceans and began to affect its atmosphere and surface, promoting the proliferation
of aerobic as well as anaerobic organisms. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, its physical
properties and its geological history have allowed life to emerge, develop photosynthesis, and, later, evolve further and thrive.
The earliest life on Earth arose at least 3.5 billion years ago.[6][7][8] Earlier physical evidence of life include graphite, a biogenic
substance, in 3.7-billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland,[9] as well as, "remains of biotic
life" found in 4.1-billion-year-old rocks inWestern Australia.[10][11] According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively
quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."[10]
The Origin and Evolution of Cells
Cells are divided into two main classes, initially defined by whether they contain a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells (bacteria)
lack a nuclear envelope; eukaryotic cells have a nucleus in which the genetic material is separated from the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells; in addition to the absence of a nucleus, their
genomes are less complex and they do not contain cytoplasmic organelles or a cytoskeleton (Table 1.1). In spite of these
differences, the same basic molecular mechanisms govern the lives of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, indicating that all
present-day cells are descended from a single primordial ancestor. How did this first cell develop? And how did the
complexity and diversity exhibited by present-day cells evolve?

Table 1.1Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Characteristic Prokaryote Eukaryote

Nucleus Absent Present

Diameter of a typical cell ≈1μm 10–100 μm

Cytoskeleton Absent Present

Cytoplasmic organelles Absent Present

DNA content (base 1 × 106 to 5 × 106 1.5 × 107 to 5 × 109

pairs)

Chromosomes Single Multiple linear DNA molecules

circular DNA molecule

The First Cell

It appears that life first emerged at least 3.8 billion years ago, approximately 750 million years after Earth was formed
(Figure 1.1). How life originated and how the first cell came into being are matters of speculation, since these events
cannot be reproduced in the laboratory. Nonetheless, several types of experiments provide important evidence bearing on
some steps of the process.
Figure 1.1

Time scale of evolution. The scale indicates the approximate times at which some of the major events in the evolution of
cells are thought to have occurred.

It was first suggested in the 1920s that simple organic molecules could form and spontaneously polymerize into
macromolecules under the conditions thought to exist in primitive Earth's atmosphere. At the time life arose, the
atmosphere of Earth is thought to have contained little or no free oxygen, instead consisting principally of CO 2 and N2in
addition to smaller amounts of gases such as H2, H2S, and CO. Such an atmosphere provides reducing conditions in which
organic molecules, given a source of energy such as sunlight or electrical discharge, can form spontaneously. The
spontaneous formation of organic molecules was first demonstrated experimentally in the 1950s, when Stanley Miller
(then a graduate student) showed that the discharge of electric sparks into a mixture of H 2, CH4, and NH3, in the presence
of water, led to the formation of a variety of organic molecules, including several amino acids (Figure 1.2). Although
Miller's experiments did not precisely reproduce the conditions of primitive Earth, they clearly demonstrated the
plausibility of the spontaneous synthesis of organic molecules, providing the basic materials from which the first living
organisms arose.

Figure 1.2

Spontaneous formation of organic molecules. Water vapor was refluxed through an atmosphere consisting of CH 4, NH3,
and H2, into which electric sparks were discharged. Analysis of the reaction products revealed the formation of a variety
of organic molecules, (more...)

The next step in evolution was the formation of macromolecules. The monomeric building blocks of macromolecules
have been demonstrated to polymerize spontaneously under plausible prebiotic conditions. Heating dry mixtures of amino
acids, for example, results in their polymerization to form polypeptides. But the critical characteristic of the
macromolecule from which life evolved must have been the ability to replicate itself. Only a macromolecule capable of
directing the synthesis of new copies of itself would have been capable of reproduction and further evolution.

Of the two major classes of informational macromolecules in present-day cells (nucleic acids and proteins), only the
nucleic acids are capable of directing their own self-replication. Nucleic acids can serve as templates for their own
synthesis as a result of specific base pairing between complementary nucleotides (Figure 1.3). A critical step in
understanding molecular evolution was thus reached in the early 1980s, when it was discovered in the laboratories of Sid
Altman and Tom Cech that RNA is capable of catalyzing a number of chemical reactions, including the polymerization of
nucleotides. RNA is thus uniquely able both to serve as a template for and to catalyze its own replication. Consequently,
RNA is generally believed to have been the initial genetic system, and an early stage of chemical evolution is thought to
have been based on self-replicating RNA molecules—a period of evolution known as the RNA world. Ordered
interactions between RNA and amino acids then evolved into the present-day genetic code, and DNA eventually replaced
RNA as the genetic material.

Figure 1.3

Self-replication of RNA. Complementary pairing between nucleotides (adenine [A] with uracil [U] and guanine [G] with
cytosine [C]) allows one strand of RNA to serve as a template for the synthesis of a new strand with the complementary
sequence.

The first cell is presumed to have arisen by the enclosure of self-replicating RNA in a membrane composed
ofphospholipids (Figure 1.4). As discussed in detail in the next chapter, phospholipids are the basic components of all
present-day biological membranes, including the plasma membranes of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The key
characteristic of the phospholipids that form membranes is that they are amphipathic molecules, meaning that one portion
of the molecule is soluble in water and another portion is not. Phospholipids have long, water-insoluble (hydrophobic)
hydrocarbon chains joined to water-soluble (hydrophilic) head groups that contain phosphate. When placed in water,
phospholipids spontaneously aggregate into a bilayer with their phosphate-containing head groups on the outside in
contact with water and their hydrocarbon tails in the interior in contact with each other. Such aphospholipid bilayer forms
a stable barrier between two aqueous compartments—for example, separating the interior of the cell from its external
environment.

Figure 1.4

Enclosure of self-replicating RNA in a phospholipid membrane. The first cell is thought to have arisen by the enclosure of
self-replicating RNA and associated molecules in a membrane composed of phospholipids. Each phospholipid molecule
has two long hydrophobic (more...)

The enclosure of self-replicating RNA and associated molecules in a phospholipid membrane would thus have maintained
them as a unit, capable of self-reproduction and further evolution. RNA-directed protein synthesis may already have
evolved by this time, in which case the first cell would have consisted of self-replicating RNA and its encoded proteins.

RNA world
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the general discussion about the origin of life, see Abiogenesis.

A comparison of RNA (left) with DNA (right), showing the helices and nucleobases each employs

The RNA world refers to the self-replicating ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules hypothesised to have been the
precursors to all current life on Earth.[1][2][3] The hypothesis that current life on Earth descends from an RNA world is
widely accepted,[4][5] although alternative chemical paths to life have been proposed,[6] and RNA-based life may not
have been the first life to exist.[7][8]
The RNA world would have eventually been replaced by the DNA, RNA and protein world of today, likely through an
intermediate stage of ribonucleoprotein enzymes such as the ribosome and ribozymes, since it is argued that
proteins large enough to self-fold and have useful activities would only have come about after RNA was available to
catalyze peptide ligation or amino acid polymerization.[8] DNA is thought to have taken over the role of data storage
due to its increased stability,[9] while proteins, through a greater variety of monomers (amino acids), replaced RNA's
role in specialized biocatalysis.
The RNA world hypothesis is supported by many independent lines of evidence, such as the observations that RNA
is central to the translation process and that small RNAs can catalyze all of the chemical group and information
transfers required for life.[8][10] The structure of the ribosome has been called the "smoking gun," as it showed that the
ribosome is a ribozyme, with a central core of RNA and no amino acid side chains within 18 angstroms of the active
site where peptide bond formation is catalyzed.[7] Many of the most critical components of cells (those that evolve the
slowest) are composed mostly or entirely of RNA. Also, many critical cofactors (ATP, Acetyl-CoA, NADH, etc.) are
either nucleotides or substances clearly related to them. This would mean that the RNA and nucleotide cofactors in
modern cells are an evolutionary remnant of an RNA-based enzymatic system that preceded the protein-based one
seen in all extant life.

Properties of RNA[edit]
The properties of RNA make the idea of the RNA world hypothesis conceptually plausible, though its general acceptance as an
explanation for the origin of life requires further evidence.[14] RNA is known to form efficient catalysts and its similarity to DNA
makes its ability to store information clear. Opinions differ, however, as to whether RNA constituted the first autonomous self-
replicating system or was a derivative of a still-earlier system.[8] One version of the hypothesis is that a different type of nucleic
acid, termed pre-RNA, was the first one to emerge as a self-reproducing molecule, to be replaced by RNA only later. On the
other hand, the recent finding that activated pyrimidine ribonucleotides can be synthesized under
plausible prebiotic conditions[17] means that it is premature to dismiss the RNA-first scenarios.[8] Suggestions for 'simple' pre-
RNA nucleic acids have included Peptide nucleic acid (PNA), Threose nucleic acid (TNA) or Glycol nucleic acid (GNA).[18]
[19]
 Despite their structural simplicity and possession of properties comparable with RNA, the chemically plausible generation of
"simpler" nucleic acids under prebiotic conditions has yet to be demonstrated.[20]
RNA as an enzyme[edit]
Further information:  Ribozyme

RNA enzymes, or ribozymes, are found in today's DNA-based life and could be examples of living fossils. Ribozymes play vital
roles, such as those in the ribosome, which is vital for protein synthesis. Many other ribozyme functions exist; for example,
thehammerhead ribozyme performs self-cleavage[21] and an RNA polymerase ribozyme can synthesize a short RNA strand from
a primed RNA template.[22]

Among the enzymatic properties important for the beginning of life are:

 Self-replication. The ability to self-replicate, or synthesize other RNA molecules; relatively short RNA molecules that
can synthesize others have been artificially produced in the lab. The shortest was 165-bases long, though it has been
estimated that only part of the molecule was crucial for this function. One version, 189-bases long, had an error rate of just
1.1% per nucleotide when synthesizing an 11 nucleotide long RNA strand from primed template strands.[23] This 189 base
pair ribozyme could polymerize a template of at most 14 nucleotides in length, which is too short for self replication, but a
potential lead for further investigation. The longest primer extension performed by a ribozyme polymerase was 20 bases.[24]
 Catalysis. The ability to catalyze simple chemical reactions—which would enhance creation of molecules that are
building blocks of RNA molecules (i.e., a strand of RNA which would make creating more strands of RNA easier). Relatively
short RNA molecules with such abilities have been artificially formed in the lab.[25][26] A recent study showed that almost any
nucleic acid can evolve into a catalytic sequence under appropriate selection. For instance, an arbitrarily chosen 50-
nucleotide DNA fragment encoding for theBos taurus (cattle) albumin mRNA was subjected to test-tube evolution to derive
a catalytic DNA (DNAzyme) with RNA-cleavage activity. After only a few weeks, a DNAzyme with significant catalytic
activity had evolved.[27] In general, DNA is much more chemically inert than RNA and hence much more resistant to
obtaining catalytic properties. If in vitro evolution works for DNA it will happen much more easily with RNA.
 Amino acid-RNA ligation. The ability to conjugate an amino acid to the 3'-end of an RNA in order to use its chemical
groups or provide a long-branched aliphatic side-chain.[28]
 Peptide bond formation. The ability to catalyse the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids to produce
short peptides or longer proteins. This is done in modern cells by ribosomes, a complex of several RNA molecules known
as rRNA together with many proteins. The rRNA molecules are thought responsible for its enzymatic activity, as no amino
acid molecules lie within 18Å of the enzyme's active site,[14] and, when the majority of the amino acids in the ribosome were
stringently removed, the resulting ribosome retained its full peptidyl transferase activity, fully able to catalyze the formation
of peptide bonds between amino acids.[29] A much shorter RNA molecule has been synthesized in the laboratory with the
ability to form peptide bonds, and it has been suggested that rRNA has evolved from a similar molecule.[30] It has also been
suggested that amino acids may have initially been involved with RNA molecules as cofactors enhancing or diversifying
their enzymatic capabilities, before evolving to more complex peptides. Similarly, tRNA is suggested to have evolved from
RNA molecules that began to catalyze amino acid transfer.[31]

The first cells[edit]

Life timeline

view • discuss • edit

-4500 —

-4000 —

-3500 —
–

-3000 —

-2500 —

-2000 —

-1500 —

-1000 —

-500 —

0 —

Simple life

Photosynthesis

Eukaryotes

Complex
multicellular life

Land animals

Land plants

"Dinosaurs"

Mammals

Flowers

Formation of
Earth (-4540)

Earliest water

Earliest life (-4100)

Meteorite bombardment

Earliest oxygen
 ←

Atmospheric oxygen

GOE oxygen

Earliest sexual reproduction

Ediacara biota

Cambrian expl

Earliest humans

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Axis scale: Millions of years ago.

The origin of cells was most important step in the evolution of life on Earth. The birth of the cell marked the passage from pre-
biotic chemistry to partitioned units resembling modern cells. The final transition to living entities that fulfill all the definitions of
modern cells depended on the ability to evolve effectively by natural selection. This transition has been called the Darwinian
transition.

If life is viewed from the point of view of replicator molecules, cells satisfy two fundamental conditions: protection from the
outside environment and confinement of biochemical activity. The former condition is needed to keep complex molecules stable
in a varying and sometimes aggressive environment; the latter is fundamental for the evolution of biocomplexity. If the freely
floating molecules that code for enzymes are not enclosed in cells, the enzymes will automatically benefit the neighbouring
replicator molecules. The consequences of diffusion in non-partitioned life forms might be viewed as "parasitism by default."
Therefore theselection pressure on replicator molecules will be lower, as the 'lucky' molecule that produces the better enzyme
has no definitive advantage over its close neighbors. If the molecule is enclosed in a cell membrane, then the enzymes coded
will be available only to the replicator molecule itself. That molecule will uniquely benefit from the enzymes it codes for, giving it
a better chance to multiply.[citation needed]

Partitioning may have begun from cell-like spheroids formed by proteinoids, which are observed by heating amino
acids with phosphoric acid as a catalyst. They bear much of the basic features provided by cell membranes. Proteinoid-based
protocells enclosing RNA molecules could have been the first cellular life forms on Earth.[citation needed]

Another possibility is that the shores of the ancient coastal waters may have served as a mammoth laboratory, aiding in the
countless experiments necessary to bring about the first cell. Waves breaking on the shore create a delicate foam composed of
bubbles. Shallow coastal waters also tend to be warmer, further concentrating the molecules through evaporation. While
bubbles made mostly of water tend to burst quickly, oily bubbles are much more stable, lending more time to the particular
bubble to perform these crucial experiments. The phospholipid is a good example of a common oily compound prevalent in the
prebiotic seas.[citation needed]

Phospholipids are composed of a hydrophilic head on one end, and a hydrophobic tail on the other. They possess an important
characteristic for the construction of cell membranes; they can come together to form abilayer membrane. A lipid monolayer
bubble can only contain oil, and is not conducive to harbouring water-soluble organic molecules, but a lipid bilayer bubble [1] can
contain water, and was a likely precursor to the modern cell membrane.[citation needed] If a protein came along that increased the
integrity of its parent bubble, then that bubble had an advantage, and was placed at the top of the natural selection waiting list.
 Primitive reproduction may have occurred when the bubbles burst, releasing the results of the experiment into the
[citation needed]

surrounding medium. Once enough of the right compounds were released into the medium, the development of the
first prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and multi-cellular organisms could be achieved

The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in
1859, is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or
behavioral traits. Changes that allow an organism to better adapt to its environment will help it survive and
have more offspring. 

Evolution by natural selection is one of the best substantiated theories in the history of science, supported by
evidence from a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including paleontology, geology, genetics and
developmental biology.

The theory has two main points, said Brian Richmond, curator of human origins at the American Museum of
Natural History in New York City. "All life on Earth is connected and related to each other," and this diversity of
life is a product of "modifications of populations by natural selection, where some traits were favored in and
environment over others," he said.
More simply put, the theory can be described as "descent with modification," said Briana Pobiner, an
anthropologist and educator at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in Washington,
D.C., who specializes in the study of human origins.

The theory is sometimes described as "survival of the fittest," but that can be misleading, Pobiner said. Here,
"fitness" refers not to an organism's strength or athletic ability, but rather the ability to survive and reproduce.

Origin of whales
In the first edition of "The Origin of Species" in 1859, Charles Darwin speculated about how natural selection
could cause a land mammal to turn into a whale. As a hypothetical example, Darwin used North American
black bears, which were known to catch insects by swimming in the water with their mouths open:

"I can see no difficulty in a race of bears being rendered, by natural selection, more aquatic in their structure
and habits, with larger and larger mouths, till a creature was produced as monstrous as a whale," he
speculated.

The idea didn't go over very well with the public. Darwin was so embarrassed by the ridicule he received that
the swimming-bear passage was removed from later editions of the book.

Scientists now know that Darwin had the right idea but the wrong animal: Instead of looking at bears, he should
have instead been looking at cows and hippopotamuses.

The story of the origin of whales is one of evolution's most fascinating tales and one of the best examples
scientists have of natural selection.

Natural selection
To understand the origin of whales, it's necessary to have a basic understanding of how natural selection
works. Natural selection can change a species in small ways, causing a population to change color or size over
the course of several generations. This is called "microevolution."

But natural selection is also capable of much more. Given enough time and enough accumulated changes,
natural selection can create entirely new species, known as "macroevolution." It can turn dinosaurs into birds,
amphibious mammals into whales and the ancestors of apes into humans.

Take the example of whales — using evolution as their guide and knowing how natural selection works,
biologists knew that the transition of early whales from land to water occurred in a series of predictable steps.
The evolution of the blowhole, for example, might have happened in the following way:

Random genetic changes resulted in at least one whale having its nostrils placed farther back on its head.
Those animals with this adaptation would have been better suited to a marine lifestyle, since they would not
have had to completely surface to breathe. Such animals would have been more successful and had more
offspring. In later generations, more genetic changes occurred, moving the nose farther back on the head.

Other body parts of early whales also changed. Front legs became flippers. Back legs disappeared. Their
bodies became more streamlined and they developed tail flukes to better propel themselves through water.
Darwin also described a form of natural selection that depends on an organism's success at attracting a mate,
a process known as sexual selection. The colorful plumage of peacocks and the antlers of male deer are both
examples of traits that evolved under this type of selection.  

But Darwin wasn't the first or only scientist to develop a theory of evolution. The French biologist Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck came up with the idea that an organism could pass on traits to its offspring, though he was wrong
about some of the details. And around the same time as Darwin, British biologist Alfred Russel Wallace
independently came up with the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Modern understanding
Darwin didn't know anything about genetics, Pobiner said. "He observed the pattern of evolution, but he didn’t
really know about the mechanism." That came later, with the discovery of how genes encode different
biological or behavioral traits, and how genes are passed down from parents to offspring. The incorporation of
genetics and Darwin's theory is known as "modern evolutionary synthesis."

The physical and behavioral changes that make natural selection possible happen at the level of DNA and
genes. Such changes are called mutations. "Mutations are basically the raw material on which evolution acts,"
Pobiner said. 

Mutations can be caused by random errors in DNA replication or repair, or by chemical or radiation damage.
Most times, mutations are either harmful or neutral, but in rare instances, a mutation might prove beneficial to
the organism.  If so, it will become more prevalent in the next generation and spread throughout the
population. 

In this way, natural selection guides the evolutionary process, preserving and adding up the beneficial
mutations and rejecting the bad ones. "Mutations are random, but selection for them is not random," Pobiner
said.

But natural selection isn't the only mechanism by which organisms evolve, she said. For example, genes can
be transferred from one population to another when organisms migrate or immigrate, a process known as gene
flow. And the frequency of certain genes can also change at random, which is called genetic drift. 

A wealth of evidence
Even though scientists could predict what early whales should look like, they lacked the fossil evidence to back
up their claim. Creationists took this absence as proof that evolution didn't occur. They mocked the idea that
there could have ever been such a thing as a walking whale. But since the early 1990s, that's exactly what
scientists have been finding.

The critical piece of evidence came in 1994, when paleontologists found the fossilized remains of Ambulocetus
natans, an animal whose name literally means "swimming-walking whale." Its forelimbs had fingers and small
hooves but its hind feet were enormous given its size. It was clearly adapted for swimming, but it was also
capable of moving clumsily on land, much like a seal.

When it swam, the ancient creature moved like an otter, pushing back with its hind feet and undulating its spine
and tail.
 Modern whales propel themselves through the water with powerful beats of their horizontal tail flukes,
but Ambulocetus still had a whip-like tail and had to use its legs to provide most of the propulsive force needed
to move through water.

In recent years, more and more of these transitional species, or "missing links," have been discovered, lending
further support to Darwin's theory, Richmond said. 

Controversy
Despite the wealth of evidence from the fossil record, genetics and other fields of science, some people still
question its validity. Some politicians and religious leaders denounce the theory, invoking a higher being as a
designer to explain the complex world of living things, especially humans.

School boards debate whether the theory of evolution should be taught alongside other ideas, such
as intelligent design or creationism. 

Mainstream scientists see no controversy. "A lot of people have deep religious beliefs and also accept
evolution," Pobiner said, adding, "there can be real reconciliation."

Evolution is well supported by many examples of changes in various species leading to the diversity of life
seen today. "If someone could really demonstrate a better explanation than evolution and natural selection,
[that person] would be the new Darwin," Richmond said.

Additional reporting by Staff Writer Tanya Lewis, Follow Tanya onTwitter. Follow
us @livescience, Facebook & Google+.

Additional resources
 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has a presentation on whale evolution.
 To read the theory in its original form, see Darwin's book, "On the Origin of Species.
 For an overview of natural selection, check out this article.
 To understand the difference between a theory and fact, see this National Academy of Sciences
website.

This post is regarding the evolution of Life-forms on earth. I’ll start from the primordial soup/ sandwich and try to show how life
developed in stages and how development of a particular life-form was an adaptation to a particular adaptive problem. My thesis is that
life should evolve in eight stages each , with each evolutionary stage solving one adaptive problem.

For reference, I have heavily used this post titled ‘The Making of Cat‘ by Roger Berton and Nancy Creek. I would however present the
finding in my own idiosyncratic way , using as my reference the eight-fold evolutionary/ developmental stages. I have also used the 21
major animal phyla classification as present on Wayne’s Word site.

1. Co-Evolution of genes and proteins/ amino-acids: Life first originated in the primordial soup/sandwich of molecular
compounds. Proteins may be thought of as chemicals (enzymes) that helped speed up the chemical process in desired direction and
provided stability to the gene-protein complex, while at the same time destabilizing other combination of compounds; while genes
as replicators that ensured that the gene-protein complex could not only survive but reproduce or help make copies of oneself. Here
the first problem was that of how to avoid being broken-up by other proteins/ enzyme that worked to break other chemical
compounds in the soup. Thus the evolution of genes and proteins was primarily driven by how they could become stable and get
 into such stable configurations that the corrosive influence of the primordial soup could be withstood and an identity
asserted!
2. Evolution of the chromosome or two strands of DNA: Once stable gene-protein couplings could come together the next
problem was how to extract the maximum from the primordial soup for self-maintenance and self-enhancement. The problem
was solved by genes and non-genetic code coming together to form a DNA strand and then two DNA strands and a layer of water
coming together to form a chromosome. A similar approach was taken by viruses, but it contained RNA instead of DNA and hence
juts a single strand, which proved ineffective against the double helix. Eventually, though viruses continue to evolve, life evolved in
the direction of DNA.
3. Evolution of a simple unicellular prokaryotic-bacteria-like cells: Once chromosomes outwitted viruses, the next problem
facing them was how to maximally defend against predators (other destabilizing compounds) and also eat or grow maximally (use
the soup maximally). Here they thought that forming alliance was a good step. So a few chromosomes came together and the
chromosomes and the proteins they made, especially the outer cellular wall, gave rise to simple prokaryotic cells. These cells were
simple- no nucleus, no specialized organelles. The key was that 2 or 24 chromosomes were better than single chromosomes.
4. Evolution of simple unicellular Archea-like cells: It is assumed that Archea is just a type of bacteria or Prokaryotes, but it has
been proposed that these are more similar to Euaryotes than prokaryotes and may be the missing link in evolution and may have
been the common ancestor of eukaryotes. Anyway, the problem facing the primordial animal after the first three problems had been
faced was how to share resource optimally between one and one’s offspring. The reproduction was still asexual but different
asexual techniques like binary fission, multiple fission, fragmentation, budding etc were tried. Techniques like horizontal gene
transfer came into picture. The whole idea being what is the best parental investment while reproducing asexually. Here also for the
first time, DNA contained introns or non-coding DNA (whose significance, we still do not know!!).
5. Evolution of simple uni-cellular Eukaryotic like cells: It is generally agreed that eukaryotes evolved from simple prokaryote-
like cells, or better still Archaea like cells.
These cells are more specialized and have a nucleus as well as other specialized structures enclosed in membranes. It is my thesis
that this centralization of DNA in nucleus and also concurrent appearing of different specialized organelles like mitochondria
was key step in evolution, that for the first time made permissible a central command system (nucleus). The adaptive problem to be
solved was how to help those specialized structures that were related or kin-like from conflicting demands on the cytoplasm
(the common pool) and a central command center (nucleus ) evolved!
6. Evolution of simple colonies of cells (first animal phylum: the porifera or sponges) : Once a central command (nucleus)
originated that could control the organelles within, it’s command was turned outwards to manage conflicts with other similar cells
and form a co-operating colony of identical cells. This was the biggest leap-to-date and gave rise to multi-cellular
organisms.These were simple in the sense that all cells were the same : there was no specialization: no digestive tract. There was also
radial symmetry. The problem to be solved was how to know which cells would co-operate and which not (akin to reading the cells
mind or having a theory-of-cell-mind module) . Somehow, I believe that having radial symmetry sort of solved this trust problem.
7. Evolution of multi-cellular organisms with digestive tracts (second animal phyla coelenterate): These are the modern day
jelly fishes and corals. They solved the internal communication problem that was facing them. How to tell each cell what to do.
Some cells specialized as digestive tract based on signaling during development. There are three classes : Hydrozoa
(Hydra),Scyzophoa (jelly fish), Anthozoa (anemones and corals ) of these. Reef corals may form (1) fringing reefs extending out to 0.4
kilometers from shore; (2) barrier reefs separated by a lagoon of considerable width and depth from a shore; and (3) atolls or circular
reefs that encircle a lagoon of water and not enclosing an island. this is just to highlight the importance of number three at stage
seven of evolution! I also believe that for the first time reproduction sexually became paramount and gave rise to germ-line gametes
of sperms and eggs and also soma cells that reproduced by mitosis and not meiosis. Specialization of cells into structures like
Gonads became possible; just like the digestive tract, once the problem of internal communication and command was solved. Please
also note that for the first time we have a polyp type or medusa like stage.
8. Evolution of multi-cellular organisms moving towards a CNS( bilaterality) (third animal phyla :Ctenophora (Comb
Jellies)): These have biradially symmetric bodies. It is my contention that a move from radial to biradial may have arisen just by
chance and due to sexual selection and may have ultimately kled to bilaterally symmetric bodies, which somehow necessitated or
gave rise to the CNS. Externally there are eight plates of fused cilia that resemble long combs; the rows of ciliated comb plates are
used for locomotion. These are also bio-luminescent , perhaps another property to make them attractive to mates and arose out of
sexual selection. The problem to be solved : attracting ‘right’ mates; the solution bio-luminescence and move towards bilateral
symmetry. These are also solitary creatures and have no polyp stage.
This brings us finally to the completion of first round of evolution, with the move from genes to fully-functional multi-cellular animals;
but still simple and not having a CNS. After this CNS somehow developed along with bilaterality and a new chain of evolution started.
I’ve thus reset the count of evolutionary stage to 1.
1. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms): bilateral symmetry with CNS,No body cavity.
2. Phylum Nemertea (Ribbon Worms)
3. Phylum Rotifera (Rotifers): Coelem incomplete.
4. Phylum Gastrotricha (Gastrotrichs).
5. Phylum Nematomorpha (Horsehair Worms).
6. Phylum Nematoda (Nematodes): a special level of evolutionary jump and that is why we scientists study this a lot.
7. Phylum Acanthocephala (Spiny-Headed Worms).
8. Phylum Bryozoa (Bryozoans): body with, for the first time, a true coelom.
And of course this paves way for the next wave of evolution of protosomians: Blastopore forms mouth, schizocoelom present. Their list
goes as follows: again evolutionary stage reset to 1.

1. Phylum Tardigrada (Tardigrades).

2. Phylum Brachiopoda (Brachiopods).
3. Phylum Mollusca (Mollusks).
4. Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms).
5. Phylum Sipunculoidea (Peanut Worms).
6. Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods): Evolutionary jump. Body consisting of three parts: head, thorax and abdomen.
7. Phylum Chaetognatha (Arrow Worms). Phylum Echinodermata (Echinoderms).I’ll like to club these two together.
8. Phylum Hemichordata (Acorn Worms):
And then we come to another major evolutionary jump or invention: the spinal chord: the phylum chordata or vertebrates, having a
spinal chord. The classes within vertebrates (chordata):

1. Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes) : driven by avoiding predation

2. Class Amphibia (Amphibians): driven by exploring surrounding
3. Class Reptilia (Reptiles): driven by forming alliances between small groups
4. Class Aves (Birds): driven by best reproductive/parental strategy
5. Class Mammalia (Mammals): driven by kin-related concerns?/ specialization/ division of labor??
From the above it seems that much more good things (than mere humans/mammals) are in the offing!! I have bought (and actually
generated the argument) the argument hook , line and sinker, what about you!

Self-replication is any behavior of a dynamical system that yields construction of an identical copy of itself.
Biological cells, given suitable environments, reproduce by cell division. During cell division, DNA
isreplicated and can be transmitted to offspring during reproduction.