NUCLEAR

REACTIONS
Outline of this lecture
• Nuclear reactions- an introduction
• Classification of nuclear reaction
• Various types of nuclear reactions
• Theory of nuclear reaction
• Compound nucleus
• Conserved quantities
• Energetics- Q-value of nuclear reactions
• Nuclear cross section
Energetics-Conservation of Energy in Nuclear
Reactions
• According to conservation of mass-energy law mass and
energy are equivalent and convertible one into the
other.
• some conversion between rest mass and energy occurs,
so that the products generally have smaller or greater
mass than the reactants
• In general, the total (relativistic) energy must be
conserved
• The “missing” rest mass must therefore reappear as
kinetic energy released in the reaction →The difference
is a measure of the nuclear binding energy which holds
the nucleus together
The energetics of nuclear reactions is determined
by the Q-value of that reaction.
• The Q-value of the reaction is defined as the difference between
the sum of the masses of the initial reactants and the sum of the
masses of the final products, in energy units (usually in MeV).
• Q is the energy of the reaction
• positive Q corresponds to energy release
• negative Q to energy absorption
• Q terms given per nucleus transformed
14
7 N + He→ O + H + Q
4
2
17
8
1
1
• Energetically many orders of magnitude greater than
chemical reactions
• Reactions so large that mass change is observable
• Q value can be experimentally measured to provide a
route to determine particle mass of reactants
• Mass and energy balance
• Know Q value, determine unknown mass
Energetics:
In general, any nuclear reaction can be represented as
𝒂+𝑿 →𝒀+𝒃+𝑸
Conservation of energy gives,
𝑀𝑎 𝑐 2 + 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑀𝑋 𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝑏 𝑐 2 + 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑀𝑌 𝑐 2 + 𝑇𝑌
T → represents the (lab.) kinetic energy of each particle
• Many reaction leave Y in excited states
• The Q-value of the reaction is defined as the difference
between the final and initial kinetic energies,
𝑄 = 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑇𝑌 − 𝑇𝑎
𝑄 = [𝑀𝑎 + 𝑀𝑋 − 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑌 ]𝑐 2
❖For reactions in which there is an increase in the kinetic
energy of the products Q is positive
→ The positive Q reactions are said to be exothermic (or
exoergic).
 → There is a net release of energy, since the kinetic energy of the
final state is greater than the kinetic energy of the initial state.
❖For reactions in which there is a decrease in the kinetic energy of the
products Q is negative
→The negative Q reactions are said to be endothermic (or endoergic)
and they require a net energy input.
Example: Exothermic Reaction: The DT fusion reaction
3
1𝑇 (d, n) 42𝐻𝑒
The atom masses of the reactants and products are:
m(3T) = 3.0160 amu
m(2D) = 2.0141 amu
m(1n) = 1.0087 amu
m(4He) = 4.0026 amu
• Using the mass-energy equivalence, we get the Q-value of this
reaction as:
Q = {(3.0160+2.0141) [amu] – (1.0087+4.0026) [amu]} x 931.481
[MeV/amu]
= 0.0188 x 931.481 = 17.5 MeV
Endothermic Reactions: Photoneutrons
In case of deuterium, neutrons can be produced by the
interaction of gamma rays (with a minimum energy of 2.22 MeV)
with deuterium:

The reaction Q-value is calculated below:

The atom masses of the reactant and products are:
m(2D) = 2.01363 amu
m(1n) = 1.00866 amu
m(1H) = 1.00728 amu
• Using the mass-energy equivalence, we get the Q-value of this
reaction as:
Q = {2.01363 [amu] – (1.00866+1.00728) [amu]} x 931.481
[MeV/amu]
= -0.00231 x 931.481 = -2.15 MeV
Problem: The masses of the different nuclei taking
part in 73𝐿𝑖(p, n) reaction in amu are as follows:
M( 73𝐿𝑖)= 7.01822 amu, M( 11𝐻)= 1.00814, M( 10𝑛) =
1.00898 and the mass of the product nucleus =
7.01915 amu.
1. What is the product nucleus?
2. Calculate the Q-value of this reaction in MeV.
3. Is it exoergic or endoergic?
Solution:
1. Beryllium ( 47𝐵𝑒)
2. Masses of the reactants = 7.01822 + 1.00814 =
8.02636 amu
Masses of the products = 7.01915 + 1.0898 = 8.02813
amu
Q-value of the reaction = 8.02636-8.02813 = -0.00117
amu = -0.00117 X 931 MeV = -1.089 MeV
3. The negative sign of the Q-value indicates that
the reaction is endoergic.
Determination of the Q-value: 𝑀𝑌 , 𝑣𝑌

Y
.
𝑀𝑋 ∅
.
a
𝑀𝑎 , 𝑣𝑎
.
X
-------------------
.
𝜃
b
𝑀𝑏 , 𝑣𝑏

As a result of linear momentum conservation, only 𝑇𝑏 and

the angle 𝜃 of b with respect to the direction of a need to be
determined. In the lab. System,
𝑀𝑎 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑀𝑌 𝑣𝑌 cos ∅ + 𝑀𝑏 𝑣𝑏 cos 𝜃
0 = 𝑀𝑌 𝑣𝑌 sin ∅ − 𝑀𝑏 𝑣𝑏 sin 𝜃
In order to eliminate ∅, substitute 𝑀𝑣 = (2𝑀𝑇)1/2 for each
particle and rewrite the equations →
 1
(𝑀𝑎 𝑇𝑎 )1/2 − 𝑀𝑏 𝑇𝑏 2 cos 𝜃 = (𝑀𝑌 𝑇𝑌 )1/2 cos ∅
(𝑀𝑏 𝑇𝑏 )1/2 sin 𝜃 = (𝑀𝑌 𝑇𝑌 )1/2 sin ∅
Squaring both equations and adding,
1
𝑀𝑎 𝑇𝑎 − 2 𝑀𝑎 𝑇𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑇𝑏 2 cos 𝜃+ 𝑀𝑏 𝑇𝑏 = 𝑀𝑌 𝑇𝑌
Eliminating 𝑇𝑌 with the help of 𝑄 = 𝑇𝑏 + 𝑇𝑌 − 𝑇𝑎 ,
𝑀𝑏 𝑀𝑎 2
𝑄 = 𝑇𝑏 (1 + ) − 𝑇𝑎 1 − − (𝑀𝑎 𝑇𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑇𝑏 )1/2 cos 𝜃
𝑀𝑌 𝑀𝑌 𝑀𝑌
This is called the Q equation.
Special cases of interest:
❖Those with 𝜃 = 900
❖Those with zero bombarding energy 𝑇𝑎
Possible only with neutrons → since the coulomb
barrier prevents nuclear reactions with zero energy
charged particle.
• Part of incident energy 𝑇𝑎 → used up as kinetic energy of the
center of mass → not available for nuclear reaction itself.
• The kinetic energy of the center of mass,
1
𝑇𝑐.𝑚. = 𝑀𝑎 + 𝑀𝑋 𝑣0 2
2
𝑣𝑎 𝑀𝑎
Where, 𝑣0 = → speed of the center of mass
𝑀𝑎 +𝑀𝑋
The kinetic energy 𝑇0 of the initial particles in the c.m. system
can be calculated in two separate ways,
𝑇0 = 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑐.𝑚.
1 1
Or, 𝑇0 = 𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 2 − 𝑀𝑋 𝑉𝑋 2
2 2
Where V represents the speed of each particle in the c.m.
system. From these equations, we get
𝑀𝑋
𝑇0 = 𝑇𝑎
𝑀𝑎 + 𝑀𝑋
The energy available for the nuclear reaction is,
𝑄 + 𝑇0
Which is equal to the kinetic energy of the reaction products in
the c.m. system
1 1
𝑄 + 𝑇0 = 𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑀𝑌 𝑉𝑌 2
2
2 2
A necessary and sufficient condition that the reaction proceed is
that the right-hand side of equation be positive,
𝑄 + 𝑇0 ≥ 0
−𝑄 𝑀𝑎 −𝑀𝑋
i.e. 𝑇𝑎 ≥
𝑀𝑋
• For endoergic reaction → Q<0 . So the equation gives, the
threshold energy of the reaction.
→ This minimum kinetic energy that the projectile must have
for the reaction to occur is called the threshold energy for the
reaction.
• The energy of the outgoing particles will always be positive,
whether it is exothermic or endothermic.
𝑇𝑩 + 𝑇𝑌 ≥ 0
 17
Sample problem: consider the reaction 147𝑁 𝛼, 𝑝 8𝑂. What is the
threshold energy for this reaction?
⇒ 𝑄 = 𝑚𝛼 + 𝑚𝑁 − 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑂 𝑐2
= 2.425 + 2.863 – 7.289 – (−0.809) = −1.19MeV
−1.19× 4+14
𝑇𝛼 ≥ = 1.53𝑀𝑒𝑉
14
• The threshold energy can also be derived by noting that at
threshold, particles b and Y both move with the speed 𝑣0 in the
lab. System
1
𝑇𝑏 + 𝑇𝑌 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ = 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑌 𝑣0 2
2
After a short calculation, using 𝑀𝑏 + 𝑀𝑌 ≈ 𝑀𝑎 + 𝑀𝑋 , equation
−𝑄 𝑀𝑎 −𝑀𝑋
𝑇𝑎 ≥ is obtained. (Try it yourself)
𝑀𝑋
• For elastic scattering, 𝑄 = 0
• For inelastic scattering, 𝑄 ≠ 0
Problem: Find the minimum kinetic energy in the laboratory
system needed by an alpha particle to cause the reaction
17
14
7𝑁 𝛼, 𝑝 8𝑂. The masses of 147𝑁, 42𝐻𝑒, 11𝐻, and 178𝑂 are
respectively 14.00307 u, 4.00260 u, 1.00783 u, and 16.99913 u.

⇒ 𝑄 = (14.00307𝑢 + 4.00260𝑢 − 1.00783𝑢 −

16.99913𝑢 )(931.5 MeV/u) = -1.20 MeV

The minimum kinetic energy 𝐾𝐸𝑐𝑚 in the center-of-mass system

must therefore be 1.20 MeV in order for the reaction to occur.

𝑀𝑎 + 𝑀𝑋
𝐾𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑏 = 𝐾𝐸𝑐𝑚
𝑀𝑋

4.00260 + 14.00307
= 1.20𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 1.54𝑀𝑒𝑉
14.00307
Nuclear Cross Section
• Probability of a nuclear process is generally expressed in
terms of a cross section  o
o
I ..... o
o o
o A

A .
.. ....
o
oo oo
o o
o
o

o o
o
σ o
N

• A thin slab of target material is struck by a monoenergetic

beam consisting of I particles per unit time distributed
uniformly over an area A
• If the nuclear reaction produces N light product particles per
unit time, we pretend that with each target nucleus, there is
associated an area σ (perpendicular to the incident beam) →
if the center of the bombarding particle strikes inside of σ →
there is a hit and a reaction is produced
• If the center of bombarding particle misses σ → no
reaction
• The quantity σ is called cross section → gives a measure
of the reaction probability per target nucleus.
• It is a fictitious area → need not be related to the cross
sectional area of the struck nucleus
• It is determined by measuring the number of particles
produced in a given nuclear reaction.
• Nuclear cross sections are found to have values ranging
from small fractions of a barn to hundreds of thousands
of barns→ these values often differ greatly from the
geometrical cross section
• A given nucleus can have widely different cross sections
for different nuclear reactions → the values represent
the relative probabilities of those reactions.
• We can describe the reaction probability by the
𝑁
ratio → depends on the target density and
𝐼
thickness ∆𝑥, whereas σ is associated with an
individual target nucleus
• If there are n target nuclei per unit volume in the
target material, 𝑛𝐴∆𝑥 →within reach of any
bombarding particle in the beam
• Each target nucleus has an associated cross
section
𝑁 𝑛𝐴∆𝑥𝜎
=
𝐼 𝐴
• The relation can be used two ways-
𝑁
❖Definition of cross section → 𝜎 = 𝐼 =
𝐴
𝑛𝐴∆𝑥
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒,
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, and per unit target nucleus.
→Unit of cross section is 𝑐𝑚2 or barn → 10-24 cm2=1 barn
→∆𝑥 is usually chosen, 𝑛𝐴∆𝑥 = 1. Flux particles,
𝐼 Number of bombarding particles
= 𝑛𝑎 𝑣𝑎
𝐴 per unit volume in the beam

Relative velocity between bombarding

particles and target nuclei
❖Second, from the relation we can compute the yield N of light
reaction products if σ is known
𝑁 = 𝑛𝜎∆𝑥𝐼
→ This assumes that the slab is so thin- no appreciable depletion
of the beam takes place
→If the slab is too thick for this assumption to be valid, since
every reaction depletes the beam by one particle,
𝑑𝑁 = −𝑑𝐼 = 𝑛𝜎𝑑𝑥𝐼
𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑡
Integrating, − ‫𝑡 𝐼׬‬ = 𝑛𝜎 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑛𝜎𝑡
0 𝐼
The quantity 𝑛𝜎 →linear attenuation coefficient of the beam
𝐼𝑡
The ration →transmission of the slab
𝐼0
• A given bombarding particle and target can react in a variety
of ways-producing variety of light reaction products
𝑁1 , 𝑁2 , 𝑁3 ⋯ per unit time. THE TOTAL CROSS-SECTION:
𝑁1 + 𝑁2 + 𝑁3 + ⋯
𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡 =
𝐼
𝑛𝐴∆𝑥
𝐴
• Partial cross section for the i-th process:
𝑁𝑖
𝜎𝑖 =
𝐼
𝑛𝐴∆𝑥
𝐴
• So that, 𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡 = σ𝑖 𝜎𝑖
• The rate at which the particular reaction products appear:
𝑁𝑖 𝜎𝑖
= 1 − 𝑒 −𝑛𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑡
𝐼𝑜 𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡
• In many nuclear reactions → light product particles are not
produced in an isotropic manner with respect to the incident
beam direction – we define DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTION
𝑑𝜎
❑
𝑑Ω
→ number of light reaction products dN emitted per unit
time in a small solid angle dΩ at some angle θ with respect to
the beam
• Differential N-Cross Section:
𝑑𝜎
1 𝑑𝑁 𝑛𝐴∆𝑥
= 𝑑Ω
𝐼 𝑑Ω 𝐴
So the differential cross section (per target nucleus) is
given by
𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝜎 𝑑Ω
=
𝑑Ω 𝐼
𝑛𝐴∆𝑥
𝐴
𝑑𝜎
In order to distinguish σ from ,a cross-section σ is
𝑑Ω
sometimes called → integrated cross section
All space
𝑑𝜎
Since, 𝜎 = ‫𝑑 ׬‬Ω 𝑑Ω

• NO COMPLETE SET OF CROSS SECTIONS EXISTS FOR ANY

ONE NUCLEUS
Coulomb cross section
CHARGED PARTICLE SCATTERING FROM NUCLEUS
• The elastic scattering of low energy charged particle is
determined purely by coulomb forces
• The integrated elastic scattering cross section → theoretically
infinite→𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡 has no meaning for charged particles
𝑉𝑓𝑖
𝑉𝑖𝑛
dy
.
𝑀0 , 𝑉𝑍𝑒

ψ 𝑀0 𝑉𝑓𝑖 න 𝑭𝑑𝑡
y r

.
Ze
Θ Θ

𝑀0 𝑉𝑖𝑛

The incident charged particle feels the long--‐range Coulomb force

of the positively charged nucleus and is deflected from its path.
A simple way that a particle whose impact parameter is y will be
deflected through c.m. angle Θ is given by →
1 𝐷
tan Θ =
2 2𝑦
D→ classical distance of closest approach for a head-on
collision.
𝑧𝑍𝑒 2 1
𝐷= →for a particle of c.m. kinetic energy 𝑇0 = 𝑀0 𝑉0 2
𝑇0 2
𝑉0 →relative velocity between a beam particle and the nucleus
when they are far separated.
Derivation: the overall momentum change of the particle is
caused by the impulse of the coulomb force. The impulse → law
of conservation of angular momentum about the c.m.
The coulomb force → central force →angular momentum about
the force center is conserved during the collision
𝑑ψ Angle between the bisector of the initial
𝑀0 𝑉0 𝑦 = 𝑀0 𝑟 2 and final directions of V and the radius
𝑑𝑡
vector r of the particle
• Taking all components along the bisector, the momentum
diagram gives
1 𝑧𝑍𝑒 2 𝑟 2 𝑑ψ
2𝑀0 𝑉0 sin Θ = න 𝐹 cos ψ𝑑𝑡 = න 2 cos ψ
2 𝑟 𝑉0 𝑦
𝑧𝑍𝑒 2
= න cos ψ𝑑ψ
𝑉0 𝑦
1
Dt → eliminated. Integrate the last expression form − 𝜋−Θ
2
1 1 𝐷
to + 𝜋 − Θ → tan Θ = is obtained.
2 2 2𝑦
To compute the cross section → we need to find the no of beam
particles per unit time scattered into a small solid angle dΩ
when a beam of I particles per unit time, spread over an area A,
strikes the target
All beam particles arriving with impact parameters between y
and y+dy will be scattered into the solid angle
𝑑Ω = 2𝜋 sin Θ 𝑑Θ
 𝑑𝑦
The fractional no of beam particles so scattered is 2𝜋𝑦 , yielding
𝐴
𝑑𝑁
for ,
𝑑Ω
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑁 𝐼2𝜋𝑦 𝐴
=
𝑑Ω 2𝜋 sin Θ 𝑑Θ
Substituting into the differential cross section relation noting that
only a single target nucleus is being considered 𝑛𝐴∆𝑥 = 1
𝑑𝜎 𝑦𝑑𝑦
=
𝑑Ω sin Θ 𝑑Θ
1 𝐷
From tan Θ = ,
2 2𝑦
𝐷 𝑑Θ
𝑑𝑦 =
1
4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 Θ
2
1
Writing sin Θ = 2 sin Θ cos 12 Θ, we obtain
2

𝑑𝜎 𝐷2
= 4 1 → RUTHERFORD OR COULOMB CROSS
𝑑Ω 16𝑠𝑖𝑛 Θ
2
SECTION.
• When the coulomb cross section relation is integrated over all
space →an infinite result is obtained →any impact parameter
however large, gives a small deflection to a charged particle
• No beam particle is unaffected by a target nucleus independently
of its impact parameter, and the integrated cross section is infinite
• At very small angles →Rutherford scattering always dominates the
differential elastic cross section of charged particles
• That’s why it is convenient to divide the measured cross section by
this cross section.
• Note the strong dependence of the Rutherford scattering cross
section upon scattering angle. Remember that Rutherford
scattering is not a nuclear reaction, as it does not involve the
nuclear force, only the Coulomb force between the charged
nuclei. Remember that Rutherford scattering will occur to some
extent in all studies Of charged particle induced reactions and will
furnish a “background“ of scattered Particles at forward angles.
• Important figures: Meyerhof →Figure 5-10, figure 5-11, 5-14.
 The combined general properties of cross sections for charged and
uncharged particles

General trends for neutron and charged particles

• Charged particle cross section minimal at low
energy
• Neutron capture cross section maximum at low
energy
Book Reference
• Elements of Nuclear Physics- Walter E. Meyerhof
• Concepts of Modern Physics- Arthur Beiser
• Nuclear Physics- Irving Kaplan