PHYS 101 Lecture Note PDF

PHY 101
General Physics I
MECHANICS
Course Lecturer
Dr Collins C. Chiemeke
Everybody needs Physics, including the
Chemist, Engineer, Biologist etc. The Study of Physics is an
“adventure, most times challenging, sometimes
frustrating, occasionally painful,” but richly rewarding and
satisfying at the long run. 1
Class Rules
• Place your personal electronics in quiet mode, and refrain
from using them in the classroom for non-class related work.
• The lecturer is the last person to enter the class, and possibly
the first to leave.
• Help me to help you by attending classes, as attendance will
be taken during classes ( you must have 75% Attendance).
• It’s my job to help you learn, but if you take the time to help
your classmates you will develop a better understanding of
the material yourself.
• Participate in discussions and problem solving sessions.
• Discuss with me problems you are having and give me lots of
feedback so I can teach more.
2
How you will be graded
Your grade will come from a combination of
Assignments (5%), Attendance (5%), Class
test (first and second or third, quiz) (20%) and
the final exam (70%). If there is any deviation
from this, I will let you know in due time.
3
LIST OF RECOMMENDED BOOKS
• Fundamentals of Physics
By Halliday, D. and Resnick, R and walker, J
• University Physics
By Young and Freedman 12th Edition
4
PHY 101 General course outline
1. Units 14. Work
2. Physical Quantities 15. Circular Motion
3. Significant Figures 16. Equlibrium and Elasticity
4. Rules For Rounding Off 17. Mechanical Waves
5. Dimension Analysis 18. Sound and Hearing
6. Unit Conversion 19. Temperature and Heat
7. Vectors, Unit Vectors 20. First and Second Law of Thermodynamics
8. Motion On A Straight Line (Kinematics)
9. Free Falling Body
10. Projectile Motion (2D motion)
11. Relative Velocity
12. Newton‘s Laws of Motion (Dynamics)
13. Application of Newton‘s law of motion (Free body diagram and Friction)
5
Units
• Mechanics is the branch of physics in which the
basic physical units are developed.
• To make accurate, reliable measurements, we need
units of measurement that do not change and that
can be duplicated by observers in various locations.
• Base standards must be both accessible and
invariable. If we define the length standard as the
distance between one’s nose and the index finger
on an outstretched arm, we certainly have an
accessible standard—but it will, of course, vary
from person to person
• Therefore, things in which quantity is measured are
known as units. 6
Units Continues
• The system of units used by scientists and
engineers around the world is commonly called
"the metric system”.
• but since 1960 it has been known officially as
the International System, or SI (the abbreviation
for its French name Systeme International).
• Within this system, the most commonly used set
of units in physics are M.K.S
(Metres, Kilograms, and Seconds) system.
7
Second
The energy difference

between the lowest energy
states of the cesium atom
when bombarded by
microwave. The time of
transition is define as 1
second.
8
Second
On December
29, 1999, the United
States National
Institute of Standards
and Technology
unveiled the NIST F-
1, the most accurate
clock in the world (a
distinction it shares
with a similar device
located in
Paris, France). The new
atomic timekeeper is so
accurate that it could
run for nearly 20
million years without
gaining or losing a Atomic Clock
single second. 9
Second
Time should be able to answer

two question When did it
happen?” and “What is its
duration?
10
Length
Wavelength of the orange red light emitted by
atoms of krypton. The most accepted standard
is the distance travelled by light in a Vacuum
in 1/299,792,458 second is called 1 m.
• This time interval was chosen so that the
speed of light c is exactly
c = 299,792,458 m/s
11
wide range of lengths
12
Mass
The mass of a cylinder made of platinum
iridium alloy kept at international bureau of
weights and measures is defined as 1kg.
13
consequence of wrong units
• We must ensure that the
results we use in our
calculations are in the correct
units.
• The consequence of getting it
wrong can be very expensive
as with the loss of the NASA
Mars Climate Orbiter
spacecraft in 1999. It spun
out of control because part
of the software assumed
Imperial units and another
part assumed metric units.
• The $125 million satellite was
supposed to be the first
weather observer on another
world. But as it approached
the red planet to slip into a
stable orbit Sept. 23, the
orbiter vanished. Scientists
realized quickly it was gone
for good. 14
Physical Quantities
• The quantities by means of which we
describe the laws of physics are called
physical quantities.
• There are two types of physical
quantities, which are Fundamental quantities
and the Derived quantities.
15
Fundamental quantities
• Physical quantities which are independent of
each other and cannot be further resolved into
any other physical quantity are known as
fundamental quantities.
• There are seven fundamental quantities:

(1) Length (Metre m)
(2) Mass (Kilogram kg)
(3) Time (Second s)
(4) Electric current (Ampere A)
(5) Thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin K)
(6) Luminous intensity (Candela Cd)
(7) Amount of substance (Mole Mol).
16
Derived Quantities
1. Physical quantities which depend upon fundamental
quantities or which can be derived from
fundamental quantities are known as derived
quantities.
2. Multiplication of physical quantities creates new
units.
3. When you calculate Volume, the unit becomes
multiplied by itself to become, m3.
4. The unit of Volume is an example of a derived unit.
5. Other derived units occur so often they are named
after illustrious scientists, in honour of their work.
17
Table list of derive units
Expression in terms of
Unit Symbol
Quantity SI base units
area square metre m2 m2

volume cubic metre m3 m3
speed, velocity metre per second m·s−1 m·s−1
metre per second
acceleration m·s−2 m·s−2
squared
wavenumber reciprocal metre m−1 m−1
kilogram per
density, mass density kg·m−3 kg·m−3
cubic metre
Frequency Hertz Hz s-1
Force, Weight Newton N m.kg.s-2
Work, Heat Joule J m2.kg.s-2
Power, Radiant flux Watt W m2.kg.s-3
Pressure, Stress Pascal Pa m-1.kg.s-2
18
Scientific Notation
To express the very large and very small
quantities we often run into in physics, we use
scientific notation, which employs powers of 10.
In this notation,
𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟖 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒎

𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟗𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒔
Scientific notation on computers sometimes takes

on an even briefer look, as in 3.56 E9 and 4.92 E–
7, where E stands for ―exponent of ten.‖ It is
briefer still on some calculators, where E is
replaced with an empty space.
19
Scientific Notation
 As a further convenience when dealing with
very large or very small measurements, we
use the prefixes,
 each prefix represents a certain power of 10,
to be used as a multiplication factor.
 Attaching a prefix to an SI unit has the effect
of multiplying by the associated factor. Thus,
we can express a particular electric power as
𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝒎
𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟖 𝒈𝒊𝒈𝒂𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕 𝑮𝑾
𝟑. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟔 𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝒏𝒔
20
Scientific Notation
21
Significant figures
Significant figures are critical

when reporting scientific data
because they give the reader an
idea of how well you actually
measure/report your data.
22
Rules for significant figure
(1) ALL non-zero numbers

(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are always significant.
Thus, 55 has two significant digits, and 57.4
has three significant digits.
(2) ALL zeroes between non-zero numbers are
always significant.
8007 has four significant digits. 800.07 has
five significant figure
23
Rules for significant figure continues
(3) Zeroes placed after other digits but behind a
decimal point are significant, in other words, a
final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion
only are significant.
8.70 have three significant digits. 9.1000 has five
significant figures.
(4) Zeroes placed before other digits are not
significant.
0.057 has two significant digits. 0.0009 has 1
significant figure.
24
Rules for significant figure continues
(5) Trailing zeros in a whole number are not
significant, to show that they are significant use
scientific notation.
200 is considered to have only one significant figure
while 25,000 has two significant figure.
To avoid uncertainty, use scientific notation to place
significant zeroes behind a decimal point.
𝟐. 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 has five significant figures
𝟐. 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 has four significant figure
𝟐. 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 has three significant figure
25
Exercise
How many significant digits are in the following
figures?
1. 007.00 x 10-6
2. 00360
3. 6.000,000,000 x 107
4. 9000,000,000
5. 940.00008
6. 399,972,458
26
Rules for Rounding Off
The typical rule taught is that you round up

with five or more and round down with four
or less.
let us add one additional general rule.
27
Rules for Rounding Off
(1) If it is less than 5, drop it and all the figures to the
right of it.
Example - Suppose you wish to round 73.6448 to
four significant figures.
The original number rounds off to 73.64.
(2) If it is more than 5, increase by 1 the number to be
rounded, that is, the preceding figure.
Example - Round 4.88728 to three significant figures.
The original number rounds off to 4.89
28
Rules for Rounding Off continue
(3) If it is 5, round the number so that it will be
even.
Example - Round 726.835 to five significant
figures.
The original number round up to 726.84.
Example - Round 24.8514 to three significant
figures.
The original number round down to 24.8.
A common question is "Is zero considered odd
or even?" The answer is even.
29
Important Information
In the event of carrying out any calculation
(addition, subtraction, multiplication or division) don’t
round off any of the figures, until you get to your final
answer.
Example
Given 47.60 and 21.75
Round off these figures to two significant figures before
adding them:
47.60 to two significant figures is 48
21.75 to two significant figures is 22
and 48 + 22 = 70
Add this figure and round off the final answer to two
significant figures
47.60 + 21.75 = 69.35 the answer to two significant figures
is 69.
Compare the two results; a difference of one is a whole lot.
30
Significant figure mathematical operations
• In mathematical operations involving

significant figures, the answer is reported in
such a way that it reflects the reliability of
the least precise operation.
• An answer is not more precise that the least
precise number used to get the answer.
• Team race
31
Addition and Subtraction Operation
For addition and subtraction, look at the decimal

portion (i.e., to the right of the decimal point) of
the numbers only.
1) Count the number of significant figures in the
decimal portion of each number in the problem.
2) Add or subtract in the normal fashion.
3) Round the answer to the least number of
places in the decimal portion of any number in
the problem.
32
Addition and Subtraction Operation
Example
25.112233 (6 places after the decimal point)
+ 2.3324 (4 places after the decimal point)
+ 0.25 (2 places after the decimal point)
= 27.694633 (on calculator)
27.69 (rounded to 2 places in the answer)
33
Multiplication and division Operation
• When multiplying or dividing numbers, count

the number of significant figures.
• The answer cannot contain more significant
figures than the number being multiplied or
divided with the least number of significant
figures.
• The least number of significant figures in any
number of the problem determines the
number of significant figures in the answer.
34
Example
23.123123 (8 significant figures)
x 1.3344 (5 significant figures)
= 30.8554953312 (on calculator)
30.855 (rounded to 5 significant figures)
35
Try this out
Example
How many significant figures will the answer 3.2 x 2.51
have?
Solution
3.2 x 2.51 = 8.032
The answer to this problem would be 8.0.
Example
How many significant figures will the answer 5.01 x 6.025
have?
Solution
5.01 x 6.025 = 30.18525
The answer to this problem would be 30.2.
36
Precision and Accuracy
• Define Precision and Accuracy
37
• Precision is the level of exactness to which a

calculation is performed, specifying the
number of significant digits with which the
result is expressed.
• Accuracy is how close it is likely to be to the
true value.
38
Actual Time
being measured
by the two
clocks
11 : 44 am
Electronic Clock
39
Grand Father’s Clock
Two values of Acceleration due to gravity was
determined using two different instrument as
follows.
9.585 m/s2
9.8 m/s2
Which of the values is more precise, and which
is more accurate?
40
• The precision of the metre rule is 0.1 cm or 1
mm.
• The precision of the vernier calliper is 0.01
cm or 0.1 mm.
• The precision of the micrometer screw gauge
is 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm.
41
Precision
• It will be wrong to measure the length of a
small cell which is about 4.7 cm with a ruler
and state the length to be 4.75 cm, which is
beyond the precision of the ruler.
• The first value has the highest uncertainty.
• The uncertainty in the meter rule (0.1 cm) is
higher than that of the vernier calliper (0.01
cm) which is greater than that of the
micrometer screw gauge (0.001 cm)
42
Dimension
1. Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers
to which the fundamental quantities must be
raised to represent the given physical quantity.
2. The expression of any particular quantity in
terms of fundamental quantities is known as
dimensional analysis.
3. It often provides physical insight into the results
of a mathematical calculation, to ascertain their
level of correctness.
4. However having the same units on both sides of
an equation does not guarantee that the
equation is correct, but having different units on
the two sides of an equation certainly guarantees
that it is wrong.
43
Dimension Example
If a car moves with constant speed v over a distance d at
time t, related by:
𝒅 = 𝒗𝒕
If d is in meter then the product of vt must be in
meter, therefore:
𝒎
𝒎 = × 𝒔 = 𝒎 , which is very correct.
𝒔
But equation like
𝒗𝒕
𝒅= 𝟐
𝒕
𝒂
𝒉
Where d is distance, v is velocity, t is time, a is acceleration and
h is height, will give: 𝒎
𝒔 ×𝒔 Which appear to be
𝒎= 𝟐 = 𝒎 dimensionally consistent,
𝒎 𝒔
× but not a correct equation.
𝒔𝟐 𝒎
44
Dimension Example
(i) What are the units of volume?
(ii) Suppose another student tells you that a
cylinder of radius r and height h has volume
given by 𝝅𝒓𝟑𝒉 Explain why this cannot be right.
Solution
(i) Units of volumes are mm3, cm3, m3, km3.
(ii) Volume = m3
r is in m, h is in m,
V = πr3h
m3 = πm4, this is inconsistent dimensionally,
therefore the volume is not correct.
The correct volume of a cylinder is V = πr2h
Which is in terms of dimension analysis is m3 = πm3,
note that π is a dimensionless constant. 45
Dimension Example
Example
Can there be a physical quantity which has
no unit and dimensions.
Solution
Yes, strain,
Relative Density
46
Dimension Example
• Example
• What is the dimension of force?
In an absolute system force is a derived
quantity whose dimensions are defined by
Newton's second law of motion given by;
Force (Quantity) = mass × acceleration
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
= 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 × = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 ×
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆)𝟐
= mass × length × (time)–2
So dimensions of force:
1 in mass
1 in length
–2 in time
and Dimensional formula : [MLT–2] 47
Table showing the list of the dimension of
some derive quantity in physics
Quantity Symbol Formula S.I. Unit D.F.
Displacement s — m M0LT0
Area A l×b m2 M0L2T0
Volume V l×b×h m3 M0L3T0
Velocity v v = ∆s/ ∆t m/s M0LT–1
Momentum p p = mv kgm/s MLT–1
Acceleration a a = ∆v/∆t m/s2 M0LT–2
Force F F = ma Newton MLT–2
Impulse I F×t N.sec MLT–1
Work W F. d N.m ML2T–2
Energy KE K.E. = 1/2mv2 Joule or J ML2T–2
P.E. = mgh
Power P P = W/ t watt or W ML2T–3
Density d d = mass/volume kg/m3 ML–3T0
48
Dimension Example
Question test
Example
If the units of length and force are increased
nine times, then the unit of energy will?
(A) increase 18 times Solution
(B) increase 81 times Dimensionally
E = ML2T–2
(C) decreases 81 times E = (MLT–2) (L)
(D) increase 9 times E' = (9) (MLT–2) (9L)
E' = 81 (ML2T–2)
The correct answer is B.
49
Dimension Example
Example
Find the dimensions of the following physical
constants, Gravitational Constant G, Plank’s
constant h, and coefficient of viscosity ᶯ.
Solution
Dimension of (Gravitational constant), G,
From Newton law of gravitation;
𝑮𝑴𝒎
𝑭=
𝒓𝟐
𝟐
𝑮𝑴
𝑴𝑳𝑻−𝟐 = 𝟐
𝑳
Therefore 𝑮 = 𝑴−𝟏 𝑳𝟑 𝑻−𝟐
50
Dimension Example
Dimensions of h: Plank‘s constant where v denote
frequency.
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗
𝟐 −𝟐
𝟏
𝑴𝑳 𝑻 = 𝒉
𝑻 2 –1
Therefore h = ML T
Dimension of ᶯ: Coefficient of viscosity.
𝑭 = 𝟔𝝅𝜼𝝂𝒓
[MLT–2] = ᶯ[LT–1][L]
ᶯ = [ML–1T–1]
51
Unit conversion
• Sometimes it is necessary to convert units
from one system to another.
• Conversion factors between the SI units and
conventional units are as follows:
Length Mass Time
1m = 100 cm = 1000 mm 1 kg = 103 g = 0.0685 1 min = 60 s
1 km = 1000 m = 0.6214 mi slug 1 h = 60 min
1 m = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in 1 g = 6.85 x 10-5 slug 1 h = 3600 s
1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 slug = 14.59 kg 1 d = 86,400 s
1 in = 2.540 cm 1 y = 365.24 d =
1 ft = 30.48 cm 3.156 x 107 s
1 yd = 91.44 cm
1 mi = 5280 ft = 1.609 km
52
Process of unit conversion
𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏
1 min = 60s, therefore = 𝟏 which also can
𝟔𝟎𝒔
𝟔𝟎𝒔
be written as𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏
= 𝟏,
we can multiply a quantity by either of these
factors during the process of conversion.
For example to find the number of seconds in 8
min:
𝟔𝟎𝒔
𝟖𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟖𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝒔
𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏
To use the alternative factor, to find the number

of minutes in 480s:
𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟒𝟖𝟎𝒔 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎𝒔 = 𝟖𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟔𝟎𝒔
53
Example
The official world land speed is 1228.0km/h, set on
October 15, 1997, by Andy Green in the Jet engine car
Thrust. Express this speed in meter per second.
Solution
The usual formulas that are often applied by
students without knowing how it was derived are:
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒌𝒎/𝒉 = 𝒙 × 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 or
𝟑𝟔𝒌𝒎/𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/𝒔.
But 1km = 103 m,
Therefore 1228.0 km/h = 1228.0 x 103 m/h.
we also know that there are 3600s in 1h, therefore
𝟏𝒉
= 𝟏.
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔
So we must combine the speed of 1228.0 x 103m/h
and a factor of (1h/3600s)
𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎 𝒉
𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟎𝒌𝒉/𝒉 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟎 × 𝒉 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔
=
54
𝟑𝟒𝟏. 𝟏𝒎/𝒔.
Example
How many nanoseconds does it take light to
travel 1.00ft in a vacuum?
Solution
8
Speed of light = 2.99792458 x 10 m/s
But 1m = 3.281ft
Therefore 2.99792458 x 108 m will be equal to
how many foot?
= 3.281 x 2.99792458 x 108
= 983619054.698ft.
Hence 983619054.698ft takes 1s
Therefore 1ft will take?
= 1.02 x 10-9s = 1.02ns
55
Example
A cheap wrist watch adjusted on New Year day
loses time at the rate of 8.5 seconds a day. How
much time will the watch be off at the end of
January in minute?
Solution:
Time delay = 8.5 s per day
= 8.5 × 31 s per 31 days
= 263.5 s/month = 4.4 min/month.
The watch will be 4.4 minutes off at the end of
January.
56
Vectors
Definition: There are two quantities in physics,
Scalar quantities (those which have magnitude
only, such as mass, length, time, temperature
density, amount in your saving account, etc.)
and
Vector quantities (those which have both
magnitude and direction, such as
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, etc.).
57
Vectors
A vector is typically represented by an arrow
whose direction is the same as that of the
quantity and whose length is proportional to
the quantity’s magnitude.
We usually represent a vector quantity such as
displacement by a single letter, such as 𝑨, as
shown in figure 1.
q2
q1
Figure 1
58
Vectors
• If two vectors have the same direction they
are parallel.
• If they have the same magnitude and the
same direction, they are equal, no matter
where they are located in space.
When two vectors 𝑨 and 𝑩 have opposite
directions, whether their magnitudes are the
same or not, they are anti parallel. That is,
𝑨 = −𝑩 or 𝑩 = −𝑨
59
Vector Addition
If a particle undergoes a displacement 𝑨 followed
by a second displacement 𝑩 figure 2. The final
result is the same as if the particle had started at
the same initial point and undergoes a single
displacement 𝑪 as shown in figure 2. We call
displacement 𝑪 the vector sum, or resultant, of
displacements 𝑨 and 𝑩. It is denoted as:
𝑪 = 𝑨 + 𝑩…………………………….………....…2
𝑩
𝑨
𝑪
Figure 2
60
Vector Addition
This shows that vector addition is not the same as

adding two scalar quantities.
The order of terms in a vector sum doesn't
matter. In other words, vector addition obeys the
commutative law.
𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨……………………………….…....3
61
Components of Vectors
• Vectors addition could be carried out by using a
scale diagram and by using properties of right
angle triangles.
• Measuring a diagram offers only very limited
accuracy, and calculations with right triangles
work only when the two vectors are
perpendicular.
• So we need a simple but universal method for
adding vectors. This is referred to as the method
of components.
62
We can represent any vector lying in the xy-plane as
the sum of a vector parallel to the x-axis and a
vector parallel to the y axis, figure 4.
The two vectors are labelled 𝑨𝒙 , and 𝑨𝒚 are called
the component vectors of vector 𝑨, and their
vector sum is equal to 𝑨. This can be represented
as:
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚 ……………………......……………...4
y
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑨
𝜃
x
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Figure 4 63
y
𝜃
x
Figure 4
The + y-axis is at an angle of 90o, the -x axis is at 180°, and
the –y axis at 270o. 1f is measured in this way, then from
trigonometric functions,
𝑨𝒙
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑨
𝑨𝒙 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽………..…….....…………………………...5
𝑨𝒚
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑨
𝑨𝒚 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽………………..........……...……………….6 64
Finding a vector's magnitude and direction from its components.
y
𝜃
x
𝑨𝒙
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 Figure 4
𝑨
𝑨𝒙 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽………..…….....…………………………...5
𝑨𝒚
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑨
𝑨𝒚 = 𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽………………..........……...……………….6
Equations 5 and 6 show how to find the components if we

know the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector
65
Finding a vector's magnitude and direction from its components.
We can also reverse the process, by finding the
magnitude and direction if we know the y
components.
By applying the Pythagoras Theorem to figure 4,
we find that the magnitude of vector 𝑨 can be
express as: 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑨
𝜃
x
𝑨= 𝑨𝟐𝒙 + 𝑨𝟐𝒚 ……..………………………………7 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Figure 4
The expression for the vector direction comes
from the definition of the tangent of an angle. If 𝜽
is measured from the positive x-axis, and a
positive angle is measured toward the positive y-
axis, as in figure 4, then:
𝑨𝒚
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 =
𝑨𝒙
𝑨
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑨𝒚 ..…………………………………….8 66
𝒙
Example
A warehouse worker pushes a crate along the floor as
shown in figure 5, with a force of 10 N that points
downward at an angle of 45o above the horizontal find the
horizontal and vertical components of the force.
Solution 𝑭 𝒙
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝟓𝒐
𝟏𝟎
𝑭𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝟓𝒐
10 N 𝐹𝑦 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝑵
45o The horizontal component of the force.
𝐹𝑥
𝑭𝒚
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝟓𝒐
Figure 5 𝟏𝟎
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟒𝟓𝒐
= 𝟕. 𝟏𝑵
The vertical component of the force.
67
Example
A river flows from south to north at 5.0km/h. On this river a
boat is heading from east to west perpendicular to the
current at 7.0km/h as viewed by an eagle at rest over the
shore, how fast and in what direction is this boat travelling.
Applying Pythagoras theorem
N 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟓. 𝟎𝟐
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟒𝟗 + 𝟐𝟓
θ
𝑹 = 𝟕𝟒
5.0 km/h R
𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟔 𝒌𝒎/𝒉
𝑹 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝒎/𝒔
𝟕. 𝟎
7.0 km/h
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 =
Figure 6 𝟓. 𝟎
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝟏. 𝟒
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝟏. 𝟒
𝜽 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟓𝒐
The boat is moving at 8.6 km/h in the direction
54.5o east of south. 68
Example
A rocket fires two engines simultaneously. One produce a thrust
of 725N directly forward, while the other give 513N thrust at 32.4o
above the forward. Find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force that these engines exert on the rocket.
Solution
N 32.4o B
513N
147.6o
725N r
A
Figure 7
69
From angle on a straight line
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 − 𝟑𝟐. 𝟒𝒐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟔𝒐
𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝑹
B
𝒓𝟐 = 𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟐 + 𝟕𝟐𝟓𝟐 − 𝟐 × 𝟓𝟏𝟑 × 𝟕𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟔𝒐
N 32.4o 513N
𝒓𝟐 = 𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟗 + 𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟔𝟐𝟓 + 𝟔𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟓𝟑. 𝟑𝟑
R
𝒓𝟐 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟒𝟕. 𝟑𝟖
147.6o
𝒓 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟖𝟒𝟕. 𝟑𝟖
𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟑
𝒓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟎𝑵
r 𝒂 𝒓
725N
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑹
𝟓𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟑𝟏
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟔
𝟓𝟏𝟑 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟔
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 =
𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟑𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟗𝟑
A
Figure 7
𝑨 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟗𝟑
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝒐
The magnitude of the resultant force the engines
exert on the rocket is 1190N, and 13.4o East of
North. 70
Unit vectors
• A unit vector is a vector pointing in a given
direction with a magnitude of one.
• Essentially, it merely indicates direction.
• We will always include a caret or "hat" (^) in the
symbol for a unit vector to distinguish it from
ordinary vectors whose magnitude may or may
not be equal to 1.
𝒊 ,𝒋 ,𝒌
71
Unit vectors
 In an x, y and z coordinates system we can define
a unit vector 𝒊 that points in the direction of the
positive x-axis,
 a unit vector 𝒋 that points in the direction of the
positive y-axis and
 a unit vector 𝒌 that points in the direction of the
z
positive z-axis.
k
j
0 y
i
72
x
Unit vectors
Then we can express the relationship between
component vectors and components as follows:
𝑨𝒙 = 𝑨𝒙 𝒊
𝑨𝒚 = 𝑨𝒚 𝒋
𝑨𝒛 = 𝑨𝒛 𝒌
A vector can be express in terms of its component as
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒙 𝒊+𝑨𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑨𝒛 𝒌
73
Unit vectors
When three vectors 𝑨, 𝑩 and 𝑪are represented in
terms of their components, we can express the
vector sum 𝑹 using unit vectors as follows:
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒙 𝒊+𝑨𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑨𝒛 𝒌
𝑩 = 𝑩𝒙 𝒊+𝑩𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑩𝒛 𝒌
𝑪 = 𝑪𝒙 𝒊+𝑪𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑪𝒛 𝒌
𝑹=𝑨+𝑩+𝑪
𝑹 = 𝑨𝒙 𝒊+𝑨𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑨𝒛 𝒌 + 𝑩𝒙 𝒊+𝑩𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑩𝒛 𝒌
+ 𝑪𝒙 𝒊+𝑪𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑪𝒛 𝒌
𝑹 = 𝑨 𝒙 + 𝑩 𝒙 + 𝑪 𝒙 𝒊 + 𝑨𝒚 + 𝑩 𝒚 + 𝑪 𝒚 𝒋
+ 𝑨𝒛 + 𝑩 𝒛 + 𝑪 𝒛 𝒌
𝑹 = 𝑹𝒙 𝒊 + 𝑹𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑹𝒛 𝒌
74
Product of a Vector
• There are two vector products, scalar product

and the vector product.
• The first, called the scalar product, yields a
result that is a scalar quantity.
• The second, the vector product, yields
another vector.
75
Scalar Product
• One of the ways in which two vectors can be

combined is known as the scalar product.
• When we calculate the scalar product of two
vectors the result, as the name suggests is a
scalar, rather than a vector.
76
Scalar Product
• For vectors a and b drawn in Figure 8, they are drawn so that
their tails are at the same point. The angle between the two
vectors has been labelled θ.
b
𝜃
a Figure 8
We define the scalar product of a and b as
follows:
a · b = |a| |b| cos θ.....................................................9
Which means magnitude of a multiplied by
component of a in the direction of a.
Where:
|a| is the modulus, or magnitude of a,
|b| is the modulus of b, and
θ is the angle between a and b.
Note that the symbol for the scalar product is the dot ·, and so we sometimes
refer to the scalar product as the dot product. You can use any of them. 77
Scalar Product
Example
Consider the two vectors a and b, suppose a has modulus 4
units, b has modulus 5 units, and the angle between them is 60o,
find the scalar product of a and b.
b
60𝑜
a
Solution
Using equation 9 above
a · b = |a| |b| cos θ.......................................................................................................................9
a · b = |a| |b| cos θ

= 4 × 5 × cos 60o
= 4 × 5 × 0.5
= 10
So the scalar product of these vectors is the number 10. Note that
the answer is a scalar, which is a number, rather than a vector. 78
Properties of the scalar product
Commutative Property
Suppose for the two vectors in the previous example we calculate the
product in a different order.
That is, suppose we want to find b · a. The definition of b · a is
b · a = |b| |a| cos θ
Performing the calculation using the numbers in the Example we find
b · a = |b| |a| cos θ
= 5 × 4 × cos 60o
= 5 × 4 × 0.5
= 10
So, we see that the result is the same whichever way we perform the
calculation. This is true in general, therefore,
a · b = b · a………………..………………………………………………………………….10
This property of the scalar product is known as commutative
property.
79
Distributive Property
Another property of the scalar product is that it is

distributive property. This means that:
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c………………………………….11
similarly,
(b + c) · a = b · a + c · a………………………………..12
The students can prove this using similar procedure.
80
The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors
Consider the two vectors a and b as shown in
figure 9. The angle between them is 90o. We
can use the definition equation 9 to find the
scalar product of a and b.
a · b = |a| |b| cos θ.....................................................9
a
Figure 9: The angle between a and b is 90o
a · b = |a| |b| cos θ

= |a| |b| cos 90o
=0
81
The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors
a · b = |a| |b| cos θ
= |a| |b| cos 90o
=0
• Because cos 90o = 0. This is true whatever the
lengths of a and b.
• So the scalar product of two vectors which are at
right-angles is always 0.
• We say that such vectors are perpendicular or
orthogonal.
• The converse, if we have two non-zero vectors a
and b and we find that their scalar product is
zero, it follows that these vectors must be
perpendicular. 82
The scalar product of two vectors given in Cartesian form
• We now consider how to find the scalar

product of two vectors when these vectors are
given in Cartesian form.
z
k
j
0 y
i
x
Figure 10: The unit vectors i and j are perpendicular
83
For Example, Suppose a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k
Suppose we want to find i · j as shown in figure 10.
Note that because i and j lies along the x and y axes they must
be perpendicular.
So, from the result we have just established, the scalar product
i · j must be zero.
For the same reason, we obtain the same result if we calculate
z
i · k and j · k.
i·j=0
k
j
0 y
i
84
x
z
k
j
0 y
i
Suppose we want to find i · i, refer again to figure 10. The

vector i is a unit vector, so its length is 1 unit.
The angle between a vector and itself must be zero. So
i · i = |i| |i| cos 0o
=1×1×1 i·i =1
=1 85
since cos 0o = 1.
For the same reason j · j = 1 and k · k = 1.
Therefore if i, j and k are unit vectors in the
directions of the x, y and z axes, then
i · j = 0, i · k = 0, j · k = 0
i·i=1j·j=1k·k=1
We can use these results to develop a formula for
finding the scalar product of two vectors given in
Cartesian form.
86
Suppose a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k
then
a · b = (a1i + a2j + a3k) · (b1i + b2j + b3k)
= a1i · (b1i + b2j + b3k) + a2j · (b1i + b2j + b3k) +
a3k · (b1i + b2j + b3k)
= a1i · b1i + a1i · b2j + a1i · b3k + a2j · b1i + a2j · b2j
+ a2j · b3k + a3k · b1i + a3k · b2j + a3k · b3k
= a1b1i · i + a1b2i · j + a1b3i · k + a2b1j · i + a2b2j · j
+ a2b3j · k + a3b1k · i + a3b2k · j + a3b3k · k
Now most of these terms are zero. Those that are
not simplify because i · i = j · j = k · k = 1. We
obtain:
a · b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
This is the formula which we can use to calculate a scalar
product when we are given the Cartesian components of
the two vectors. 87
Generally if a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j +

b3k then
a · b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3................................13
In the context of vectors this simply means

the sum of the products of the corresponding
vector components.
88
Example
Find the scalar product of the two vectors a = 4i+3j+7k
and b = 2i+5j+4k.
Solution
The result we have just derived tells us to multiply the
i components together, multiply the j
components together, multiply the k components
together, and finally add the results. So
a · b = (4)(2) + (3)(5) + (7)(4)
= 8 + 15 + 28
= 51
89
Example
Find the scalar product of the two vectors a =
−6i+3j−11k and b = 12i+4k.
Solution
Note that the j component of b is zero. So
a · b = (−6)(12) + (3)(0) + (−11)(4)
= −72 + 0 − 44
= −116
90
The scalar product of two vectors given in
Cartesian form in column vectors
• It is often useful to make use of column vector notation.
Consider again the last example.
a = −6i+3j−11k and b = 12i+4k
• Writing a and b as column vectors

−𝟔 𝟏𝟐
𝒂= 𝟑 𝒃= 𝟎
−𝟏𝟏 𝟒
The scalar product becomes
−𝟔 𝟏𝟐
𝒂 .𝒃 = 𝟑 . 𝟎 = (−𝟔)(𝟏𝟐) + (𝟑)(𝟎) +
−𝟏𝟏 𝟒
(−𝟏𝟏)(𝟒) = −𝟏𝟏𝟔 91
Application scalar product
From the definition of the scalar product
a · b = |a| |b| cos θ
We can rearrange this to obtain an expression for
cos θ:
𝐚.𝒃
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 =
𝐚 𝒃
If we are given a and b in Cartesian form we can
calculate a · b.
We can also calculate the modulus of each of a
and b since
𝒂 = 𝒂𝟐𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐𝟑 and 𝒃 = 𝒃𝟐𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐𝟑
With this we can find the angle between the two

vectors.
92
Application scalar product
Example
Find the angle between the vectors a = 4i + 3j + 7k and
b = 2i + 5j + 4k.
Solution
a · b = (4)(2) + (3)(5) + (7)(4)
= 8 + 15 + 28
= 51
𝒂 = 𝟒𝟐 + 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟕𝟐 = 𝟕𝟒
𝒃 = 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟓𝟐 + 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟒𝟓
𝐚.𝒃
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 =
𝐚 𝒃
𝟓𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 =
𝟕𝟒 𝟒𝟓
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟖
𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟖 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟗𝟎𝒐
93
The vector product
• One of the ways in which two vectors can be
combined is known as the vector product.
• When we calculate the vector product of two
vectors the result, as the name suggests, is a
vector.
• Consider the two vectors a and b drawn in
Figure 12. Note that we have drawn the two
vectors so that their tails are at the same point.
The angle between the two vectors has been
labelled θ.
b
𝜽
a
94
The vector product
b
𝜽
a
When we find a vector product the result is a

vector, therefore we define the modulus, or
magnitude, of this vector as:
𝒂 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 ………………………………………14
Which means magnitude of a multiplied by

component of b perpendicular to the direction of
a.
we need to specify a direction. By definition the
direction of the vector product is such that it is at
right angles to both a and b. 95
The vector product
This means it is at right angles to the plane in
which a and b lie. Figure 13 show that we
have two choices for such a direction.
𝜽
a
Figure 13
96
The vector product
𝒂×𝒃 b
𝒏
𝜃
a
𝑛 b
𝜽
a
-𝑛
Figure 14 𝑏×𝑎
The convention is that we choose the direction
specified by the right hand screw rule. This means
that we imagine a screwdriver in the right hand. The
direction of the vector product is the direction in
which a screw would advance as the screwdriver
handle is turned in the sense from a to b. This is
shown in Figure 14. 97
The vector product
Some people find it helpful to obtain the direction of the vector product
using the right hand thumb rule. This is achieved by curling the fingers of
the right hand in the direction in which a would be rotated to meet b.
The thumb then points in the direction of a × b.
𝒂×𝒃
b × a = −a × b
98
The vector product
Let the unit vector in this direction be labelled 𝒏.
We then define the vector product of a and b as
follows:
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒏..............................................15
Where:
|a| is the modulus, or magnitude of a,
|b| is the modulus of b,
𝜽 is the angle between a and b,
and 𝒏 is a unit vector, perpendicular to both a
and b in a sense defined by the right hand screw
rule.
99
Some properties of the vector product
Suppose, for the two vectors a and b we calculate
the product in a different order other than the
previous product, which is a×b. 𝑎×𝑏
𝑛
That is, suppose we want to find b×a. Using the

definition of b×a and using the right-hand screw b
rule to obtain the required direction we find 𝜃

a
b × a = |b||a| sin θ(− 𝒏)
We find out that the direction of b × a is opposite
b
to that of a × b
b × a = −a × b 𝜃
a
So the vector product is not commutative. In
practice, this means that the order in which we
do the calculation does matter. b × a is in the -𝑛
𝑏×𝑎
opposite direction to a × b.
The vector product is not commutative.
b × a = −a × b 100
Some properties of the vector product
• Vector product is distributive

over addition. This means
that
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
• Equivalently,
(b + c) × a = b × a + c × a 101
The vector product of two parallel vectors
When two 𝑛 vectors are parallel the angle between

them is zero. Therefore:
a × b = |a||b| sinθ◦ 𝒏
◦
= |a||b| sin0
=0
So, when two vectors are parallel we define their
vector product to be the zero vector, 0.
For two parallel vectors a × b = 0
102
The vector product of two vectors given in
Cartesian form
The vector product of two vectors given in
Cartesian form
z
k
j
0 y
i
Where i, j and k are unit vectors in the

directions of the x, y and z axes respectively.
103
The vector product of two vectors given in Cartesian form
• Where i, j and k are unit vectors in the directions of the

x, y and z axes respectively.
• Suppose we want to find i × j. The vectors i and j are
shown in Figure16. Note that because these vectors lie
along the x and y axes they must be perpendicular.
• Note that k is a unit vector perpendicular to i and j.
• The angle between i and j is 90◦, and sin 90◦= 1. Further, if
we apply the right hand screw rule, a vector perpendicular
to both i and j is k. Therefore: z
i × j = |i||j| sin90◦k
= (1)(1)(1)k
=k
k
j
0 y
i
x 104
• Suppose we want to find j × i. Again, if we

apply the right hand screw rule, a vector
perpendicular to both j and i, in the sense
defined by the right hand screw rule, is −k.
Therefore
j × i = −k
• Suppose we want to find i × i. Because these
two vectors are parallel the angle between
them is 0o. Since sin 0o = 0, therefore i × i = 0.
105
Generally:
i×i=0
j×j=0
k×k=0
i×j=k
j×k=i
k×i=j
j × i = −k
k × j = −i
i × k = −j
These results can be used to develop a formula for finding the
vector product of two vectors given in Cartesian form
106
Formula for vector product of two vectors given
in Cartesian form
Suppose a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k Generally:
then i×i=0
a × b = (a1i + a2j + a3k) × (b1i + b2j + b3k) j×j=0
= a1i × (b1i + b2j + b3k) + a2j × (b1i + b2j + b3k) +
a3k × (b1i + b2j + b3k) k×k=0
= a1 i × b1i + a 1i × b 2j + a 1 i × b3k + a 2j × b1i + a 2 j × i×j=k
b2j + a2j × b3k + a3k × b1i + a3k × b2j + a3k × b3k j×k=i
= a1b1i × i + a1b2i × j + a1b3i × k + a2b1j × i + a2b2j k×i=j
× j + a2b3j × k + a3b1k × i + a3b2k × j + a3b3k × k j × i = −k
From the previous derivations, three of these k × j = −i
terms are zero. Those that are not zero simplify
to give a × b = (a2b3− a3b2)i + (a3b1− a1b3)j +
i × k = −j
(a1b2− a2b1)k
This is the formula which we can use to calculate a
vector product when we are given the Cartesian. 107
Formula for vector product of two
vectors given in Cartesian form
Therefore if
a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k
then,
a × b = (a2b3− a3b2)i + (a3b1− a1b3)j + (a1b2− a2b1)k
108
The vector product of two vectors
given in Cartesian form
Find the vector product of the two vectors
a = 4i+3j+7k and b = 2i+5j+4k.
We use the previous result with a1= 4, a2= 3, a3=
7 and b1= 2, b2= 5, b3= 4. Substitution into the
formula gives
a × b = ((3)(4) − (7)(5))i + ((7)(2) − (4)(4))j + ((4)(5)
− (3)(2))k
This simplifies to
a × b = −23i − 2j + 14k
109
Alternatively, making use of determinants is a convenient
way of remembering and representing this formula.
Generally:
if a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k then
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌 i×i=0
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 j×j=0
𝒃 𝟏 𝒃 𝟐 𝒃𝟑 k×k=0
i×j=k
𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐
= 𝒃 𝒃 𝒊− 𝒃 𝒃 𝒋+ 𝒃 𝒃 𝒌 j×k=i
𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐
k×i=j
a × b = (a2b3 − a3b2)i - (a1b3 – a3b1)j + (a1b2 − a2b1)k j × i = −k
k × j = −i
Compare it with previous derivation i × k = −j
110
Example
Find the vector product of the two vectors
a = 4i+3j+7k and b = 2i+5j+4k.
Solution
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
𝒂×𝒃= 𝟒 𝟑 𝟕
𝟐 𝟓 𝟒
𝟑 𝟕 𝟒 𝟕 𝟒 𝟑
= 𝒊− 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝟓 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟓
= 𝟑×𝟒−𝟕×𝟓 𝒊− 𝟒×𝟒−𝟕×𝟐 𝒋+ 𝟒×𝟓−𝟑×𝟐 𝒌
= −𝟐𝟑𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋 + 𝟏𝟒𝒌 This vector is ┴ a and b

111
Example
Find a vector which is perpendicular to both of
the vectors a = 2i + 4j − 3k and b = − 4k +6i.
Solution
From the definition of the vector product we
know that the vector a × b will be perpendicular
to both a and b. So we calculate a × b.
𝒊 Shot
𝒋 𝒌gun (quiz) Try me
𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝟐now, 𝟒 −𝟑you have 5 minutes
𝟔 𝟎 −𝟒
= 𝟒 × −𝟒 − −𝟑 × 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟐 × −𝟒 −
−𝟑 × 𝟔 𝒋 + 𝟐 × 𝟎 − 𝟒 × 𝟔 𝒌
= −𝟏𝟔𝒊 − 𝟏𝟎𝒋 − 𝟐𝟒𝒌
This vector is perpendicular to a and b. 112
Motion on a Straight line (Kinematics)
Definitions:
• To locate an object means to find its position relative to
some reference point, often the origin (or zero point) of
an axis such as the x axis in the Figure.
• The positive direction of the axis is in the direction of
increasing numbers (coordinates), which is to the right
of the Figure
• The opposite is the negative direction.
113
 For example, a particle might be located at
𝒙 = −𝟓 𝒎, which means it is 5 m in the
positive direction from the origin.
 If it were at 𝒙 = −𝟓 𝒎, it would be just as far
from the origin but in the opposite direction.
 On the axis, a coordinate of −𝟓 𝒎 is less than
a coordinate of −𝟏 𝒎, and both coordinates
are less than a coordinate of +𝟓 𝒎.
 A plus sign for a coordinate need not be
shown, but a minus sign must always be
shown.
 A change from position 𝒙𝟏 to position 𝒙𝟐 is
called a displacement ∆𝒙, where
∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 …………………………………16a 114
∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 …………………………………16a
 (The symbol ∆, the Greek uppercase delta,
represents a change in a quantity, and it
means the final value of that quantity minus
the initial value.)
 When numbers are inserted for the position
values 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 in Equation 16a, a
displacement in the positive direction (to the
right in Figure 17a) always comes out
positive,
 and a displacement in the opposite direction
(left in the figure) always comes out negative.
115
 For example, if the particle moves from
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟓 𝒎 to 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒎, then the
displacement is ∆𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒎 − 𝟓 𝒎 =
+𝟕 𝒎. The positive result indicates that the
motion is in the positive direction.
 If, instead, the particle moves from 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟓 𝒎
to 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒎 then ∆𝒙 = 𝟏 𝒎 − 𝟓 𝒎 = −𝟒 𝒎.
The negative result indicates that the motion
is in the negative direction.
 The actual number of meters covered for a
trip is irrelevant; displacement involves only
the original and final positions.
 For example, if the particle moves from
𝒙 = 𝟓 m out to 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 m and then back to
𝒙 = 𝟓 𝒎, the displacement from start to
finish is ∆𝒙 = 𝟓𝒎 − 𝟓𝒎 = 𝟎. 116
 A plus sign for a displacement need not be

shown, but a minus sign must always be
shown.
 If we ignore the sign (and thus the direction)
of a displacement, we are left with the
magnitude (or absolute value) of the
displacement. For example, a displacement of
𝒙 = −𝟒 𝒎has a magnitude of 4 m.
 Displacement is an example of a vector
quantity, which is a quantity that has both a
direction and a magnitude
117
Speed and Velocity
• Speed is the rate of motion, or the rate of
change of position. It is expressed as distance
moved (d) per unit of time (t).
• Speed is a scalar quantity with dimensions
distance/time.
• Speed is measured in the same physical units of
measurement as velocity (m/s), but does not
contain an element of direction. Speed is thus
the magnitude component of velocity
118
Speed and Velocity
• Speed is express as:
𝒅
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = ……………………………………….16
𝒕
Where d = distance and t = time.
Velocity contains both the magnitude and

direction components, therefore, it is a vector
value express as:
𝒅𝒙
𝒗= 𝒅𝒕
……..……………………………………...17
Where x = displacement and t = time.

119
Common speeds of moving objects
 A snail's pace 𝟏𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
−𝟑
 For human beings, an average walking speed

is about 1.39m/s (5 km/h,)
 The speed of long distance jogging for
average persons is about 2.7 m/s (10 km/h).
 Athletic sprinters can run at 10.24 m/s (36.85
km/h) at short distance such as a 200 m dash.
 Cycling can average5.56 m/s (20 km/h)
 Car can average, 28.9 m/s (104 km/h) on
highway
 A passenger Airplane has an average speed
(800 km/h)
 Earth is orbiting round the sun at 29.861
km/s = 29,861 m/s
 Orbiting communications satellite 3000m/s
 Electron orbiting in a hydrogen atom
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
 Light Travelling in a vacuum 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔 120
Average Velocity
Average velocity can be defined as the
displacement divided by the time. For the special
case of straight line motion in the x direction, the
average velocity can be express as:
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 ∆𝒙
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = = …………………………….…..19
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 ∆𝒕
Where ∆𝒙 is the total displacement, and ∆𝒕 is the

time interval
121
Average Velocity
The average x-velocity depends only on the total
displacement ∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 that occurs during the
time interval ∆𝒕 = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 , not on the details of
what happens during the time interval.
x
x2
Slope = Average Velocity
∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 ∆𝒙
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = =
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕 𝟏 ∆𝒕
x1
0 t1 t2 t
∆𝒕 = 𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏
Figure 17
122
Find the average velocity in this graph
123
Instantaneous velocity
But the average velocity of a particle during a
time interval can't tell us how fast, or in what
direction, the particle was moving at any
given time during the interval. To do this we
need to know the velocity at any specific
instant of time or specific point along the
path. This is called instantaneous velocity,
∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦∆𝒕→𝟎 = ………………………….20
∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Instantaneous velocity, like average velocity, is a
vector quantity.
124
Average Velocity and Instantaneous velocity
Example
A car is stopped at a traffic light. It
then travels along a straight road so
that its distance from the light is
given by x(t) = bt2 - ct3, where b =
2.40m/s2 and c = 0.120m/s3. (a)
Calculate the average velocity of the
car for the time interval t= 0 to t=
10.0 s. (b) Calculate the
instantaneous velocity of the car at t
= 0, t = 5.0 s, and t = 10.0 s.
125
Solution Example
(a) A car is stopped at a traffic
𝟐 𝟑
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒃𝒕 − 𝒄𝒕 light. It then travels along
𝒃 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 , 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟑 a straight road so that its
At t1 = 0, distance from the light is
given by x(t) = bt2 - ct3,
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟎 where b = 2.40m/s2 and c =
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎 0.120m/s3. (a) Calculate
At t2 = 10 the average velocity of the
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 car for the time interval t=
0 to t= 10.0 s. (b) Calculate
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎 the instantaneous velocity
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎 of the car at t = 0, t = 5.0 s,
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟎 − 𝟎 and t = 10.0 s.
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = = = 𝟏𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟎
126
(b)
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒃𝒕𝟐 − 𝒄𝒕𝟑
At t = 0
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟐𝒃𝒕 − 𝟑𝒄𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟐 × 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟎 − 𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = =𝟎
𝒅𝒕
At t = 5
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟐𝒃𝒕 − 𝟑𝒄𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟐 × 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟓 − 𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟓𝟐
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟐𝟒 − 𝟗
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟏𝟓 𝒎/𝒔 127
𝒅𝒕
At t = 10
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟐𝒃𝒕 − 𝟑𝒄𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟐 × 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟒𝟖 − 𝟑𝟔
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 = = 𝟏𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
𝒅𝒕
128
Average Velocity
Example
A car is stopped at a traffic light. It
then travels along a straight road so
that its distance from the light is
given by x(t) = bt2 - ct3, where b =
2.40m/s2 and c = 0.120m/s3. (a)
Calculate the average velocity of the
car for the time interval t= 0 to t=
10.0 s
129
Average Velocity
Solution
(a)
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒃𝒕𝟐 − 𝒄𝒕𝟑
𝒃 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 , 𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟑
At t1 = 0,
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟎
𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎
At t2 = 10
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟎 − 𝟎
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = = = 𝟏𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟎
130
Average Velocity
Example
During a hard sneeze, your eyes might shut for
0.50 s. If you are driving a car at 90 km/h during
such a sneeze, how far does the car move during
that time?
Solution
𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎 𝒉
𝟗𝟎𝒌𝒎/𝒉 = 𝟗𝟎 × = 𝟐𝟓𝒎/𝒔
𝒉 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔
How far the car move is given by:
𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕 = 𝟐𝟓𝒎/𝒔 × 𝟎. 𝟓𝒔 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒎 ≅ 𝟏𝟑𝒎
131
Example
The position of an object moving along an x axis
is given by 𝒙 = 𝟑𝒕 − 𝟒𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕𝟑 , where x is in
meters and t in seconds. Find the position of the
object at the following values of t: (a) 1 s, (b) 2 s,
(c) 3 s, and (d) 4 s. (e) What is the object‘s
displacement between t = 0 and t = 4 s? (f) What
is its average velocity for the time interval from t
=2 s to t = 4 s? (g) Graph x versus t for 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤
𝟒𝒔 and indicate how the answer for (f) can be
found on the graph.
132
Example
found on the graph.
Solution (c) at t = 3s
𝒙 = 𝟑𝒕 − 𝟒𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕𝟑 𝒙 = 𝟑 × 𝟑 − 𝟒 × 𝟑𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑
(a) at t = 1s 𝒙 = 𝟗 − 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟐𝟕
x=0 𝒙=𝟎
(b) at t = 2s (d) at t = 4s
𝒙 = 𝟑 × 𝟐 − 𝟒 × 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟑 𝒙 = 𝟑 × 𝟒 − 𝟒 × 𝟒𝟐 × 𝟒𝟑
𝒙 = 𝟔 − 𝟏𝟔 + 𝟖 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟔𝟒 + 𝟔𝟒
𝒙 = −𝟐 𝒎 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎 133
Example
found on the graph.
(e) ∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒕𝟐 = 𝟒𝒔, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎, 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟎
∆𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟎
∆𝒙 = +𝟏𝟐𝒎
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
(f)𝒗𝒂𝒗 =
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏
𝟏𝟐− −𝟐
𝒗𝒂𝒗 =
𝟒−𝟐
𝟏𝟒
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = = +𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
𝟐 134
Example
found on the graph.
14
(f) 12
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = 10
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 8
𝟏𝟐− −𝟐
x(m)
6
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = 4
𝟒−𝟐
𝟏𝟒 2
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = = +𝟕 𝒎/𝒔 0
𝟐 -2 0 1 2 3 4 5
-4
t (s) 135
Acceleration
• Acceleration, (symbol: a) is defined as the rate of
change of velocity. It is thus a vector quantity with
dimension length/time² (LT-2). In SI
units, acceleration is measured in meters/second²
(m/s2).
𝒅𝒗
𝒂= …………………………………………..18
𝒅𝒕
Where v and t has their usual meaning.

When either velocity or direction changes, there
is acceleration (or deceleration).
To accelerate an object requires the application
of a force.
136
Obtaining acceleration from position
Acceleration of a particle at any
instant is the second derivative of
its position x(t) with respect to time.
𝟐
𝒅𝒗 𝒅 𝒅𝒙 𝒅 𝒙
𝒂= = = 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
137
Average acceleration
We define the average acceleration of the particle
as it moves from one point to the other to be a
vector quantity whose x-component aav (called the
average-x-acceleration) equals ∆𝒗𝒙 ., the change
in the x-component of velocity, divided by the
time interval ∆𝒕 express as:
𝒗𝟐 −𝒗𝟏 ∆𝒗
𝒂𝒂𝒗 = = ……..............................………..21
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 ∆𝒕
Where ∆𝒗 is change in velocity, and ∆𝒕 is the time

interval.
138
Instantaneous acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of
the average acceleration as the time interval
approaches zero.
∆𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒂𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 = 𝒅𝒕
……………………..…..…22
139
Instantaneous Velocity and acceleration
Example
A Turtle crawls along a straight line, which we
will call the x-axis with the positive direction
to the right. The equation for the Turtle's
position as a function of time is x(t) = 50.0 cm
+ (2.00cm/s)t - (0.0625 cm/s2)t2. (a) Find the
Turtle's initial position, initial velocity, and
initial acceleration. (b) At what time is the
velocity of the Turtle zero?
140
Solution
(a) Example
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎𝒄𝒎 + (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎/𝒔)𝒕 − (𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝟐 )𝒕𝟐 A Turtle crawls along
The initial position at t = 0, a straight line, which
𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎 + 𝟎 + 𝟎 we will call the x-axis
𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎 with the positive
direction to the right.
The Turtle initial velocity at t = 0 The equation for the
𝒅𝒙 𝒕 Turtle's position as a
𝒗𝒙 (𝒕) = = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎/𝒔) − 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝟐 )𝒕
𝒅𝒕 function of time is x(t)
𝒅𝒙 𝒕 = 50.0 cm +
𝒗𝒙 𝒕 = = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 × 𝟎 (2.00cm/s)t - (0.0625
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒕 cm/s2)t2. (a) Find the
𝒗𝒙 𝒕 = = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝒄𝒎/𝒔 Turtle's initial
𝒅𝒕 position, initial
The initial acceleration at t = 0 velocity, and initial
𝒅𝒗(𝒕) acceleration. (b) At
𝒂 𝒕 = = −𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝟐 what time is the
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒗(𝒕) velocity of the Turtle
𝒂 𝒕 = = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝟐 zero?
𝒅𝒕
141
(b) At what time is the velocity of the Turtle zero?
(b)
𝒅𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙 (𝒕) = = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎/𝒔) − 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝟐 )𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝟎 = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎/𝒔) − 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝟐 )𝒕
𝟐(𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝟐 )𝒕 = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒎/𝒔)
𝟐. 𝟎𝟎
𝒕=
𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟔𝒔
142
Motion with a constant acceleration
• The simplest kind of accelerated motion is
straight-line motion with constant
acceleration.
• In this case the velocity changes at the same
rate throughout the motion.
• A falling body has a constant acceleration if
the effects of the air are not important.
143
For a car that start from rest with an initial
velocity 𝒗𝟎 , and accelerate uniformly until it
attain a final velocity 𝒗𝒙 , as shown in figure 18.
To find an expression for the final velocity
𝒗𝒙 , from the average acceleration formula
𝒗 −𝒗
𝒂𝒂𝒗 = 𝟐 𝟏 , let us replace aav with ax for
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏
constant acceleration, and let t1 the initial time be
equal to 0, and t2 be a later time t, therefore the
formula for equation 21 can be written as:
𝒗𝒙 − 𝒗𝟎
𝒂𝒙 =
𝒕−𝟎 𝒗
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 …………………………......…….23
𝒗𝒙
𝒗
𝒂𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙
𝒗𝒙
𝒂𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝟎
𝒗𝒙
𝒗𝟎 𝒗𝟎
𝒗𝟎
0 t t
0 t t 144
Figure 18: Velocity time graph under constant acceleration Figure 18: Velocity time graph under constant acceleration
To derive an equation for the position x as a function of time
when the x-acceleration is constant.
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 ∆𝒙
Recall the formula for average velocity 𝑽𝒂𝒗 = = .
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 ∆𝒕
Take the position at time t = 0 as the initial
position and denote it with x0, and the later
position at time t as x.Thus for the time interval
∆𝒕= t - 0 the displacement is ∆𝒙 = x - xo, then we
have:
𝒙−𝒙𝟎 𝒙−𝒙
𝟎
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = = ……………………….......…..24
𝒕−𝟎 𝒕
We can get another average velocity that is valid
only when the acceleration is constant, and the
velocity changes at a constant rate, so that the
average velocity will be an algebraic sum at the
beginning and at the end of the time interval 0
and t.
𝒗𝟎 +𝒗𝒙
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = 𝟐
…………………………….......……25 145
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 …………………………………...23
𝒙−𝒙𝟎 𝒙−𝒙𝟎
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = = …………………………….....24
𝒕−𝟎 𝒕
𝒗𝟎 +𝒗𝒙
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = ………………………………...……25
𝟐
Substituting equation 23 into 25 we have

𝒗𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒂𝒗 =
𝟐
𝒂 𝒕
𝒗𝒂𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝟐𝒙 …………………………..........…..26
Equating equation 24 and 26, we have
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝒂𝒙 𝒕
= 𝒗𝟎 +
𝒕 𝟐
𝟏
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 ………………………..…27
𝟐
146
Motion
𝒗
with a constant acceleration
𝒗𝒙
𝒂𝒙 𝒕
𝒗𝒙
𝒗𝟎
𝒗𝟎
0 t t
Figure 18: Velocity time graph under constant acceleration
𝟏
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 …………………………..27
Equation 27 can also be derive by finding the

area of the rectangle and the area of the triangle,
and summing them up.
Alternatively you can make use of area of
trapezium. 147
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 ………………………………..….23
𝟏
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 ………………………......27
Let us derive a relationship between position,
velocity and acceleration that is not involving
time.
To obtain this, we first solve Equation 23 for t,
then substitute the resulting expression into
Equation 27, and simplify:
𝒗𝒙 − 𝒗𝟎
𝒕=
𝒂𝒙
𝟏
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐𝒙 𝒕𝟐
𝒗𝒙 − 𝒗𝟎 𝟐
𝒗𝒙 − 𝒗𝟎 𝟐
𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒙
𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒙
𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐𝒗𝟎 𝒗𝒙 − 𝟐𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐𝒗𝒙 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒗𝟐𝒙 − 𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ……………………….....28 148

We can derive one more useful relation by

equating equation 24 and equation 25.
𝒙−𝒙𝟎
Recall equation 24 𝒗𝒂𝒗 = and equation 25,
𝒕
𝒗𝟎 −𝒗𝒙
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = ,
by equating the two equation we
𝟐
have,
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝒗𝟎 − 𝒗𝒙
=
𝒕 𝟐
𝒗𝟎 −𝒗𝒙
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐
𝒕…………………………….…29
149
All the equations are listed below,
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 ………………..1a
𝟏
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 ..............2a
𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ............3a
𝒗𝟎 +𝒗𝒙
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐
𝒕.....................4a
Equation 1a does not contain position s, equation
2a does not contain final velocity vx, equation 3a
does not contain time t, equation 4a does not
contain a.
This can be written out as svta. To use any of the
equations, choose the equation that does not
contain the unknown parameter, and that
contains the one required.
150
Example
An antelope moving with constant acceleration covers the distance
between two points 70.0 m apart in 7.00 s. Its speed as it passes the
second point is 15.0 m/s. (a) what is its speed at the first point? (b) What
is its acceleration?
Solution s v t a
(a) 1 2 3 4
X0 X
V0 Vx
x- x0 = 70 m 𝟐(𝟕𝟎)
t = 7.0 s 𝒗𝟎 = − 𝟏𝟓
𝟕. 𝟎
vx = 15.0 m/s 𝒗𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/𝒔 − 𝟏𝟓𝒎/𝒔
v0= ? 𝒗𝟎 = 𝟓𝒎/𝒔
𝒗𝟎 + 𝒗𝒙
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒕 (b)
𝟐
𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = (𝒗𝟎 + 𝒗𝒙 )𝒕 𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕
𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟓 + 𝒂𝟕
(𝒗𝟎 + 𝒗𝒙 ) = 𝟏𝟎
𝒕 𝒂=
𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝟕
𝒗𝟎 = −𝒗𝒙 + 𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 𝒎 𝒔𝟐 151
𝒕
Motion with average and constant acceleration
Example
At launch the space shuttle weighs 4.5 million
pounds. When it is launched from rest, it takes
8.00s to reach 161 km/h, and at the end of the
first 1.00 min its speed is 1610 km/h. (a) What is
the average acceleration (in m/s2) of the shuttle
(i) during the first 8.00 s, and (ii) between 8.00 s
and the end of the first 1.00 min? (b) Assuming
the acceleration is constant during each time
interval (but not necessarily the same in both
intervals), what distance does the shuttle travel
(i) during the first 8.00 s, and (ii) during the
interval from 8.00 s to 1.00 min?
152
Solution Example
(a(i)) At launch the space shuttle weighs 4.5
t0 = 0 million pounds. When it is launched
v0 = 0 from rest, it takes8.00s to reach 161
t1 = 8.0s km/h, and at the end of the first 1.00
v1 = 161 km/h = 44.7 m/s min its speed is 1610 km/h. (a) What
t2 = 1 min. = 60s is the average acceleration (in m/s2) of
the shuttle (i) during the first 8.00
v2 = 1610 km/h = 447.2 m/s s, and (ii) between 8.00 s and the end
of the first 1.00 min? (b) Assuming the
𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟎 acceleration is constant during each
𝒂𝒂𝒗 =
𝒕𝟏 − 𝒕𝟎 time interval (but not necessarily the
𝟒𝟒. 𝟕 − 𝟎 same in both intervals), what distance
𝒂= = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟗 𝒎/𝒔 does the shuttle travel (i) during the
𝟖. 𝟎 − 𝟎
(a(ii)) first 8.00 s, and (ii) during the interval
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏 from 8.00 s to 1.00 min?
𝒂𝒂𝒗 =
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏
𝟒𝟒𝟕. 𝟐 − 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕
𝒂𝒂𝒗 = = 𝟕. 𝟕𝟒𝒎/𝒔
𝟔𝟎 − 𝟖
153
(b(i)) s v t a Example
X0 = 0 1 2 3 4 At launch the space shuttle weighs 4.5
V0 = 0 million pounds. When it is launched
t = 8.0 s from rest, it takes8.00s to reach 161
a = 5.59 m/s2 km/h, and at the end of the first 1.00
𝟏 min its speed is 1610 km/h. (a) What
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 is the average acceleration (in m/s2) of
𝟐
𝟏 the shuttle (i) during the first 8.00
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 s, and (ii) between 8.00 s and the end
𝟐
𝟏 of the first 1.00 min? (b) Assuming the
𝒙 = 𝟎 + 𝟎 + 𝟓. 𝟓𝟗 × 𝟖𝟐 acceleration is constant during each
𝟐
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝟗 𝒎 time interval (but not necessarily the
(b(ii)) same in both intervals), what distance
t = 60-8 = 52s does the shuttle travel (i) during the
a = 7.74 m/s first 8.00 s, and (ii) during the interval
v0 = 161 km/h = 44.7 m/s from 8.00 s to 1.00 min?
x0 = 179 m
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝟗 + 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕 × 𝟓𝟐 + 𝟏 𝟐 × 𝟕. 𝟕𝟒 × 𝟓𝟐𝟐
𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟑 + 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 = 𝟏𝟐𝟗𝟔𝟓. 𝟖𝒎
154
Free falling body
• The most familiar example of motion with
(nearly) constant acceleration is a body
falling under the influence of the earth's
gravitational attraction.
• Galilee Galileo stated that a body falls with a
downward acceleration that is constant and
independent of its weight.
155
Free falling body
• Experiment has shown that if the effects of the air can
be neglected, Galileo was right when he postulated
that; all bodies at a particular location fall with the
same downward acceleration, regardless of their size or
weight.
• If in addition the distance of the fall is small compared
with the radius of the earth, and if we ignore small
effects due to the earth's rotation, the acceleration is
constant.
• The idealized motion that results under all of these
assumptions is called free fall, although it includes
rising as well as falling motion.
156
Free falling body
• Figure 10 is a photograph of a falling ball made
with a stroboscopic light source that produces a
series of short, intense flashes. As each flash
occurs, an image of the ball at that instant is
recorded on the photograph.
• There are equal time intervals between flashes, so
the average velocity of the ball between successive
flashes is proportional to the distance between
corresponding images.
• The increasing distances between images show
that the velocity is continuously changing; the ball
is accelerating downward. Figure 10
• Careful measurement shows that the velocity
change is the same in each time interval, so the
acceleration of the freely falling ball is constant.
157
Free falling body
The constant acceleration of a freely falling
body is called the acceleration due to
gravity, and we denote its magnitude with
the letter g. It has a magnitude of 9.8 m/s2 =
980 cm/s2 = 32ft/s2.On the Surface of the
moon, the acceleration due to gravity has a
value of g = 1.6m/s2.Near the surface of the
value of g is 270 m/s2
158
Example
Free falling body
(a) If a flea can jump straight up to a height of 0.440 m. what
is its initial speed as it leaves the ground? (b) How long is it
in the air?
Solution
(a)
x = 0.0440 m
vx = 0
g = -9.8
v0 = ?
𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒈 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
𝟎𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐 × −𝟗. 𝟖 × 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟎
𝒗𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
(b)
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 + −𝟗. 𝟖 𝒕
−𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝒕
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝒔 159
Free falling body
Example
A student throws a water balloon vertically
downward from the top of a building. The
balloon leaves the thrower's hand with as peed
of 6.00 m/s. Air resistance may be ignored, so
the water balloon is in free fall after it leaves the
thrower's hand. (a) What is its speed after falling
for 2.00 s? (b) How far does it fall in 2.00 s?(c)
What is the magnitude of its velocity after falling
10.0 m?
160
Free falling body Solution
g = 9.8 m/s2
V0 = 6.0 m/s
Example t = 2.0 s
A student throws a water vx = ?
balloon vertically downward (a)
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒈𝒕
from the top of a building. The 𝒗𝒙 = 𝟔. 𝟎 + 𝟗. 𝟖 × 𝟐
balloon leaves the thrower's 𝒗𝒙 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
hand with as peed of 6.00 m/s. (b)
g = 9.8 m/s2
Air resistance may be v0 = 6.0 m/s
ignored, so the water balloon is t = 2.0 s
in free fall after it leaves the vx = 25.6 m/s
x – x0 = ?
thrower's hand. (a) What is its 𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒈 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
speed after falling for 2.00 s? (b) 𝟐𝟓. 𝟔𝟐 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟗. 𝟖 × 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
How far does it fall in 2.00 s?(c) 𝟔𝟓𝟓. 𝟑𝟔 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟗. 𝟔 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟔𝒎
What is the magnitude of its (c)
velocity after falling 10.0 m? 𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒈 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎
𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟗. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎
161
𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
Projectile Motion
• A projectile is any body that is given an initial
velocity and then follows a path determined
entirely by the effects of gravitational acceleration.
• An object dropped from rest is a projectile
(provided that the influence of air resistance is
negligible).
• An object that is thrown vertically upward is also a
projectile (provided that the influence of air
resistance is negligible).
• And an object which is thrown upward at an angle
to the horizontal is also a projectile (provided that
the influence of air resistance is negligible).
162
Projectile Motion
• The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.
• Also in our analysis on projectile, we will neglect the
effects of air resistance and the curvature and rotation of
the earth.
• Projectile motion is always confined to a vertical plane
determined by the direction of the initial velocity as
shown in figure 11.
• Projectile motion is two-dimensional. We will call the
plane of motion the xy-coordinate plane, with the x-axis
horizontal and the y-axis vertically upward.
• The key to analyzing projectile motion is that we can treat
y
the x- and y-coordinates separately.
v0 a Trajectory
ay = -g
x
0
Figure 11
163
y
Projectile Motion
v0 a Trajectory
ay = -g
x
0
Figure 11
For the horizontal and vertical components, the

components of 𝒂 are:
𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈…………………………….30
164
Projectile Motion
Example
On level ground a shell is fired with an initial velocity of 80.0
m/s at 60.0o above the horizontal and feel no appreciable air
resistance (a) Find the horizontal and vertical components of
the shell’s initial velocity (b) How long does it take the shell
to reach its highest point. (c) Find the maximum height
above the ground (d) How far from its firing point does the
shell land? (e) At its highest point, find the horizontal and
vertical component of its acceleration and velocity.
y
vy ay
H
v0y
v0
60.0o
v0x vx ax x
R
165
Projectile Motion
y
vy H ay
v0y
v0
60.0o
x
v0x vx ax
R
(a) (b)
𝜽 = 𝟔𝟎𝒐 The components of acceleration are ax = 0 ay = -g
𝒗𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 Employing the equation 𝒗𝒚 = 𝒗𝟎𝒚 − 𝒈𝒕
𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎/𝒔 At maximum point 𝒗𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒗𝟎𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 ∴ 𝒈𝒕 = 𝒗𝟎𝒚
𝒗𝟎𝒚
𝒗𝟎𝒚 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒕= 𝒈
∴ 𝒗𝟎𝒙 = 𝟖𝟎 × 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟔𝟎 𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒗𝟎𝒙 = 𝟒𝟎𝒎/𝒔 𝒕= 𝒈
𝒗𝟎𝒚 = 𝟖𝟎 × 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟔𝟎 𝟖𝟎.𝟎×𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟔𝟎
𝒕=
𝟗.𝟖
𝒗𝒐𝒚 = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟑𝒎/𝒔 𝒕 = 𝟕. 𝟏𝒔 166
Projectile Motion
Example
y
vy ay
H
v0y
v0
60.0o
v0x vx ax x
R
167
(c) Projectile Motion
𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 − 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎 since it started from origin.
𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒗𝟎𝒚 𝒕 − 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
But recall that 𝒗𝟎𝒚 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 also 𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒈
𝒗 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝟏 𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝟐
𝒚 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝟎 𝒈 − 𝟐
𝒈 𝒈
𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
= 𝒈 − 𝟐 𝒈 𝒈𝟐
𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 y
= 𝒈 − 𝒈𝟐
𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 −𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
= vy H ay
𝟐𝒈
𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
= v0y
𝟐𝒈
𝟖𝟎𝟐 × 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎 𝟐 v0
= 𝟐×𝟗.𝟖 60.0o
v0x vx ax x
𝒚 = 𝟐𝟒𝟓𝒎
R
Projectile Motion
Example
y
vy ay
H
v0y
v0
60.0o
v0x vx ax x
R
169
Projectile Motion
(d) (e)
𝟏
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒗𝟎𝒙 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 At its highest point 𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒚 = −𝟗. 𝟖
𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝟎𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝒗𝒙 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟎𝒎/𝒔𝟐
But 𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟎 𝒗𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎𝒙 𝒕
𝟐𝒗𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑹 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒈
𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑹=
𝒈
From identity
𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
∴𝑹= 𝒈 y
𝟖𝟎𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐×𝟔𝟎
𝑹= vy H ay
𝟗.𝟖
𝑹 = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟔𝒎
v0y
v0
60.0o
v0x vx ax x
R
170
Relative Velocity
Example
A moving sidewalk in an airport terminal
building moves at 1.0 m/s and is 35.0m long.
If a woman steps on at one end and walks at
1.5 m/s relative to the moving sidewalk, how
much time does she require to reach the
opposite end if she walks (a) in the same
direction (b) In the opposite direction?
171
Relative Velocity
Example
A moving sidewalk in an airport terminal building moves at 1.0
m/s and is 35.0m long. If a woman steps on at one end and walks
at 1.5 m/s relative to the moving sidewalk, how much time does
she require to reach the opposite end if she walks (a) in the same
direction (b) In the opposite direction?
Solution
(a)
𝑽𝑾/𝑬 = 𝑽𝑾/𝑺𝑾 + 𝑽𝑺𝑾/𝑬
𝑽𝑾/𝑺𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎/𝒔, 𝑽𝑺𝑾/𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
𝑽𝑾/𝑺𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟎
𝑽𝑾/𝑺𝑾 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟑𝟓.𝟎
Time 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
= 𝟐.𝟓
= 𝟏𝟒 𝒔
(b)
𝑽𝑾/𝑬 = 𝑽𝑾/𝑺𝑾 − 𝑽𝑺𝑾/𝑬
𝑽𝑾/𝑺𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟓 − 𝟏. 𝟎
𝑽𝑾/𝑺𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟑𝟓.𝟎
Time 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
= 𝟎.𝟓
= 𝟕𝟎 𝒔 172
Newton’s laws of motion (Dynamics)
• Newton's laws are the foundation of classical
mechanics (also called Newtonian mechanics).
• Using them we can understand most familiar
kinds of motion. They describe the relationship
between the forces acting on a body and
its motion due to those forces.
• A force is a push or a pull. A better definition is
that a force is an interaction between two
bodies or between a body and its environment.
173
Newton’s laws of motion
 To describe a force vector 𝐅, we need to
describe the direction in which it acts as well
as its magnitude, the quantity that descries
"how much" or "how hard" the force pushes
or pulls.
 The SI unit of the magnitude of force is the
Newton, abbreviated N.
 The different types of forces are: Contact
force, Normal force, Tension force, and
Friction force.
174
Newton’s laws of motion
 Any number of forces applied at a point on a
body has the same effect as a single force
equal to the vector sum of the forces.
 This important principle is called
superposition of forces.
 The principle of superposition allows us to
replace a force by its component vectors.
Hence any force can be replaced by its
component vectors, acting at the same point.
175
Newton’s First Law
Newton’s first law states that “An
object at rest will remain at rest
unless acted on by an unbalanced
force. An object in motion continues
in motion with the same speed and
in the same direction unless acted
upon by an unbalanced force”.
176
• The law is often called the law of inertia.

• This means that there is a natural tendency
of objects to keep on doing what they're
doing. All objects resist changes in their
state of motion. In the absence of an
unbalanced force, an object in motion will
maintain this state of motion.
177
 Suppose we apply a force 𝑭𝟏 , and also apply a
second force 𝑭𝟐 , equal in magnitude to 𝑭𝟏 but
opposite in direction. The two forces are
negatives of each other, 𝑭𝟐 = −𝑭𝟏and their
vector sum is zero.
𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 = 𝑭𝟏 + −𝑭𝟏 = 𝟎….……...24
 This shows that if the body is at rest at the

start, it remains at rest; if it is initially
moving, it continues to move in the same
direction with constant speed.
• This law is the same reason why you should
have a head rest on your car seat and always
wear your seatbelt. 178
Newton’s Second Law
• Newton second law state that, “for any given
body the magnitude of the acceleration is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the
net force acting on the body”.
• Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a
mass. The greater the mass of the object being
accelerated, the greater the amount of force
needed to accelerate the object”.
• The direction of acceleration is the same as the
direction of the net force.
179
• However, the Second Law gives us an exact
relationship between force, mass, and
acceleration. It can be expressed as some
series of mathematical equations, as:
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 …………………………..………......33
𝑭
𝒎= 𝒂
…………………………………………34
𝑭
𝒂= …………………….………………..…...35
𝒎
180
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 …………………………..………......33
𝑭
𝒎= 𝒂
…………………………………………34
𝑭
𝒂= …………………….………………..…...35
𝒎
Equation 33 is a complete statement of the

Newton law that, if a net external force acts on a
body, the body accelerates.
From equation 34, for a given body, the ratio of
the magnitude 𝑭 of the net force to the
magnitude 𝒂 = 𝒂 of the acceleration is constant,
regardless of the magnitude of the net force. We
call this ratio the inertial mass or simply the
mass, of the body and denote it by m.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogram. 181
• “One Newton is the amount of net force that
gives an acceleration of 1 meter per second
squared to a body with a mass of 1 kilogram”.
1 Newton = ( l kilogram) ( 1 meter per second
squared)
or
1 N = l kg • m/S2
182
Example
Mike's car, which weighs 1,000 kg, is out of fuel.
Mike is trying to push the car to a petrol station,
and he makes the car go 0.05 m/s/s. Using
Newton's Second Law, compute how much force
Mike is applying to the car.
Solution
𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈
𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
𝑭 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑵
183
Mass and Weight
• The weight of an object is not the same as its

mass. The weight is defined as the force
exerted by gravity.
• Mass refer to the quantity of matter in
substance, and it is constant.
• Hence far out in space, where there is very
little gravity, we say an object is
weightless, not mass-less.
184
Mass and Weight
 On the surface of the earth, the effect of
gravity in the absence of other forces is to
give an object an acceleration of g towards
the center of the earth.
 Thus the weight W of an object on the surface
of the earth is:
 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 …………….…………….………...36
 We often say ―weight" to mean the
magnitude, even though weight is a vector
which direction is towards the center of the
earth.
 Weight is the force of gravity on an object.
 The formula for weight W = mg is valid even
if the object is not accelerating or moving.
185
Variation of g with location
 The average value of acceleration due to
gravity on the surface of the earth is 9.8 m/s2.
 The value of g varies from 9.78 to 9.82 m/s2

on the surface of the earth. This is as a result
of the fact the earth is not perfectly spherical
and due to the effect of rotation and
revolutional motion of the earth in its orbit.
 At a point where g = 9.80 m/s2, the weight of a

standard kilogram is w = 9.80 N.
 At a different point, where g = 9.78m/s2, the

weight is w = 9.78N but the mass is still1 kg. 186
Variation of g with location
• The weight of a body varies from one
location to another; the mass does not.
• The acceleration of free fall on the
surface of the moon is 1.62 m/s2, that
is, one sixth (1/6) that of the earth.
• If we take a standard mass to the
moon, the weight would be 1.62
N, while the mass will still remain 1 kg.
187
Newton’s Third Law
• When two bodies interact with each other the
magnitude of the force they exert on each other
is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
This gives rise to Newton’s third law which
states that:
• “For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction”.
• This means that for every force there is a
reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite
in direction.
𝑭𝟏 = −𝑭𝟐 …………………………………….….37
188
F2
F1
Figure 21
𝑭𝟏 = −𝑭𝟐 …………………………………….….37
189
That is to say that whenever an object pushes
another object it gets pushed back in the
opposite direction equally hard. In the
statement of Newton's third law, ''action"
and "reaction" are the two opposite forces.
190
Applications of Newton’s Law of motion
The Free-Body Diagram
Each time we apply Newton‘s first law of motion

𝑭 = 𝟎, when in equilibrium. When we apply
Newton‘s second law 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂, when not in
equilibrium. When we apply Newton‘s third law
of motion FAB = -FBA, action and reaction forces.
191
 To be successful in applying Newton’s second
law to a system, you must be able to recognize
all the forces acting on the system. That is, you
must be able to construct the correct free-
body diagram. The importance of constructing
the free-body diagram cannot be over
emphasized.
 Once you've chosen the body to analyze, you
have to identify all the forces acting on it.
 Don't get confused between the forces acting
on a body and the forces exerted by that body
on some other body.
192
 For example, to analyze the forces called into
play for a person that is walking for free-body
diagram, you only consider the force the
ground exerted on the person, not the force
exerted by the person on the ground. These
forces form an action-reaction pair and are
related by Newton's third law, but only the
force that act on the person we are
considering goes in 𝑭.
193
 Free-body diagrams are essential to help
identify the relevant forces. A free-body
diagram is a diagram with vectors drawn to
show the magnitudes and directions of all the
forces applied to the body by the various other
bodies that interact with it.
 Example of free body diagram is shown in
figure 21a. example of non free-body diagram
is shown in figure 21b. where f is frictional
force, n is normal reaction, T is tension, and F
is the force of gravity.
n n
T'
T T
f'
f f
F
F'
F
n' 194
Figure 21a: Free-body Diagram Figure 21b: Non Free-body Diagram
Frictional force
• Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid
surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against
each other. There are several types of friction:
• Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid
surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static
friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and
kinetic friction between moving surfaces.
• Fluid friction describes the friction between layers within a
viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.
• Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid
separates two solid surfaces.
• Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the
motion of a solid body through a fluid.
• Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the
elements making up a solid material while it undergoes
195
deformation.
Frictional force
• When surfaces in contact move relative to
each other, the friction between the two
surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat.
• This property can have dramatic
consequences, as illustrated by the use of
friction created by rubbing pieces of wood
together to start a fire.
• Kinetic energy is converted to heat whenever
motion with friction occurs, for example
when a viscous fluid is stirred.
196
Kinetic and Static Friction
Kinetic Friction
The kind of friction that acts when a body slides
over a surface is called a kinetic friction force 𝑭𝒌 .
In many cases the magnitude of the kinetic
friction force 𝐅𝐤 is found experimentally to be
approximately proportional to the magnitude n
of the normal force. In such cases we represent
the relationship by the equation:
𝑭𝒌 = 𝝁𝒌 𝒏
Where 𝝁𝒌 is a constant called the coefficient of

Kinetic friction. 197
Kinetic and Static Friction
Static Friction
 Friction forces may also act when there is no
relative motion.
 lf you try to slide a box across the floor, the
box may not move at all because the floor
exerts an equal and opposite friction force on
the box. This is called a static frictional force
𝑭𝒔
𝑭𝒔 = 𝝁𝒔 𝒏
 We call the proportionality factor 𝝁𝒔 the
coefficient of static friction.
 The coefficient of kinetic friction is usually
less than the coefficient of static friction for
any given pair of surfaces, 198
Example
A crate of 45.0 kg tools rests on a horizontal
floor. You exert a gradually increasing
horizontal push on it and observe that the
crate just begins to move when your force
exceeds 313 N. After that you must reduce
your push to 208 N to keep it moving at a
steady 25.0 cm/s. (a) What are the coefficients
of static and kinetic friction between the crate
and the floor'? (b) What push must you exert
to give it an acceleration of 1.10 m/s.
199
Example
Solution From Newton‘s first law, we have that
(a) 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎
n
𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒙 + −𝑻 = 𝟎
45.0 kg 𝑭𝒔 = 𝑻
𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎
F T
𝑭𝒚 = 𝒏 + −𝒘 = 𝟎
W
𝒏=𝒘
𝒎 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟎 𝒌𝒈 but
𝑻𝒔 = 𝟑𝟏𝟑 𝑵 A crate of 45.0 kg tools rests on a
𝑭𝒔 = 𝝁𝒔 𝒏 horizontal floor. You exert a
𝑻𝒌 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝟑𝟏𝟑 = 𝝁𝒔 𝟒𝟒𝟏 gradually increasing horizontal
𝝁𝒔 =? 𝟑𝟏𝟑 push on it and observe that the
𝝁𝒌 =? 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟒𝟒𝟏 crate just begins to move when
𝒗 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 𝝁𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟗𝟕 your force exceeds 313 N. After
that you must reduce your push
But 𝑭𝒌 = 𝝁𝒌 𝒏 to 208 N to keep it moving at a
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈 𝟐𝟎𝟖 = 𝝁𝒌 𝟒𝟒𝟏 steady 25.0 cm/s. (a) What are
Therefore, 𝟐𝟎𝟖 the coefficients of static and
𝝁𝒌 = 𝟒𝟒𝟏 kinetic friction between the crate
𝑾 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖
𝝁𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟏𝟕 and the floor'? (b) What push
𝑾 = 𝟒𝟒𝟏 𝑵 must you exert to give it an
acceleration of 1.10 m/s. 200
Example
A crate of 45.0 kg tools rests on a
horizontal floor. You exert a
gradually increasing horizontal
push on it and observe that the
crate just begins to move when
(b) your force exceeds 313 N. After
that you must reduce your push
From Newton‘s Second Law to 208 N to keep it moving at a
steady 25.0 cm/s. (a) What are
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 the coefficients of static and
𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 kinetic friction between the crate
and the floor'? (b) What push
𝑭 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎 must you exert to give it an
acceleration of 1.10 m/s.
𝑭 = 𝟒𝟗. 𝟓 𝑵
Therefore the total force causing an acceleration
of 1.10 m/s2 is:
𝑭𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖 + 𝟒𝟗. 𝟓
𝑭𝑻 = 𝟐𝟓𝟕. 𝟓
𝑭𝑻 = 𝟐𝟓𝟖 𝑵
201
Equilibrium and Elasticity
• We have just concluded the study on
Newton’s laws of motion, on which an
applied force causes an object to move.
There are so many life situations where we
want an object to remain stationary at rest
and in equilibrium.
• Example of this include bridges, tall
buildings, Chair, reservoirs etc. A body can be
modeled as a particle in equilibrium
whenever the vector sum of the forces acting
on it is zero. 202
Condition for Equilibrium
First condition for equilibrium

A Particle is said to be in equilibrium if the
vector sum of all the forces acting on the particle
is zero. This indicates that there is no translation
of the body.
𝐅 = 𝟎.
This is referred to as the first condition for
equilibrium, and it is base on Newton‘s first law
of motion.
203
First condition for equilibrium

A Particle is said to be in equilibrium if the
vector sum of all the forces acting on the particle
is zero. This indicates that there is no translation
of the body.
𝐅 = 𝟎.
This is referred to as the first condition for
equilibrium, and it is base on Newton‘s first law
of motion.
204
Second condition for equilibrium
 A second condition for an extended body to
be in equilibrium is that the body must have
no tendency to rotate. This means that the
sum of torques due to all the external forces
acting on the body must be zero.
 A rigid body in equilibrium can't have any
tendency to start rotating about any point, so
the sum of external torques must be zero
about any point. This means there is no
rotation of the body.
𝝉 = 𝟎 about any point.
 This condition is based on the dynamics of
205
rotational motion.
When the object in equilibrium is not moving,

we call it ―static equilibrium‖. When the
object in equilibrium is said to be moving, e.g
an airplane in flight, we call it dynamic
equilibrium.
206
Center of Gravity
• Whenever we deal with a rigid object, one of
the forces we must consider is the force of
gravity acting on it, and we must know the point
of application of this force.
• On every object is a special point called its
center of gravity.
• All the various gravitational forces acting on all
the various mass elements of the object are
equivalent to a single gravitational force acting
through this point.
• Thus, to compute the torque due to the
gravitational force on an object of mass M, we
need only consider the force Mg acting at the
center of gravity of the object.
207
Center of Gravity
• The weight of a body is concentrated at a point
called the center of gravity (abbreviated "cg").
• The acceleration due to gravity decreases with
altitude; but if we can ignore this variation over
the vertical dimension of the body, then the
body's center of gravity is identical to its center
of mass (abbreviated "cm").
• To find this special point, if we assume that g is
uniform over the object, then the center of
gravity of the object coincides with its center of
mass.
208
Center of Gravity
To see that this is so, consider an object of y
arbitrary shape lying in the xy plane.
Suppose the object is divided into a large number
of particles of masses m1, m2, m3, . . . having
x1,y1
coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), . . . Therefore x2,y2
m2 m1
the center of mass for the x coordinate can be
x3,y3 CM
express mathematically as: m3
x
0
𝒎𝟏 𝒙+𝒎𝟐 𝒙𝟐 +𝒎𝟑 𝒙𝟑 +⋯ 𝒊 𝒎𝒊 𝒙𝒊
𝒙𝑪𝑴 = = ……………37.1
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 +𝒎𝟑 … 𝒊 𝒎𝒊
We use a similar equation to define the y
coordinate of the center of mass, replacing each x
with its y counterpart.
209
Center of Gravity
• If we consider the force of gravity on each
particle, as shown in figure 21.2. Each particle
contributes a torque about the origin equal in
magnitude to the particle’s weight mg multiplied by
its moment arm.
• For example, the torque due to the force m1g1is
m1g1x1, where g1is the magnitude of the
y
gravitational field at the position of the particle of
mass m1.
x2,y2 x1,y1
m2g m1g
CG
x3,y3
m3g
x
0
210
Fg = Mg
Center of Gravity
We wish to locate the center of
gravity, the point at which
application of the single
gravitational force Mg (where M =
m1= m2 = m3 =...is the total mass of
the object) has the same effect on
rotation as does the combined
effect of all the individual
gravitational forces migi.
211
Center of Gravity
Equating the torque resulting from Mg acting at
the center of gravity to the sum of the torques
acting on the individual particles gives
𝒎𝟏 𝒈𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝟐 + 𝒎𝟑 𝒈𝟑 + ⋯ 𝒙𝑪𝑮 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒈𝟏 𝒙𝟏 +
𝒎𝟐 𝒈𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒎𝟑 𝒈𝟑 𝒙𝟑 + ⋯ …………...…………37.2
This expression accounts for the fact that the

gravitational field strength g can in general vary
over the object.
212
Center of Gravity
If we assume uniform g over the object (as is
usually the case), then the g terms cancel and we
obtain:
𝒎𝟏 𝒙𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟐 +𝒎𝟑 𝒙𝟑 +⋯
𝒙𝑪𝑮 = …………………….37.3
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 +𝒎𝟑 +⋯
Comparing this result with Equation 37.1, we see

that the center of gravity is located at the center
of mass as long as the object is in a uniform
gravitational field.
213
Example
• An auto magazine reports that a certain sports car has
53% of its weight on the front wheels and 47% on its
rear wheels, with a 2.46 m wheelbase. This means that
the total normal force on the front wheels Is 0.53w and
that on the rear wheels is 0.47w, where w is the total
weight. The wheelbase is the distance between the
front and rear axles. How far in front of the rear axle is
the car's center of gravity
2.46 m 214
Example
• An auto magazine reports that a certain sports car has 53% of its weight
on the front wheels and 47% on its rear wheels, with a 2.46 m
wheelbase. This means that the total normal force on the front wheels Is
0.53w and that on the rear wheels is 0.47w, where w is the total weight.
The wheelbase is the distance between the front and rear axles. How far
in front of the rear axle is the car's center of gravity
2.46 m y
n = 0.47 w n = 0.53 w
x
R F
Lcg
w
The convection is counterclockwise torque is

positive
The weight w acts at the center of gravity.
The distance we want is Lcg 215
Example
y
n = 0.47 w n = 0.53 w
2.46 m
x
R F
The torque due to the weight is negative, because Lcg
it tend to cause a clockwise rotation about R. w
The torque due to the upward normal force at the
front axle F is positive,
𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎 because there is no x component of
force. But for the y component we have;
𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝒘 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝒘 + −𝒘 = 𝟎
𝒘−𝒘=𝟎
Therefore 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎
The first condition for equilibrium is satisfied 216
Example
y
n = 0.47 w n = 0.53 w
2.46 m
x
R F
Lcg
w
Using the torque equation to solve for Lcg and
taking moment about R
𝑻𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝒘 × 𝟎 + −𝒘𝑳𝒄𝒈 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝒘 × 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 = 𝟎
𝟎 = 𝟎 − 𝒘𝑳𝒄𝒈 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟖𝒘
𝒘𝑳𝒄𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟖𝒘
𝑳𝒄𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟎 𝒎 217
Elasticity
Materials are elastic and do deform to some
extent. Elastic properties of materials are
tremendously important.
Stress, Strain and Elastic Moduli

Stress is defined as force per unit area
𝑭
𝑺=
𝑨
Strain is define as the resulting deformation as a
result of the application of stress.
When the stress and strain are small enough, we
often find that stress is proportional to strain
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∝ 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝑬 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
= 𝑬 Elastic Modulus (Hook‘s law)
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
The proportionality constant is called elastic
modulus. 218
Tensile and Compressive Stress and strain
When we apply forces of equal magnitude 𝑭⊥ ,
but opposite directions at the ends, we say that
the object is in tension.
F F
We define Tensile Stress at the cross section as

the ratio of the force 𝑭⊥ to the cross sectional
area A.
𝑭
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = ⊥
𝑨
This is a scalar quantity because 𝑭⊥ is the
magnitude of the force.
The SI unit of stress is the Pascal.
219
The SI unit of stress is the Pascal.
∆𝐿
Area A 𝐹⊥ 𝐹⊥
𝐿0 L
Initial state of object Object under tensile stress
When we apply a force of equal magnitude the

object under tension stretches to a length
𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 + ∆𝑳. The elongation ∆𝑳 does not occur
only at the ends; every part of the bar stretches in
the same proportion.
The tensile strain of the object is equal to the
fractional change in length, which is the ratio of
the elongation ∆𝑳 to the original length 𝑳𝟎 .
𝑳−𝑳𝟎 ∆𝑳
Tensile strain = =
𝑳𝟎 𝑳𝟎
220
Tensile strain is stretch per unit length. It is
dimensionless, with no unit. As earlier discuss
stress and strain are proportional. The
corresponding elastic modulus is called Young‘s
modulus, denoted by Y.
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑭 𝑨
𝒀= = ⊥
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝑳 𝑳𝟎
𝑭⊥ ∆𝑳
= ÷
𝑨 𝑳𝟎
𝑭⊥ 𝑳𝟎
𝒀= × (Young‘s Modulus).
𝑨 ∆𝑳
Since strain is a pure number, the units of
Young‘s modulus are same as those of stress.
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒀= Shows that a material with a
𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
large value of Y is relatively unstretchable.
Y for cast steel is 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝒂
Y for rubber is 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑷𝒂 221
Bulk Stress and Strain
The stress is a uniform pressure on all sides, and
the resulting deformation is a volume change.
The force 𝑭⊥ per unit area that the fluid exerts on
the surface of an immersed object is called
pressure P in the third.
𝑭
𝑷 = ⊥ (pressure in fluid)
𝑨
Pressure is treated as the same value at all points
on an immersed objects surface. Pressure has the
same unit as stress (1Pa = 1N/m3).
Pressure is a scalar quantity not a vector.
Pressure plays the role of stress in a volume
deformation.
𝐹⊥
V0 𝐹⊥ 𝐹⊥
V
𝑉 = 𝑉0 − ∆𝑉
𝐹⊥
The corresponding strain is the fractional change

in volume, that is the ratio of the volume change
∆𝑽 to the original volume.
∆𝑽
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 222
𝑽𝟎
When hook law is obeyed, an increased in

pressure (bulk stress) produces a proportional
buil strain (fractional change in volume). The
corresponding elastic modulus (ratio of stress to
strain) is called the bulk modulus, denoted by B.
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∆𝑷
𝑩= =− (bulk modulus)
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∆𝑽 𝑽𝟎
We include a minus sign in this equation because
an increase of pressure always cause a decrease
in volume. The bulk modulus B itself is positive
quantity. The unit is the same as pressure.
223
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the
compressibility and is
𝟏 𝟏 ∆𝑽
𝒌= =−
𝑩 𝑽𝟎 ∆𝑷
Compressibility is the Fractional decrease in
volume, − ∆𝑽 𝑽 per unit increase ∆𝑷 in
𝟎
pressure. The unit of compressibility are those of
reciprocal pressure 𝑷𝒂 −𝟏 or 𝒂𝒕𝒎−𝟏 . Materials
with small bulk modulus and large
compressibility are easier to compress, e.g. gas.
224
Shear Stress and Strain
Shear Stress
When forces of equal magnitude but opposite
direction act targent to the surface of opposite
ends of the object, then they set up shear stress.
𝑭
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨
Shear Strain
We define shear strain as the ratio of the
displacement x to the transverse dimension h.
x F
h
F
𝒙
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝒉
225
Shear Stress and Strain
If the forces are small enough that Hooke‘s law is
obeyed, the shear strain is proportional to the
shear stress. The corresponding elastic modulus
(ratio of shear stress to shear strain) is called the
shear modulus.
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑭 𝑨 𝑭𝒉
𝑺= = =
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝒉 𝑨𝒙
For a given material, S is usually one third to one
half as large as Young‘s modulus Y for tensile
stress. Shear stress, , shear strain, and shear
modulus apply to solid material only.
226
Elasticity and Plasticity
Hooke‘s law the proportionality of stress and
strain in elastic deformations has a limited range
of validity. Nothing workout in all details.
Plastic Deformation
Proportionality limit
c
a b d
Fracture point
Stress
Yield point
Elastic
behavior
o
Strain
The first portion is a straight line, indicating

Hooke's law behavior with stress directly
proportional to strain. This straight-line portion
ends at point a; the stress at this point is called
the proportional limit. 227
Plastic Deformation
c
a b
d
Fracture point
Stress
Yield point
Elastic
behavior
o
Strain
 From a to b, stress and strain are no longer

proportional, and Hooke‘s law is not obeyed.
The deformation is reversible.
 In region ―ob‖ we say that the material shows
elastic behavior, since the material could
recover from the deformation. The end of this
region is called the yield point or elastic limit. 228
Plastic Deformation
c
a b
d
Fracture point
Stress
Yield point
Elastic
behavior
o
Strain
 The point c is the point of irreversible

deformation, it is called permanent set.
 Further increase of load beyond c produce a
large increase in strain for a relatively small
increase in stress.
 Until a point d is reached at which fracture
takes place. The behavior of material from b
to d is called plastic flow or plastic
deformation. 229
 For a particular material, when a large
amount of plastic deformation takes place
between the elastic limit and the fracture
point, such a material is said to be ductile.
 But if fracture occurs soon after the elastic
limit is passed, the material is said to be
brittle.
 A soft iron wire that can have considerable
permanent stretch without breaking is
ductile,
 while a steel piano string that breaks soon
after its elastic limit is reached is brittle.
230
Example
• A metal rod that is 4.00 m long

and 0.50 cm2 in cross sectional
area is found to stretch 0.20 cm
under a tension of 5000 N. What
is Young's modulus for this
metal?
231
Example
Solution 100 cm = 1m
𝟏𝒎
𝑳𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝒎 𝟏=
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎
𝟎.𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝟐
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 ×
𝟏𝒎
𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎
∆𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 𝒎 𝟎.𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝟏𝒎𝟐
×
𝑭 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑵 𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟐 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝟎.𝟓𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝟏𝒎𝟐
Young‘s Modulus = ×
𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝟐
𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒎
But Stress =
𝑨
Area = 0.50 cm3 = 0.00005 m3 = 5.0 x 10-5 m2
𝟓𝟎𝟎
∴ 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = −𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟎 ×
𝟓.𝟎×𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
∆𝑳 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓
𝑳𝟎 𝟒.𝟎
′ 𝟏.𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
∴ 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝒂
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓
232
WORK
When the point at which a force acts moves, the
force is said to have done work. Work is defined
as the product of the component of the force
along the direction of the displacement and the
magnitude of the displacement.
That is, the work W done by a constant force of
magnitude F and the displacement magnitude s,
as express in equation 38.
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔 ..................................................................38
Equation 38 holds when the work is done in the

direction of displacement,
233
WORK
But if the work was done at an angle ∅ with the
direction of displacement as shown in figure 22,
we write equation 38 as:
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ ........................................................39
y
F
𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏∅
x
s
𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
Figure 1
If ∅ = 𝟎, then F and s are in the same direction,

therefore 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ = 𝟏, that will bring us back to
equation 38. 234
WORK
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ ........................................................39
Equation 39 is a form of dot product of two
vectors. Recall that from vector analysis that
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝑨𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔∅. Therefore equation 39 can be
written as:
𝑾 =𝑭. 𝒔 = 𝑭𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ 𝒔 ............................................40
This shows that work is a scalar quantity, even if

it is generated by two vector quantities, force and
displacement.
235
UNIT OF WORK
The SI unit of work is joule ―J‖. The SI unit of
force is Newton and the SI unit of displacement is
meter, therefore the 1J is equivalent to 1
Newton.Meter.
1 joule = (1 Newton) (1 meter) or 1J = 1 N.m
236
WORK
 A constant force F can do positive, negative,
or zero work depending on the angle between
F and the displacement s.
 When the force has a component in the same
direction as the displacement (Ø between 0o
and 90o), cosØ is positive and the work W is
positive.
 When the force has a component opposite to
the displacement (Ø between 90o and 180o),
cosØ is negative and the work is negative.
 When the force is perpendicular to the
displacement, Ø = 90o and the work done by
the force is zero.
237
WORK
Worked Example
How much work is done when a force of 15 kN
moves its point of application 600mm in the
direction of the force.
Solution
Work done = 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝟔𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 9000J
=9kJ
238
WORK
Worked Example
Find the work done in raising 300 kg of water
through a vertical distance of 5m.
Solution
The force is the weight of the water, so
Work done = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝒈 × 𝟓
= 14700J = 14.7KJ
239
WORK
Worked Example
A shopper in a supermarket pushes a cart with a
force of 35 N directed at an angle of 25o
downward from the horizontal. The force is just
sufficient to overcome the various frictional
forces, so the cart moves at a constant speed. Find
the work done by the shopper as she moves down
a 50 m length of aisle.
240
WORK WORKED EXAMPLE
Using Equation 40,

W = (F cosØ) s,
But θ = −25,
F = 35 N, and s = 50 m, we get
W = [35 N cos (−25)] · 50 m = 32 N × 50 m
= 1600 J.
241
WORK
Total work Wtot, is the total amount of work done
on a body when several forces are acting.
It is the algebraic sum of the quantities of work
done by individual forces. It is the work done by
the resultant force.
When a particle undergoes a displacement, it
speeds up if Wtot > 0, it slows down if Wtot < 0, and
maintains the same speed if Wtot = 0.
242
Energy
Energy is defined as the ability or power to
work or make an effort.
Energy types
We will discuss two main types,
Kinetic energy (KE): energy of motion:
Potential energy (PE): energy of position:
243
Kinetic energy (KE)
(a) Kinetic energy (KE): energy of motion:

The force is F = ma so
Let a body of mass m moving with speed v 𝒗𝟐
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒎𝒂
experience a uniform acceleration a by a 𝟐𝒂
constant force F over a distance s. 𝟏 𝟐
= 𝒎𝒗
Applying Newton‘s equation 𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 𝟏
𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 ...........................................................41
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 𝟐
𝒗𝟐
𝒔= where m is the mass of the object in motion and v
𝟐𝒂 is the velocity of motion.
And work done is given by
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
= 𝑭𝒔
𝒗𝟐
=𝑭
𝟐𝒂
244
Potential energy (PE): energy of position:
𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒛......................................................42
where m is the mass of the object, g is the

acceleration due to gravity, and z is the
height above some reference point (typically
the ground).
245
Potential and kinetic Energy Classification
Energies associated with different
phenomenon can be classified into either of
these two forms.
POTENTIAL ENERGY KINETIC ENERGY

Gravitational Moving object
chemical Heat
elastic Sound and other waves
246
THE WORK ENERGY THEOREM
States that, the net work done on an object by a net
force acting on it is equal to the change in kinetic
energy (final - initial) of the object.
𝟏
𝑾𝒕𝒐𝒕 = 𝑲𝑬𝒇 − 𝑲𝑬𝒊 = ∆𝑲𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎 𝒗𝟐𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐𝟎 .....43
 To prove this theorem, take Equation 38, and

for simplicity sake, let‘s assume that F is
being directed in the same direction as s (so ∅
= 0) and
 Finally let the total path length s lie along the
x-axis.
 Recall from Newton second law of motion
that:
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 where a is acceleration,
 we can rewrite Equation 38 as:
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔 ....................................................44
247
THE WORK ENERGY THEOREM
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔 ....................................................44
Using the constant acceleration equation
𝒗𝟐𝟏 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
We have
𝟏
𝒂𝒔 = 𝒗𝟐𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝟐
Multiplying both sides with m,
𝟏
𝒎𝒂𝒔 = 𝟐 𝒎 𝒗𝟐𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐𝟎
From equation 44 we have:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔 = 𝟐
𝒎
− 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟎
= 𝟐
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟏 − 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝟎 =
𝑲𝑬𝒇 − 𝑲𝑬𝒊 ...................................................45
Which proves the work-energy theorem.

248
Conservative and Non-conservative Forces
• A force is conservative if the work it
does on an object moving between two
points is independent of the path the
object takes between the points.
• Recall that when you drop an object and
when you project an object from the
same point both land on the ground at
the same time, irrespective of the part
taken.
249
• The force of gravity is an example of a

conservative force. Remember that the force
of gravity near the Earth’s surface is given by:
𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎𝒈................................................................46
250
If a ball is thrown upward at a distance of
𝒔 = 𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒛𝟎 , as the ball goes upward, the
force of gravity points in the opposite direction of
motion, therefore ∅ = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 in Equation 40.
Using this fact and equation 46, Equation 40 can
now be written as:
𝑾 = (𝑭 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅)𝒔 = (𝒎𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 ) (𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒛𝟎 )
𝑾 = −𝒎𝒈(𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒛𝟎 ) = 𝒎𝒈(𝒛𝟎 − 𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙)
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈𝒛𝟎 − 𝒎𝒈𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑷𝑬𝒊 − 𝑷𝑬𝒇 .
251
As such, for gravity we can write
𝑾𝒈 = 𝑲𝑬𝒇 − 𝑲𝑬𝒊 = 𝑷𝑬𝒊 − 𝑷𝑬𝒇 = 𝒎𝒈(𝒛𝒊 − 𝒛𝒇 )
We could make the same argument for any
conservative force, therefore:
𝑾𝒄 = 𝑷𝑬𝒊 − 𝑷𝑬𝒇 = −∆𝑷𝑬 ............................47
the work done by conservative force depends only

on the change of potential energy, here, initial
minus final (hence the negative sign in front of
the ‗delta‘ [∆] symbol).
252
A force is non-conservative if the work done
depends upon the path taken. It leads to a
dissipation of mechanical energy (friction is an
example of a non-conservative force). For such
forces, we must use the defining equation for
work in order to calculate its value:
𝑾𝒏𝒄 = (𝑭𝒏𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅)𝒔 ...........................................48
253
Conservation of Mechanical Energy: Total
mechanical energy before an event = total
mechanical energy after an event.
𝑲𝑬𝒊 + 𝑷𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑬𝒇 + 𝑷𝑬𝒇.................................50
For gravitational energy near the surface of the

Earth:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
𝒎𝒗𝒊 + 𝒎𝒈𝒛𝒊 = 𝟐
𝒎𝒗𝒇 + 𝒎𝒈𝒛𝒇 ........................51
254
Potential energies come in a variety of forms:

(a) Gravity (near a planetary surface):
𝑷𝑬𝒈 = 𝒎𝒈𝒛..........................................................52
(b) Springs:
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝑬𝒔 = 𝟐
𝒌𝒙 ..........................................................53
where k is the spring constant and x is the

displacement between the compressed and
uncompressed state of the spring.
255
Worked example
A girl on a sled with a combined mass of 50.0
kg slides down a frictionless hill from rest.
When she gets to the bottom of the hill, she
is travelling at 3.00 m/s. How high is the hill?
Solution
256
Since the hill is said to be
frictionless, the only force acting
on the sled is the force of
gravity, which is a conservative
force. Due to this, we are free to
use the conservation of
mechanical energy here. Using
Equation 51,
257
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝒗𝒊 + 𝒎𝒈𝒛𝒊 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒇 + 𝒎𝒈𝒛𝒇
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
we note that m = 50.0 kg, vi = 0 (sled starts from

rest), vf = 3.00 m/s, zi = h (the height of the hill),
and zf = 0 (the ground). Solving for h we get
𝟏
𝟎 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒇 + 𝟎
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝒈𝒉 = 𝒗𝒇
𝟐
𝒗𝟐𝒇 𝟑.𝟎𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 𝟐 𝟗.𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝟐 /𝒔𝟐

𝒉 = 𝟐𝒈 = 𝟐 𝟗.𝟖𝟎𝒎/𝒎𝟐
= 𝟏𝟗.𝟔 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟗 𝒎
258
Work done by varying force
• We have considered work done by constant forces
only.
• But what happens when you stretch a spring? The
more you stretch it, the harder you have to
pull, so the force you exert is not constant as the
spring is stretched.
• Another example is driving a car along a straight
road with stop signs, so the driver has to
alternately step on the accelerator and apply
brakes.
• This will enable us to compute the work done in a
more general case. Let us consider figures on the
next slide.
259
Fx
0 x1 x2 x
𝑠 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
Figure 25
In figure 25 Fx represent a constant force that has

a displacement from x1 to x2. Here the total work
done can simply be calculated by finding the area
under the rectangle. Therefore the work done W
= F(x2 – x1) = Fs. 260
Fx
F2x
F1x
0 x1 x2 x
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 𝟏
Figure 26
Figure above is a graph of the x component of a
varying force as a function of the particle‘s
coordinate x. To find the work done by this force,
we divide the total displacement into small
segments ∆𝒙𝟏, ∆𝒙𝟐, and so on, as shown on the 261
next slide.
Fx
F8
F7
F6
F5
F4
F3
F2
F1
0 x1 ∆x1 ∆x2 ∆x3 ∆x4 ∆x5 ∆x6 ∆x7 ∆x8 x2 x

We approximate the work done by the force
during the segment ∆𝒙𝟏 as the average x
component of force F1 in the segment multiplied
by the x displacement ∆𝒙𝟏. If we do this for each
segment and then add the result for all the
segments. The work done by the force in the total
displacement from x1 to x2 will be approximately:
𝑾 = 𝑭𝟏∆𝒙𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐∆𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ 262
In the limit that the number of segments becomes
very large and the width of each becomes very
small, this sum becomes the integral of Fx from x1
to x2:
𝒙𝟐
𝑾= 𝑭 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟏 𝒙
.......................................................55
An alternative interpretation of equation 55 is

that the work W equals the average force that
acts over the entire displacement, multiplied by
the displacement.
263
In the special case that Fx, the x component of the
force, is constant, it may be taken outside the
integral in equation 55.
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝑾= 𝑭 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝟏 𝒙
= 𝑭𝒙 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑭𝒙 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 .......56
𝟏
For constant force.

But x2 – x1 = s, the total displacement of the
particle. So in the case of a constant force F,
equation 55 says that W = Fs, in agreement with
equation 38.
264
THE CONCEPT OF POWER
Whenever we want to know how quickly work is
done, we describe this in terms of power. Power is
the time rate of doing work. Here, we shall define
the average power as:
∆𝑾 𝑭∆𝒔
𝑷= ∆𝒕
= ∆𝒕
= 𝑭𝒗 ...............................................57
Power is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of power

is:
𝟏 𝑾 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕) = 𝟏 𝑱/𝒔 = 𝟏 𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐 /𝒔𝟑 .
𝟏𝒌𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑾 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝑴𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑾
In the English system: 1 hp (horsepower) ≡ 550
𝒇𝒕.𝑰𝒃
𝒔
= 746 W.
265
Since the power is the derivative of work, the

inverse relation is
𝒕𝟐
𝑾= 𝒕𝟏
𝑷∆𝒕 .....................................................58
266
Energy in terms of power
The kilowatt hour (kW.h) is the usual

commercial unit of electrical energy.
1 kilowatt-hour = 1 kWh = (103 W)(3600 s) (103
6
J/s)(3600 s) = 3.600 × 10 J.
The Kilowatt hour is a unit of work or energy,
not power.
267
Worked example
A constant force of 2kN pulls a crate along a level
floor a distance of 10 m in 50s.
What is the power used?
Solution
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
= 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
=
𝟓𝟎
= 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑾 268
Worked example
Water flows over a section of Yankari Falls at the
rate of 1.2 × 106 kg/s and falls 50 m. How much
power is generated by the falling water?
Solution
Applying equation 57 and our previous equation
𝑾𝒈 = 𝑷𝑬𝒊 − 𝑷𝑬𝒇 = 𝒎𝒈(𝒛𝒊 − 𝒛𝒇), this will
give a power of :
𝑾𝒈 𝒎𝒈 𝒛𝒊 − 𝒛𝒇
𝑷= = = 𝑸𝒈(𝒛𝒊 − 𝒛𝒇)
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
𝒎
The term we introduced 𝑸 = ∆𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟐 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝒈/𝒔 as the rate of mass flow over the falls.
Using the values supplied for the position
parameters, zf = 0 and zi = 50 m, we can solve for
the power generated by the falls as:
𝑷 = 𝑸𝒈(𝒛𝒊 − 𝒛𝒇) 269

𝑷 = 𝑸𝒈(𝒛𝒊 − 𝒛𝒇)
= (𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝒈/𝒔)(𝟗. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 ) (𝟓𝟎 𝒎 − 𝟎)
= 𝟓. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑾 = 𝟓𝟗𝟎 𝑴𝑾.
270
Gravitation
• Newton discovered in the 17th century that
the same interaction that makes an apple fall
out of a tree also keeps the planets in their
orbits around the sun.
• This was the beginning of celestial
mechanics, the study of the dynamics of
objects in space.
• Today, our knowledge of celestial mechanics
allows us to determine how to put a satellite
into any desired orbit around the earth
• or to choose just the right trajectory to send
a spacecraft to another planet.
271
Newton’s law of Gravitation
Newton’s law of Gravitation states that every
particle of matter in the universe attracts every
other particle with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of the masses of the
particles and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them.
𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝒈 = ………………………………....1
𝒓𝟐
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝒈 (𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟏) 𝑭𝒈 (𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟐)
272
𝒎𝟏
𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝒈 (𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟏) 𝑭𝒈 (𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟐)
𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝒈 = ………………………………....1
𝒓𝟐
 Where𝑭𝒈 , is the magnitude of the

gravitational force on either particle, 𝒎𝟏 and
𝒎𝟐 are their masses, r is the distance between
them. and G is a fundamental physical
constant called the gravitational constant.
 We call G a universal constant because it has
the same value for any two bodies, no matter
where in space they are located.
 The presently accepted value for G (in SI
units) is 𝑮 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵. 𝒎𝟐 /𝒌𝒈𝟐 273
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝒈 (𝟐 𝒐𝒏 𝟏) 𝑭𝒈 (𝟏 𝒐𝒏 𝟐)
• Even if the particles have very different

masses, the gravitational forces they exert on
each other are equal in strength.
• The attractive force that your body exerts on
the earth has the same magnitude as the
force that the earth exerts on you.
• Exactly at the center, the earth's gravitational
force on the body is zero.
274
Example
A typical adult human has a mass of about 70 kg.
(a) What force does a full moon exert on such a
human when it is directly overhead with its
center 378,000 km away? (b) Compare this force
with the force exerted on the human by the earth.
(a)
Mass of human = 𝒎𝒉 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒌𝒈
Mass of Moon= 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒈
Distance of the Moon from Human =
𝟑𝟕𝟖, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒎 = 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎
𝑮 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵. 𝒎𝟐 𝒌𝒈
𝑮𝒎𝒎 𝒎𝒉
𝑭𝒈 =
𝒓𝟐
𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 ×𝟕.𝟑𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟐 ×𝟕𝟎
𝑭𝒈 =
𝟑𝟕𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟐
−𝟑
𝑭𝒈 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑵 275
Example A typical adult human has a mass of about 70 kg.
(a) What force does a full moon exert on such a
human when it is directly overhead with its
(b) center 378,000 km away? (b) Compare this force
Mass of human = 𝒎𝒉 = 𝟕𝟎 𝒌𝒈 with the force exerted on the human by the earth.
Mass of Earth = 𝒎𝑬 = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝒈

Distance from center of Earth 𝑹𝑬 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎
𝑮 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵. 𝒎𝟐 𝒌𝒈
𝑮𝒎𝑬 𝒎𝒉
𝑭𝒈 = 𝟐𝑹𝑬
𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 ×𝟓.𝟗𝟕×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 ×𝟕𝟎
𝑭𝒈 =
𝟔.𝟑𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟐
𝑭𝒈 = 𝟔𝟖𝟒. 𝟕𝟖𝟗𝟏𝟏 𝑵
𝑭𝒈 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝑵
𝟔.𝟖𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝟓
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟔𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟐.𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟏×𝟏𝟎−𝟑
Therefore the gravitational attraction of the earth
on the 70 kg human is 277665 times that of the
276
moon on him.
Example
Two uniform spheres, each of mass 0.260 kg. are
fixed at points A and B as shown in the figure.
Find the magnitude and direction of the initial
acceleration or a uniform sphere with mass 0.010
kg if released from rest at point P and acted on
only by forces of gravitational attraction of the
spheres at A and B.
0.010 kg
P
10.0 cm 10.0 cm
6.0 cm
0.260 kg
0.260 kg
8.0 cm 8.0 cm
A B
N 277
Example
spheres at A and B.
0.010 kg
P
10.0 cm 10.0 cm
6.0 cm
0.260 kg
0.260 kg
8.0 cm 8.0 cm
A B
N
0.010 kg
P
0.1m 0.1m
0.06 m
0.260 kg
0.260 kg
0.08 m 0.08 m
A N B
278
Example
spheres at A and B. 0.010 kg
P
0.1m 0.1m
0.06 m
0.260 kg
0.260 kg
0.08 m 0.08 m
A B
N
𝟎.𝟐𝟔×𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟎×𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏
𝑭𝑨 =
𝟎.𝟏 𝟐
−𝟏𝟏
𝑭𝑨 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑵
𝑭𝑨 = 𝑭𝑩 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵
279
Example
P
𝟎.𝟎𝟖 −𝟏 𝒐 0.1m 0.1m

∅= = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑
𝟎.𝟏 0.260 kg
0.06 m
∅ = 𝜽 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝒐
0.260 kg
0.08 m 0.08 m
A B
𝑷𝑵 𝒐 N
−𝟏𝟏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑
𝟏.𝟕𝟑𝟒𝟐×𝟏𝟎
𝑷𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 × 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑𝒐
𝑷𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵
Total force = 𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 =
𝟐. 𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵
280
Example
P
0.1m 0.1m
0.06 m
0.260 kg
0.260 kg
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 A
0.08 m 0.08 m
B
𝑭 N
𝒂=
𝒎
𝟐.𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟒×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏
𝒂=
𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟎
𝒂 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
The acceleration is vertically downward.
281
Weight
The weight of a body is the total gravitational
force exerted on the body by all other bodies in
the universe. When the body is near the surface
of the earth, we can neglect all other gravitational
forces and consider the weight as just the earth's
gravitational attraction.
The weight w of a small body of mass m the
earth's surface (a distance 𝑹𝑬 from its center) is
𝑮𝒎𝑬 𝒎
𝒘 = 𝑭𝒈 = …………………………………...2
𝑹𝟐𝑬
282
Weight
𝑮𝒎𝑬 𝒎
𝒘 = 𝑭𝒈 = …………………………………...2
𝑹𝟐𝑬
Where 𝒎𝑬 and 𝑹𝑬 are mass of the earth and
radius of the earth.
So by Newton's second law, 𝒘 = 𝒎𝒈, if we equate
this to equation 2 and divide by 𝒎, we have
𝑮𝒎𝑬
𝒈 = 𝟐 ……………………………………………3
𝑹𝑬
This is acceleration due to gravity at the earth's
surface.
The acceleration due to gravity g is independent
of the mass m of the body because m doesn't
appear in this equation.
283
Weight
At a point above the earth's surface a distance r
from the center of the earth (a distance 𝒓 − 𝑹𝑬
above the surface), the weight of a body is given
by:
𝑮𝒎𝑬 𝒎
𝒘 = 𝑭𝒈 = …………………………………..4
𝒓𝟐
The weight of a body decreases inversely with the

square of its distance from the earth's center.
284
Example
At what distance above the surface of the earth is
the acceleration due to the earth's gravity
𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 if the acceleration due to gravity at
the surface has magnitude 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 ?
Solution
𝒈′ = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑮𝒎𝑬
𝒈= 𝟐
𝑹𝑬
𝑮𝒎𝑬
𝒈′ =
𝒓𝟐
𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝒓=
𝒈′
𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 ×𝟓.𝟗𝟕×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒
𝒓=
𝟎.𝟗𝟖𝟎
𝟕
𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒎
𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎 285
Example
Titania, the largest moon of the planet Uranus,
𝟏 𝟏
has the radius of the earth and the mass of
𝟖 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎
the earth. (a) What is the acceleration due to
gravity at the surface of Titania? (b) What is the
average density of Trtania?
Solution
′ 𝑮𝑴𝑻
𝒈 = 𝟐
𝑹𝑻
𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 ×𝟑.𝟓𝟏𝟏𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏
𝒈′ = 𝟓 𝟐
𝟕.𝟗𝟕𝟓×𝟏𝟎
𝒈′ = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
286
Example
Titania, the largest moon of the planet Uranus,
𝟏 𝟏
has the radius of the earth and the mass of
𝟖 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎
the earth. (a) What is the acceleration due to
gravity at the surface of Titania? (b) What is the
average density of Trtania?
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒎
𝝆=
𝑽
𝟒
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝑹𝟑
𝟑
𝟒 𝟓 𝟑
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅 𝟕. 𝟗𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎
𝟑
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝟑
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟏𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝒈
𝟑.𝟓𝟏𝟏𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏
𝝆=
𝟐.𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓𝟐. 𝟗𝟏𝟓
𝝆 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑 287
Example
• Calculate the earth's gravity force on a

astronaut who is repairing the Hubble Space
Telescope 600 km above the earth's
surface, and then compare this value with his
weight at the earth surface. In view of your
result, explain why we say astronauts are
weightless when they orbit the earth in a
satellite such as a space shuttle. Is it because
the gravitational pull of the earth is negligibly
small?
288
Example
• Calculate the earth's gravity force on a astronaut who is repairing
the Hubble Space Telescope 600 km above the earth's surface, and
then compare this value with his weight at the earth surface. In
view of your result, explain why we say astronauts are weightless
when they orbit the earth in a satellite such as a space shuttle. Is it
because the gravitational pull of the earth is negligibly small?
Solution
Mass of Astronaut 75 kg
Distance of the astronaut from the center of the
earth = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 + 𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
= 𝟔. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎 𝑮𝒎𝑬 𝒎
𝒘 = 𝑭𝒈 =
𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝒎 𝒘 = 𝑭𝒈 =
𝒓 𝑹𝑬 𝟐
𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 ×𝟓.𝟗𝟕×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 ×𝟕𝟓 𝟔.𝟔𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 ×𝟓.𝟗𝟕×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟒 ×𝟕𝟓
𝒘= =
𝟔.𝟗𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟐 𝟔.𝟑𝟖×𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟐
= 𝟔𝟏𝟐. 𝟗𝟖 𝑵 = 𝟕𝟑𝟑. 𝟕 𝑵
= 𝟔𝟏𝟑 𝑵 = 𝟕𝟑𝟒 𝑵
𝟔𝟏𝟐.𝟗𝟖
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟖𝟒% 289
𝟕𝟑𝟑.𝟕
The Motion of Satellites
• Artificial satellites orbiting the earth are a familiar
part or modern technology as shown in the figure.
• But how do they stay in orbit, and what determines
the properties of their orbits?
• We can use Newton's laws and the law of
gravitation to provide the answers.
290
Satellites Circular Orbits
• A circular orbit, trajectory, is the
simplest case.
• It is also an important case, since many
artificial satellites have nearly circular
orbits and
• the orbits of the planets around the sun
are also fairly circular.
291
• The only force acting on a satellite in circular orbit
around the earth is the earth's gravitational
attraction,
• which is directed toward the center of the earth
and hence toward the center of the orbit as shown
in the figure.
292
• This means that the satellite is in uniform circular
motion and its speed is constant.
• The satellite is not falling toward the earth; rather.
It is constantly falling around the earth.
• In a circular orbit the speed is just right to keep the
distance from the satellite to the center of the earth
constant.
293
The radius of the orbit is r, measured from the
center of the earth; the acceleration of the
satellite has magnitude:
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅 = ………………………………………….4
𝒓
and is always directed toward the center of the
circle. By the law of gravitation, the net force
(gravitational force) on the satellite of mass m has
magnitude:
𝑮𝒎 𝒎
𝑭𝒈 = 𝟐𝑬
𝒓
and is in the same direction as the acceleration.
Newton's second law 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 then tells us that
𝑮𝒎𝑬 𝒎 𝒎𝒗𝟐
=
𝒓𝟐 𝒓
Since
𝑮𝒎
𝒈 = 𝟐𝑬
𝑹𝑬
Therefore
𝑮𝒎𝑬
𝒗= ……………………………………….....5
𝒓
294
This is the speed for circular orbit.
𝑮𝒎𝑬
𝒗= ……………………………………….....5
𝒓
• This relationship shows that we cannot choose
the orbit radius r and the speed v
independently; for a given radius r, the speed v
for a circular orbit is determined.
• The satellite's mass m doesn't appear in
Equation, which shows that the motion of a
satellite does not depend on its mass.
• If we could cut a satellite in half without
changing its speed, each half would continue on
with the original motion.
295
𝑮𝒎𝑬
𝒗= ……………………………………….....5
𝒓
• An astronaut on board a space shuttle is herself
a satellite of the earth, held by the earth's
gravitational attraction in the same orbit as the
shuttle.
• The astronaut has the same velocity and
acceleration as the shuttle, so nothing is pushing
her against the floor or walls of the shuttle. She
is in a state of apparent weightlessness, as in a
freely falling elevator.
• True weightlessness would occur only if the
astronaut were infinitely far from any other
masses, so that the gravitational force on her
would be zero. 296
• Apparent weightlessness is not just
a feature of circular orbits; it occurs
whenever gravity is the only force
acting on a spacecraft.
• Hence it occurs for orbits of any
shape, including open orbits
trajectories.
297
We can derive a relationship between the radius r
of a circular orbit and the period T, the time for
one revolution. The speed v is the distance 𝟐𝝅𝒓
traveled in one revolution, divided by the period.
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝒗= ………………………………………...…...6
𝑻
To obtain an expression for T, we make T the

subject of formula and substitute v from equation
5.
𝟑
𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝒓 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅𝒓 = ……………………7
𝒗 𝑮𝒎𝑬 𝑮𝒎𝑬
Equations 5 and 6 show that larger orbits

correspond to slower speeds and longer periods. 298
Wave Motion
• A wave is a disturbance in a
medium that transfer energy
from one point to the
other, without permanent
displacement of a medium. The
medium could be Material or
space. 299
Wave Motion
• Waves can be classified into three

types:
1. Mechanical waves
2. Electromagnetic waves
3. Matter waves.
300
Mechanical Waves
• Mechanical Waves act as the
propagation of a disturbance
through a material medium due
to the repeated periodic motion
of the particles of the medium
about their mean positions, the
disturbance being handed over
from one particle to the next.301
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• Electromagnetic Waves are the

disturbance, which does not
require any material medium for
its propagation and can travel
even through vacuum. They are
caused due to varying electric
and magnetic fields.
302
MATTER WAVES
• Matter Waves are the

waves produced in
electrons and particles.
303
MECHANICAL WAVE
• The existence of medium is essential for
propagation.
• This is a method of energy
propagation, in which disturbance
propagates with definite velocity
without changing its form.
• Energy and momentum propagates by
motion of particles of medium.
• The medium remains at previous
position, therefore mass transfer does
not take place here. 304
MECHANICAL WAVE
• Examples are: Vibration of string, the
surface wave produced on the surface of
solid and liquid, sound waves, tsunami
waves, earthquake P-waves, ultra
sounds, vibrations in gas, and oscillations
in spring, internal water waves.
305
MECHANICAL WAVE
• Mechanical waves are of two types:
• Transverse Wave
• Longitudinal Wave.
306
Transverse wave
• The medium has particles that vibrate in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of
the propagation or motion of wave.
• This Kind of wave is called Transverse Wave.
Direction of particle vibration
Direction of wave propagation
307
Transverse wave
• Transverse waves are also known as shear
waves or secondary waves. Examples are: Water
wave, vibration on a string, shear wave of an
earthquake.
308
Longitudinal Wave
• It is a type of wave in which direction of
motion is the same as the direction of
propagation of the wave.
• For a longitudinal wave at places of
compression the pressure and density tends
to be maximum,
• while at places where rarefaction takes
place, the pressure and density are
minimum.
309
Longitudinal Wave
• Longitudinal waves are known as
Compression waves. In gases only
longitudinal waves propagate.
• Examples of longitudinal wave are:
Sound waves, earthquake P -
waves, ultra sounds.

310
Wave Parameters
Amplitudes A:
Defined as the maximum displacement from a
mean or rest position.
Frequency f:
The amount of cycles in one second.
Angular frequency ω:
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 is the frequency of a repeating rotation
expressed in radians per second and multiplied
by 2𝝅.
Period T:
Is the time it takes to complete one cycle,
𝟏
𝑻 = = 𝟐𝝅/𝝎.
𝒇
Wavelength 𝝀:
Is the distance between successive crest or
trough, the inverse of wavelength 𝟏/𝝀, is referred
to as wavenumber, sometimes written as 𝟐𝝅/𝝀, it
is the number of waves in a given unit distance. 311
Wave Equation
The wave speed v: Is the distance travelled per
seconds, 𝒗 = 𝝀/𝑻 or because𝒇 = 𝟏/𝑻,
𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀 (𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆) ----------------------(1W)
During wave motion a particle in equilibrium

position x is displaced some distance y in the
direction perpendicular to the x-axis. y depends
on x and also on time t. Thus y is a function of
both x and t;
𝒚 = 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)------------------------------------------(2W)
312
Wave Equation
 We call y(x,t) the wave function that describes
the waves.
 If we know this function for a particular wave
motion,
 we can use it to find the displacement (from
equilibrium) of any particle at any time.
 Suppose that the displacement of a particle at
x = 0, where the waves originates, is given by
𝒚 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 ---------(3W)

313
Wave Equation
 That is the particle oscillate in simple harmonic
motion with amplitude A, frequency f, and
angular frequency 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇.
 At t = 0 the particle at x = 0 is at its maximum
positive displacement (y = A) and is
instantaneously at rest (because the value of y is a
maximum).
 The wave disturbance travel from x = 0 to some
point x to the right of the origin in an amount of
time given by x/v, where v is the wave speed.
 So the motion of point x at time t is the same as the
motion of point x = 0 at the earlier time t-x/v.
Hence we can find the displacement of point x at
time t with the expression for the wave function:
𝒙
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎 𝒕 −
𝒗
𝒙 𝒙
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎 −𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝅𝒇 − 𝒕 --(4W) 314
𝒗 𝒗
Wave Equation
The displacement y(x,t) is a function of both the
location x of the point and the time t. We can
rewrite the wave function given by equation 4W
in several different but useful form. We can
express it in terms of the period T = 1/f and the
wavelength 𝝀 = 𝒗/𝒇
𝒙 𝒕
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝅 − -----------------------(5W)
𝝀 𝑻
𝟐𝝅
For 𝒌 = , substituting 𝝀 = 𝟐𝝅/𝒌 and 𝒇 =
𝝀
𝝎/𝟐𝝅 into the frequency wavelength relationship
𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 gives 𝝎 = 𝒗𝒌 we can rewrite equation
5W as:
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕) ------------------------(6W) 315

Wave Equation
Others are:
𝟐𝝅 𝒙 𝒗𝒕
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝅 − =
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀
𝒗𝒕 𝟏
𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝅(𝒌𝒙 − ) , but at times 𝝀 =
𝝀 𝒌
316
Wave Equation
 For wave travelling in the negative x-
direction.
 In this case the displacement of point x at
time t is the same as the motion of point x = 0
at the later time (t + x/v), so in equation 4W we
replace t by (t + x/t).
 Therefore for a wave travelling in the
negative x-direction,
𝒙 𝒙 𝒕
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝅𝒇 + 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝝅 + =
𝒗 𝝀 𝑻
𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝒙 + 𝝎𝒕) ------------------------------------(7W)
The expression 𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝒙 ± 𝝎𝒕) shows a

wave travelling in the –x or +x direction, the
quantity 𝒌𝒙 ± 𝝎𝒕 is called the phase. 317
Particle velocity and acceleration in a sinusoidal wave
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕) ------------------------(6W)
From the wave function state in equation 6W, we

can get an expression for the transverse velocity
of any particle in a transverse wave. We refer to
this as vy to distinguish it from the wave
propagation speed v.
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)
Differentiating the above equation with respect to

t, we have
𝝏𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
𝒗𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = = 𝝎𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)----------(8W)
𝝏𝒕
318
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕) ------------------------(6W)
From the wave function state in equation 6W, we

can get an expression for the transverse velocity
of any particle in a transverse wave. We refer to
this as vy to distinguish it from the wave
propagation speed v.
Differentiating the above equation with respect to

t, we have
𝝏𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
𝒗𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = = 𝝎𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)----------(8W)
𝝏𝒕
319
𝝏𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
𝒗𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = = 𝝎𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕) --------(8W)
𝝏𝒕
If we find the second partial derivative of y(x,t)

with respect to t we obtain acceleration of any
particle:
𝝏𝟐 𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
𝒂𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝝏𝒕𝟐
= −𝝎𝟐 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)-(9W)
320
But the partial derivatives of y(x,t) with respect to

x, holding t constant will result to
𝝏𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
𝒗𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = = −𝒌𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)------(10W)
𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝟐 𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
𝒂𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝝏𝒙𝟐
= −𝒌𝟐 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 = −𝒌𝟐 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)(11W)
321
𝝏𝟐 𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
𝒂𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = = −𝝎𝟐 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)--(9W)
𝝏𝒕𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
𝒂𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = = −𝒌𝟐 𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 = −𝒌𝟐 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕) --(11W)
𝝏𝒙𝟐
Considering the fact that 𝝎 = 𝒗𝒌, and from

equation 9W and 11W, we have
𝝏𝟐 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)/𝝏𝒕𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝟐
= = 𝒗
𝝏𝟐 𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)/𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒌𝟐
322
Wave Equation
𝝏𝟐 𝒚(𝒙,𝒕) 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒚 (𝒙,𝒕)
= -------------------------------(12W)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐
Equation 12W is known as the wave equation, is

one of the most important equations in physics.
323
EXAMPLE
• The speed of sound in air at 20oC
is 344 m/s. (a) What is the
wavelength of a sound wave
with a frequency of 784 Hz? (b)
How many milliseconds does
each vibration take?
324
EXAMPLE
• The speed of sound in air at 20oC is 344 m/s. (a)
What is the wavelength of a sound wave with a
frequency of 784 Hz? (b) How many milliseconds
does each vibration take?
Solution
(a) 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀
𝒗 𝟑𝟒𝟒
𝝀= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 𝒎
𝒇 𝟕𝟖𝟒
𝟏
(b) 𝑻 =
𝒇
But 𝒇 = 𝟕𝟖𝟒𝑯𝒛 = 𝟕𝟖𝟒𝒔−𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟒 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟏
Therefore 𝑻 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝒔
𝟎.𝟕𝟖𝟒
325
Example
• Light visible to humans has
wavelengths between 400 nm
(violet) and 700 nm (red), and all
light travels through vacuum at
speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s. What
are the limits, of the frequency
and period of visible light?
326
Example
• Light visible to humans has wavelengths between
400 nm (violet) and 700 nm (red), and all light
travels through vacuum at speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s.
What are the limits, of the frequency and period of
visible light?
Solution
𝒗
𝒇=
𝝀
𝟑.𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
=
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝒎
𝟑.𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
=
𝟒.𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎
𝟏𝟒
= 𝟕. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑯𝒛
𝟏
𝑻 = = 𝟏. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝒔
𝒇 327
Example
• Light visible to humans has wavelengths between
400 nm (violet) and 700 nm (red), and all light
travels through vacuum at speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s.
What are the limits, of the frequency and period of
visible light?
𝒗
𝒇=
𝝀
𝟑.𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
=
𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝒎
𝟑.𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
=
𝟕.𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎
𝟏𝟒
= 𝟒. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑯𝒛
𝟏
𝑻 = = 𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒔
𝒇 328
329

PHYS 101 Lecture Note PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

PHYS 101 Lecture Note PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHYS 101 Lecture Note PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHY 101

The energy difference

Time should be able to answer

• There are seven fundamental quantities:

area square metre m2 m2

𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟖 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟎𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒎

Scientific notation on computers sometimes takes

Significant figures are critical

(1) ALL non-zero numbers

The typical rule taught is that you round up

• In mathematical operations involving

For addition and subtraction, look at the decimal

• When multiplying or dividing numbers, count

• Define Precision and Accuracy

• Precision is the level of exactness to which a

To use the alternative factor, to find the number

This shows that vector addition is not the same as

Equations 5 and 6 show how to find the components if we

• There are two vector products, scalar product

• One of the ways in which two vectors can be

a · b = |a| |b| cos θ

Another property of the scalar product is that it is

The students can prove this using similar procedure.

a · b = |a| |b| cos θ

• We now consider how to find the scalar

Suppose we want to find i · i, refer again to figure 10. The

Generally if a = a1i + a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j +

a · b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3................................13

In the context of vectors this simply means

a = −6i+3j−11k and b = 12i+4k

• Writing a and b as column vectors

The scalar product becomes

With this we can find the angle between the two

When we find a vector product the result is a

Which means magnitude of a multiplied by

That is, suppose we want to find b×a. Using the

rule to obtain the required direction we find 𝜃

• Vector product is distributive

When two 𝑛 vectors are parallel the angle between

Where i, j and k are unit vectors in the

• Where i, j and k are unit vectors in the directions of the

• Suppose we want to find j × i. Again, if we

a × b = (a2b3− a3b2)i + (a3b1− a1b3)j + (a1b2− a2b1)k

= −𝟐𝟑𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋 + 𝟏𝟒𝒌 This vector is ┴ a and b

 A plus sign for a displacement need not be

Where d = distance and t = time.

Velocity contains both the magnitude and

Where x = displacement and t = time.

 For human beings, an average walking speed

Where ∆𝒙 is the total displacement, and ∆𝒕 is the

Where v and t has their usual meaning.

Where ∆𝒗 is change in velocity, and ∆𝒕 is the time

Substituting equation 23 into 25 we have

Equation 27 can also be derive by finding the

𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ……………………….....28 148

We can derive one more useful relation by

For the horizontal and vertical components, the

• The law is often called the law of inertia.