Report-Pendentive Dome Structure

Theory of Structures-IV
PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE

Faculty of Architecture and Ekistics
In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of Architecture
By
NAVED KHAN
B.ARCH 4th YEAR (SFS)
2020-21
Guide By
Ar. Mansi Bedi
Er. Adil Ahmad
JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA
NEW DELHI-110025
Faculty of Architecture and Ekistics,

Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
Certificate
In the partial fulfilment of B.Arch. (4th year) degree program ,this is to certify that
NAVED KHAN has worked on the Dissertation Report entitled “Theory of Structures-
IV – PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE” under our guidance and supervision.
Ar Prof. Hina Zia Prof. S.M.Akhtar

Dean d/o Architecture Head of the Department
Ar. Mansi Bedi Er. Adil Ahmad

Subject Guide Subject Guide
Internal Examiner External Examiner

Declaration
I, NAVED KHAN, hereby declare that the Dissertation Report entitled “Theory of Structures-
IV, PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURES” submitted in the partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of the Degree of Architecture (4th year), is my original research work
and that the information taken from secondary sources are given due citation and references.
NAVED KHAN
Bachelor of Architecture (4th year)
2020-21
4TH DECEMBER 2020
New Delhi
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1DOMES............................................................................................................................. 2
1.2 PENDENTIVE DOME .................................................................................................... 3
1.3. PENDENTIVE DOME ELEMENTS…………………………………………..……..4
2. HISTORY…………………………………………………………………………………..7
3.LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM………………………………………………………...8

3.1 DOME LOAD TRANSFER ............................................................................................ 9
3.2 PENDENTIVE LOAD TRANSFER…………………………………………………..9
3.3. TOTAL LOAD TRANSFER…………………………………………………………9
3.4. TYPOLOGY………………………………………………………………………….10
4. DIFFERENTIATON BETWEEN PENDENTIVE AND SQIUNCH……………………..12
5. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES / METHODOLOGY…………………………….…..14
6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ……………………………………………..17
7. CASE STUDY……………………………………………………………………………..18
CONCLUSION 23
BIBLIOGRAPHY 24
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledged the role of Er. Adil Ahmed and Ar. Mansi Bedi for supporting
and guiding towards the accomplishment of my report . My acknowledgement may not redeem
the debt I owe to my family and specially my friends who spare their valuable and precious
time and helped and support me during the course of this research. I have tried my best to
present my research work on the “Pendentive dome structure.”
Figure 1 TYPES OF DOMES .................................................................................................... 2

Figure 2 PENDENTIVE DOMES ............................................................................................. 3
Figure 3 PENDENTIVE DOME ELEMENTS.......................................................................... 4
Figure 4 PENDENTIVE ............................................................................................................ 4
Figure 5 DRUM ......................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 6 DOMES ....................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 7 OCULUS ..................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 8 LANTERN .................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 9 SECTION .................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 10 COMPRESSION AND TENSION IN DOMES ....................................................... 8
Figure 11 COMPRESSION AND TENSION IN DOMES ....................................................... 8
Figure 12 PENDENTIVE .......................................................................................................... 9
Figure 13 LOAD TRANSFER................................................................................................... 9
Figure 14 LOAD TRANSFER IN STRUCTURE ................................................................... 10
Figure 15 SIMPLE PENDENTIVE ......................................................................................... 11
Figure 16 EDGED PENDENTIVE .......................................................................................... 11
Figure 17 PENDENTIVE WITH MUQARNAS ..................................................................... 11
Figure 18 HOW SQUINCH WORKS ..................................................................................... 12
Figure 19 CORNER SQUINCH .............................................................................................. 13
Figure 20 HOW PENDENTIVE USED IN HAGIA SOFIA................................................... 13
Figure 21 PENDENTIVE CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................ 14
Figure 22 PENDENTIVE CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................ 15
Figure 23 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE .......................................................................... 16
Figure 24 HAGIA SOFIA ........................................................................................................ 18
Figure 25 ISOMETRIC VIEW ................................................................................................ 19
Figure 26 INTERNAL OF HAGIA SOFIA............................................................................. 19
Figure 27 HAGIA SOFIA WITHOUT DOME ....................................................................... 20
Figure 28 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS ......................................................................... 20
Figure 29 HALF CUTTED ISOMETRIC ............................................................................... 21
Figure 30 HAGIA SOFIA ONLY WITH PENDENTIVE ...................................................... 21
Figure 31 SECTION ................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 32 SECTIONS .............................................................................................................. 22
1
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1. DOME
Domes are one of the most distinguished architectural elements; their antiquity (which may
date back to more than five thousand years ago) increases their ambiguity and charm, and their
high flexibility in covering the very wide range of different spans from few meters to hundreds
of meters increases their modernity and power.
A dome is an element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of the sphere. Dome
is rounded arch made of either curved segments or a shell of revolution, meaning an arch
rotated around its central axis.
Figure 1 TYPES OF DOMES
2
1.2. PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE
Pendentives are architectural supports that bridge the difference between a square room and
the curved dome that rises above it. Pendentive developed in the ancient world, they're very
different.
Pendentive, in architecture, a triangular segment of a spherical surface, filling in the upper

corners of a room, in order to form, at the top, a circular support for a dome or a pendentive is
a constructional device permitting the placing of a circular dome over a square room or of an
elliptical dome over a rectangular room. The pendentives, which are triangular segments of a
sphere, taper to points at the bottom and spread at the top to establish the continuous circular
or elliptical base needed for a dome. In masonry the pendentives thus receive the weight of the
dome, concentrating it at the four corners where it can be received by the piers beneath.
Pendentives commonly occurred in Orthodox, Renaissance, and Baroque churches, with a
drum with windows often inserted between the pendentives and the dome.
Figure 2 PENDENTIVE DOMES
3
1.3. PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE ELEMENTS

1. PENDNTIVE
2. DRUM
3. DOME
4. OCULUS
5. LANTERN
Figure 3 PENDENTIVE DOME ELEMENTS
1.PENDENTIVE
A pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a circular dome over a square
room or an elliptical dome over a rectangular room.
Figure 4 PENDENTIVE
4
2. DRUM
A tholobate or drum is the upright part of a building on which a dome is raised. It is generally
in the shape of a cylinder or a polygonal prism.
Figure 5 DRUM
3. DOME
A dome is a hollow hemispherical structural element. Domes evolved from arches, originally
being adapted only to small buildings such as huts and tombs. Domes are self-supporting
structures.
Figure 6 DOMES
5
4. OCULUS
An oculus (from Latin oculus, 'eye') is a circular opening in the centre of a dome.
Figure 7 OCULUS
5. LANTERN
A day lighting element at the centre of the dome.
Figure 8 LANTERN
6
2. HISTORY
Pendentives are common in the Romanesque domed churches of the Aquitaine in France, as in
Saint-Front at Perigueux (begun 1120) and the cathedral of Saint-Pierre at Angoulême (1105–
28), but they occur only occasionally in Italian churches. During the Renaissace and the
Baroque the preference for domed churches, especially in Roman Catholic Europe and Latin
America, gave great importance to the pendentive. As a result of Byzantine influence,
pendentives are frequently used in Islamic architecture.
Byzantine architecture innovated the pendentive domes Which provided the Byzantine
architects with a unique way of adjusting the circular form of a dome roof to a square or
polygonal.
Figure 9 SECTION
Under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine style of architecture evolved • His
interest in church building led to the discovery of the groin vault and the evolution of the
Byzantine style.
Byzantine architecture gave us the pendentive domes and the dome on pendentives. The
pendentive dome and the dome on pendentives provided the Byzantine architects with a unique
way of adjusting the circular form of a dome roof to a square or polygonal plan.
7
3. LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

3.1. DOME
After the dome is brought onto the square space, the gaps between the dome and the square
space must be covered. In order to close these gaps, different solutions have been produced in
different periods and cultures. Byzantine architects developed pendentive structure.
The dome is a building element obtained by rotating an arch about a vertical axis passing
through the centre of the arch. It requires a continuous support surface element on its supports.
For this reason, the dome is required to sit on a pedestal. The transport principle is based on
forwarding the load from the topmost keystone to the neighbouring stones, and then
transferring it to the base of the dome.
Owing to the arrangement of the elements forming the dome, loads from the top only work
with pressure and load transfer to the lower structural members is provided. For this reason,
the elements to be used in the construction of the dome must have a high-pressure resistance
and low tensile strength as in arches.
According to another view, this definition, which is correct for the type of stress in the direction
of vertical sections of the domes constructed by obsolete masonry construction system with
stone or brick material, is inadequate because of not considering the tensile stress in the
horizontal section of the dome. Because, as in the Pantheon, the necessity of using a pulling
ring against the horizontal pulling force of the skirts of the dome was born. Moreover, the
definition, that appears to apply to all domes because the dome forming materials are not
mentioned in the definition, is entirely invalid in the domes where only tensile stresses occur.
Figure 10 COMPRESSION AND TENSION IN DOMES
Figure 11 COMPRESSION AND TENSION IN DOMES
8
3.2. PENDENTIVE
A spherical triangle that closes the gap between the arches carrying the dome and the pedestal
of the dome and allows passage from the square planar dome into the circular pedestal.
The pendentive can be applied in two ways depending on the form of the cover:
(a). Same diameter as the diameter of the dome: It forms a continuous surface like a piece of
the cover.
(b). Same diameter as the diameter of the circle drawn out of the square space which is covered
with the dome: The pendant is the most used shape. This is the most used type of pendentive.
Figure 12 PENDENTIVE
3.3. LOAD TRANSFER
Figure 13 LOAD TRANSFER
9
The pendentive dome is derived by trimming the sides of a regular dome over a
square plan.
The pendentive dome enables the transfer the total load of the dome to the four corners of a
building, meaning that only the four corners need to be reinforced.
This allows the dome roof to be adapted for a square building.
Figure 14 LOAD TRANSFER IN STRUCTURE
10
3.4. There are three types of pendentives (TYPOLOGY)
(a). Simple pendentive
Figure 15 SIMPLE PENDENTIVE
(b). Edged pendentive
Figure 16 EDGED PENDENTIVE
(c). Pendentive with muqarnas
Figure 17 PENDENTIVE WITH MUQARNAS
11
4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE AND

SQUINCH DOME STRUCTURE
Pendentives and squinches are architectural supports that bridge the difference between a
square room and the curved dome that rises above it. Both developed in the ancient world and
although in some cases they look similar, they're very different.
How a Squinch Works

A squinch is a wedge that fits on the top corners of a square space. At the point where the
dome's bottom edge meets the room's upper horizontal edges, four triangular-like wedges
(often similar to a small bridge or arch) are placed in the corners.
Figure 18 HOW SQUINCH WORKS
Drawing of a squinch showing how it is used as an arch support
12
Think of squinches as diagonal supports constructed across corners. The four squinches turn
the square into an octagon, which enables a dome to rest on top of it. The squinch developed
in the Middle East and ancient Rome around the 5th century AD, and it was often used in early
Islamic and Byzantine architecture. It solved the problem of supporting the dome but tended to
have a blocky, chunky appearance.
Figure 19 CORNER SQUINCH
Example of a corner squinch from a tomb in New Delhi, India
How a Pendentive Works

A pendentive also supports a dome but it's more complicated, using geometry to create a series
of curving and arched supports. Pendentives also developed in the Middle East and Byzantine
world. Essentially, a pendentive is a spherical triangle that serves as an arch. Architects used
four pendentives on the upper corners of a room, where they arched inward to meet the dome's
circular base. One of the earliest examples of pendentives can be found in Hagia Sophia, a
structure in Istanbul, Turkey that was built around 537 AD.
Figure 20 HOW PENDENTIVE USED IN HAGIA SOFIA
Example of a dome with supporting pendentives in Hagia Sophia
13
5. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES / METHODOLOGY

Byzantine architects invented a new solution – one is considered again a milestone in the long
history of domes – by constructing domes on piers instead of the massive continuous
cylindrical walls. The transition from the square top of the cube to the circle was achieved by
four inverted spherical triangles called pendentives, which are masses of masonry curved both
horizontally and vertically. Their apexes rested on the four piers, to which they conducted the
forces of the dome; their sides joined to form arches over openings in four faces of the cube;
their bases met in a complete circle to form the dome foundation. The pendentive dome could
either rest directly on this foundation, or upon a cylindrical wall, called a drum, inserted
between the two to increase height.
The main attribute of pendentive dome’s construction is that it does not require column and
beam construction. The upper dome is supported in either ways, by round arches or a dome-
base structure. The upper dome can be constructed on the arches instead of being directly
constructed on the ground. The pendentive dome has sphere form with the space beneath it a
square, circular or octagon plan shape. If the space is asymmetry along one of the X-X or Y-Y
axis in a cartesian coordinate system, then the dome has an elliptical form. Corbelling,
squinches and slab of triangles are conventional methods to fill the space between the upper
dome and the supporting arches. The other method of constructing pendentive dome is using
dome-base structure. This means that the upper dome locates on top of the base dome. The
head of the base dome is cut and the upper dome is replaced as the lid.
Figure 21 PENDENTIVE CONSTRUCTION
The height of the dome and supporting vaults in addition to the radius of dome and the square
space beneath it can be revealed and expressed by numbers and their relation can be explained
through formulas. This includes the material and the cost of construction.
14
Two main features distinguish pendentives. The first is that their lower parts are points (not
lines as in the case of the squinches). The second is that they support the dome directly on the
top of the cube without using the octagon as a transitional phase between the square and the
circle (as in the case of the squinches). Instead, the volume of the transitional zones here is
filled with the pendentives. Pendentives originated from the intersection of a sphere (or
pendentives sphere, as it will be called later) and a virtual cube (of side length l), where the
center of the sphere is located on the axis of the virtual cube. The resulting pendentives depend
on the type of the sphere (i.e., sphere or spheroid), its diameter D and the relation between its
center and the center of the virtual cube. In case of the perfect sphere, there will be four
possibilities to form the pendentives:
The pendentives receive the outward force from the dome’s weight and concentrate it at the
four corners where it is directed down the columns to the foundations beneath. Prior to
the development of pendentives, dome construction either demanded that the
supporting structure was round, such as in Rome’s Pantheon, or were supported by corbelling
or the use of squinches (a construction filling to form a base) in the corners of a room that
allowed the dome to sit on top of four arches. Both of these methods limited the possible width
and height of the dome. By directing force away from the walls, pendentive domes could
be constructed much larger and higher.
Figure 22 PENDENTIVE CONSTRUCTION
15
Primary material used in construction

They used the similar materials that were used by the Romans i.e. they continued the use of
concrete.
They also manufactured bricks for the dome construction.
Marble was imported from other parts and used for ornamental work.
Pendentive domes were frequently constructed of bricks or some of light porous stone such as
Pumice, or even of pottery.
These were constructed without temporary support or centring by the simple use of large flat
bricks and this is quite a distinct system probably derived from astern methods.
Figure 23 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE
Placing of small domes round large central dome was very commonly used.
Domes were constructed without centering with thin radiating brocks of light weight pumic
stones to lessen the side thrust on the walls.
16
6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
In some cases Pendentive domes will use only a quarter of what a standard rectangular structure
of the same size would use. Due to no corners, domes on pendentive are conducive to even
temperatures throughout the structure and more efficient air circulation.
High volume to surface area ratio means that less building materials are used and more space
is available inside the building.
Pendentive domes does not have roof or domes are roofless means wind does not have the
opportunities to create enough pressure to lift the structure.
No internal supports means domes requires less building materials than standard structure and
contain more usable space.
Disadvantages
Skilled labour is required for construction because it is more complex in geometry.
Pendentive domes were not constructed now a days. In the past, they were to expensive and
complicated to built.
Different appearance of the domes decreases the appeal for their use as private residences.
Its requires more material, so more volume, so it takes more time for heating and cooling.
17
7. CASE STUDY
HAGIA SOFIA
Figure 24 HAGIA SOFIA
Hagia Sophia means “holy wisdom,” a domed monument built as a cathedral in Constantinople
in the sixth century A.D. It consists of two floors with a large dome. In plan it is around 82
meters long and 73 meters wide. The dome is 33 meters in diameter, with a height of 55 meters
above the ground level. During its 1,400 year life-span it was a cathedral, mosque and a
museum. To build Hagia Sophia, Justinian chose two men named Anthemius and Isidore the
Elder, who were not considered as architects.
They built the Hagia Sophia in six years. Although, they had problems with the dome roof;
therefore, the dome collapsed first during construction, after that two decades later. Thus,
Isidore the Younger was nominated to build a new roof, which lasted to the present-day.
The dome rests not on a drum rather on pendentives: a spherical triangles that arise from four
massive piers that carry the weight of the cupola. The pendentives made it possible to place the
dome over a square compartment. The dome of Hagia Sophia was a significant turn in the
history of building construction. This importance comes from being a transformation from
circular to square plan. Although, this particular design, circular dome over square base, is
rooted in Persian mausoleums and fire temple.
18
Figure 25 ISOMETRIC VIEW
Hagia Sophia was the greatest vaulted space without intermediate supports that has ever been
built and it remained so throughout the history of the Byzantine Empire.
Figure 26 INTERNAL OF HAGIA SOFIA
The church provides an expert solution to the problem of how to place a dome on a square base
The solution was to use pendentives.
19
Hagia Sophia is covered by a central dome 102 feet (31 m) across, slightly smaller than the
Pantheon's.
The weight of the dome passes through the pendentives to four massive piers at the corners.
Between them the dome seems to float upon four great arches.
These four concave triangular sections of masonry solved the problem of setting the circular
base of a dome on a rectangular base.
Figure 27 HAGIA SOFIA WITHOUT DOME
Figure 28 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS
20
Figure 29 HALF CUTTED ISOMETRIC
Figure 30 HAGIA SOFIA ONLY WITH PENDENTIVE
All the pendentive dome mosques have domes above the prayer hall although its position can
be slightly different in the design. The dome normally is at central position in section view
(square type’s prayer hall) surmounted on a part of the wall perimeter but in cases with oblong
21
type’s prayer hall, its location is closed to the porch (riwaqs). The flanking domes are
constructed lower in comparison with the main dome in order to emphasize their less
importance compared to the central dome above the main prayer hall. The main dome in these
mosques is supported by a semi-dome to bear the thrust of the dome otherwise the dome rests
on grand arches covered by walls. Belt of triangular connect the dome to its quadrangle
supporting space.
The domes surmounted above the main prayer hall are constructed higher than other design
elements to compensate their importance. This design also helps these domes constructed
higher to be seen from outside. Pendentive domes are widely used because the adjacent domes
cannot have their interior arches covered as a part of the walls so that they do not cause
separation to the prayer halls. The pendentive system allows height increment to prevent
gloominess of small space under the domes. Corbels at the corner and triangular planes or belts
are among the methods used to cover the wall and arched corners. A series of lower and upper
windows on domes (sky lights) walls are built to allow sunlight’s penetration inside of the
building, thus the crown and window areas receives brighter than other areas. Most mosques
have sky lights on the dome perimeter. The possible areas for these dome’s windows are under
the supporting arches.
Figure 31 SECTION
Figure 32 SECTIONS
22
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, sectional analysis provides the cut-through mosque sectional viewpoint, thereby
making possible studying pendentive dome and its influence on architecture. The sectional
analysis enabled us to study the dome influence on the architecture because this analysis
provides design data for studying the number, position, height and construction of the dome.
The study shows that pendentive dome plays important role in the Ottoman architecture
structure. The study finds that the pendentive dome’s size is interrelated to the size of prayer
hall. The slightly rectangular prayer hall result with an oval dome roof cover. This is because
the pendentive dome is always surmounted on the center of the prayer hall. If we exclude the
minaret, the dome becomes the highest element in the drawing section and therefore has the
most impression to the observer. The pendentive dome design reaches its maturity and
complexity. Aesthetical impression is bestowed on the mosque in this last category by
employment of higher level of knowledge in construction. Importance notwithstanding,
Pendentive dome design necessary to elaborate with complexity of multi-dome design in the
other categories as well as essential for making variations.
23
REFRENCES
Microsoft Word - 15-Ahmad Sanusi Hassan (iium.edu.my)
Elkhateeb2012_Article_DomesInTheIslamicArchitectureO.pdf
STR93003FU.pdf (witpress.com)
Microsoft PowerPoint - COB 14 domes and vaults.ppt [Compatibility Mode] (mileslewis.net)
byzantinearchitecturefinal-160703064702.pdf
About the Pendentive in Architecture and Engineering (thoughtco.com)
Final Exam - major study images - Art And Art History 1 with Bruck at ... (studyblue.com)
06. The Pendentive Structure of Hagia Sophia | chunlu (wordpress.com)
Pendentive Dome Byzantine Pendentives on left and | Architecture ... (pinterest.ca)
Pinterest
https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.E5IPGvYSqlqNPHvJeO2M2QHaFR?pid=Api&rs=1
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Theory of Structures-IV

PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE

B.ARCH 4th YEAR (SFS)

Ar. Mansi Bedi

Er. Adil Ahmad

JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA

Faculty of Architecture and Ekistics,

Ar Prof. Hina Zia Prof. S.M.Akhtar

Ar. Mansi Bedi Er. Adil Ahmad

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Bachelor of Architecture (4th year)

4TH DECEMBER 2020

3.LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM………………………………………………………...8

4. DIFFERENTIATON BETWEEN PENDENTIVE AND SQIUNCH……………………..12

5. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES / METHODOLOGY…………………………….…..14

6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ……………………………………………..17

Figure 1 TYPES OF DOMES .................................................................................................... 2

Figure 1 TYPES OF DOMES

1.2. PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE

Pendentive, in architecture, a triangular segment of a spherical surface, filling in the upper

Figure 2 PENDENTIVE DOMES

1.3. PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE ELEMENTS

Figure 3 PENDENTIVE DOME ELEMENTS

A day lighting element at the centre of the dome.

3. LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM

Figure 10 COMPRESSION AND TENSION IN DOMES

Figure 11 COMPRESSION AND TENSION IN DOMES

3.3. LOAD TRANSFER

Figure 13 LOAD TRANSFER

building, meaning that only the four corners need to be reinforced.

This allows the dome roof to be adapted for a square building.

Figure 14 LOAD TRANSFER IN STRUCTURE

3.4. There are three types of pendentives (TYPOLOGY)

(a). Simple pendentive

Figure 15 SIMPLE PENDENTIVE

(b). Edged pendentive

Figure 16 EDGED PENDENTIVE

(c). Pendentive with muqarnas

Figure 17 PENDENTIVE WITH MUQARNAS

4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PENDENTIVE DOME STRUCTURE AND

How a Squinch Works

Figure 18 HOW SQUINCH WORKS

Drawing of a squinch showing how it is used as an arch support

Figure 19 CORNER SQUINCH

Example of a corner squinch from a tomb in New Delhi, India

How a Pendentive Works

Figure 20 HOW PENDENTIVE USED IN HAGIA SOFIA

Example of a dome with supporting pendentives in Hagia Sophia

5. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES / METHODOLOGY

Figure 21 PENDENTIVE CONSTRUCTION

Figure 22 PENDENTIVE CONSTRUCTION

Primary material used in construction

They also manufactured bricks for the dome construction.

Pumice, or even of pottery.

Figure 23 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Skilled labour is required for construction because it is more complex in geometry.

Figure 24 HAGIA SOFIA

Figure 25 ISOMETRIC VIEW

Figure 26 INTERNAL OF HAGIA SOFIA

Figure 27 HAGIA SOFIA WITHOUT DOME

Figure 28 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS