Special Senses

Anatomy & Physiology-II

Unit V

Muhammad Iqbal
Lecturer
KMU
 Objectives

At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:

• Define key terms
• Describe the structure and function of Ear
• Discuss the transmission of sound through the Ear.
• Describe the physiology of hearing and Balance.
 Classification of Receptors
• Chemoreceptors: respond to chemicals including odor,
taste, and body fluid composition.
• Thermorecptors: respond to heat and cold.
• Nociceptors: are pain receptors which respond to
tissue damage resulting from trauma, ischemia, etc.
• Mechanoreceptors: respond to physical deformation
caused by vibration, touch, pressure, stretch, or
tension.
• Photoreceptors: respond to light like eyes.
• Proprioceptors: sense the position and movements of
the body or its parts. They are found in muscles,
tendons, and joint capsules.
 Anatomy of the Ear
The ear has three regions:
• External ear
• Middle ear
• Inner ear
• The first two are concerned only with
transmitting the sound to the inner ear.
External Ear
• The external ear is a funnel shaped tube called
auditory canal that conducts air vibrations to the ear
drum. The outer fleshy part of ear is pinna or auricle.
• The external auditory canal contains a few hairs and
specialized sweat glands called ceruminous glands
that secrete earwax or cerumen. The hair and
cerumen help prevent the entry of dust and microbes
from entering the ear.
Middle ear
• It is located in the tympanic cavity of the temporal
bone.
• It begins with the ear drum/tympanic membrane.
• Posteriorly the tympanic cavity is continuous with
the mastoid air cells in the mastoid process. It is
filled with air that enters by way of the auditory
(eustachian) tube, a passageway to the
nasopharnynx.
• The tympanic cavity, 2 to 3 mm wide between outer
and inner ear, contains the three smallest bones and
two smallest muscles of the body.
• The bones, called the auditory ossicles, connect the
eardrum to the inner ear. Progressing inward, the
first bone is malleus, the second is incus, and the
third is stapes.
• The two muscles are stapedius, connecting stapes to
the posterior wall of the cavity, and tensor tympani
which connects malleus.
Internal Ear
• The internal ear is also called labyrinth because of its
series of canals.
• It consists of two main divisions.
 Bony labyrinth.
 Membranous labyrinth
• The bony labyrinth, a series of cavities and tubes in
the temporal bone, divides into three parts:
1) The semicircular canals,
2) the vestibule, both of them contain receptors for
equilibrium, and
3) the choclea (=snail), which contains receptors for
hearing.
• The bony labyrinth is lined with periosteum and
contains perilymph, a fluid between the bony
and the membranous labyrinth.
• The membranous labyrinth, a series of sacs
inside the bony labyrinth, is lined by epithelium
and contains endolymph.
• The vestibule is the oval central portion or
chamber of the bony labyrinth.
• Projecting superiorly and posteriorly from the
vestibule are the three bony semicircular canals.
 Inner Ear cont…

Cochlea (=snail):
• The cochlea has three fluid-filled chambers
separated by membranes. The superior one is called
scala (= stair) vestibuli, the middle one is scala
media or cochlear duct, and the inferior one is scala
tympani.
• Within the scala media is the organ of corti which is
a thick epithelium with associated structures. It
converts vibrations into nerve impulses.
• The epithelium in the corti is composed of hair cells
and supporting cells.
EAR
Organ of Corti
 Physiology of Hearing
• The following events are involved in the hearing.
• The auricle directs sound waves into the auditory canal.
• The sound waves strike the eardrum and get it vibrated.
• The central area of the eardrum is connected with the
malleus which starts to vibrate. The vibration is
transmitted to the incus and then to the stapes.
• As the stapes moves back and forth, it vibrates the
membrane of the oval window.
• The movement of the oval window vibrates the fluid in
the perilymph of the cochlea and finally the endolymph
inside the cochlear duct.
• The endolymph vibrates the hair cells in the organ of
corti which stimulates the vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve
to transmit nerve impulse to medulla.
 Physiology of Equilibrium
• The position of the semicircular canals is vital in
maintaining the equilibrium (both static and
dynamic) particularly of the head.
• In the ampulla, the dilated portion of each canal,
contains a group of hair cells.
• By moving head, the hair cells are bent by the
endolymph in the ampulla.
• Bending of the hair bundles produce receptor
potentials.
• The receptor potential leads to nerve impulses that
pass along the vestibular branch of the
vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve.
• Both cerebellum and cerebrum give feedback to all
skeletal muscles in return to maintain equilibrium.
Eye
 Objectives

At the end of this session, the students will be able to:

• Define Key Terms
• Describe eye in terms of:
— Structure related to vision
— Accessory structures
• Discuss image formation by describing refraction,
accommodation and constriction of the pupil.
• Explain the process of dark adaptation and light
adaptation.
 Accessory structures of the Eye
• Eyelids: The upper and lower eyelids or palpebrae
protect the eyes.
• Palpebral fissure is the space between the eyelids.
The angles between the eyelids are lateral and medial
commissures or outer and inner canthus.
Conjunctiva is a thin mucous membrane of stratified
columnar epithelium with goblet cells. The one that
lines the inner aspect of the palpebra is called
Palpebral conjunctiva, and the other which covers the
sclera but not the cornea is known as bulbar
conjunctiva.
• Eyelashes and eyebrows: both of them protect the
eyeballs from the foreign objects and sweat. Sebaceous
glands at the base of the hair follicles of the eyelashes,
called the sebaceous cilliary glands, release sebum.
Infection of these glands results in hordeolum (stye).
 Accessory eye structures cont….
• The lacrimal apparatus: is a group of structures that
produce and drains lacrimal fluid or tears. The lacrimal
glands secrete tear which drains into the excretory
lacrimal ducts that empty it onto the surface of the
conjunctiva of the upper lid. After passing the anterior
surface of the eyeball it enters into an opening called
lacrimal punctum, to lacrimal canals, to lacrimal sac,
to nasolacrimal duct. This duct carries the tear into
the nasal cavity just inferior to the inferior nasal
concha.
• The infection of the lacrimal sac is called
dacryocystitis (dacryo=lacrimal sac) which results in
the blockage of the nasolacrimal duct.
• Apart from some mucus, the tears contain lysozyme as
bactericidal.
Lacrimal Apparatus
 Extrinsic Eye Muscles
• Six extrinsic eye muscles move the eyes:
• Superior rectus
• Inferior rectus
• Lateral rectus
• Medial rectus
• Superior oblique
• Inferior oblique.
• They control the movement of each eye and
hold the eyes in the orbits.
• They are supplied by cranial nerves III, IV, VI.
Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Fig 16.6
 Anatomy of the Eyeball

The adult eyeball measures about 2.5 cm (1 in.) in

diameter.
The eyeball consists of three layers:
1. Tunica fibrosa or Fibrous tunic (Sclera)
2. Tunica vasculosa or Vascular tunic (Choroid)
3. Tunica interna (Retina)
• Tunica Fibrosa
– It is tough outermost eyeball layer, divided into two
regions: the sclera and cornea
– Sclera—(scler=hard)—white of the eye; Covers
most of the eye surface, composed of collagen &
elastic fibers; optic nerve exits from sclera at the
back of eye.
– Cornea – is the anterior transparent region of
modified sclera that admits light into the eye.
– At the junction of sclera and cornea is an opening
called scleral venous sinus or canal of schlemm. A
fluid called aqueous humor drains into this sinus.
• Tunica Vasculosa
also called uvea (=grape) is the middle layer, consists of the
choroid, ciliary body, & iris
Choroid—thin, dark vascular layer behind the retina.
Choroid also contains melanocytes that produce the
pigment melanin which absorbs stray light to prevent
reflection and scattering of light within the eyeball.
Albinos lack melanin and thus need to wear
sunglasses to minimize the perception of bright glare.
Ciliary body—A thick extension of the choroid that forms a
muscular ring around the lens.
It supports the iris and lens.
The ciliary body consists of ciliary muscle and ciliary
processes.
The ciliary muscle is a circular band of smooth muscle.
Its contraction and relaxation changes the tightness
of the suspensory ligaments (zonular fibers), which
alter the shape of the lens, adapting it for near and
far vision.
It is controlled by CN III and parasympathetic nerves
• The ciliary processes are the extensions of the
ciliary body.
• Epithelial cells together with blood capillaries
in the ciliary processes secrete aqueous humor.
• Extending from the ciliary process are
suspensory ligaments attached to the lens.
iris (=rainbow), the colored portion of the eyeball,
located between the cornea and lens and is
attached at its outer margin to the ciliary
processes.
It contains melanocytes and circular and radial
smooth muscle fibers.
The amount of melanin in the iris determines the
eye color.
The eyes appear brown to black when melanin
concentration is high, green when melanin
concentration is moderate, and blue when
melanin concentration is low.
Retina (Tunica Interna)
• The third and inner layer of the eyeball is retina, which lines
the posterior three-quarters of the eyeball.
• It is the beginning of the visual pathway.
• The surface of the retina is the only place in the body
where blood vessels and optic nerve can de directly seen
through the pupil with the help of opthalmoscope.
• The optic nerve leaves the eyeball at the site known as the
optic disc.
• The retina consists of a pigmented layer and a neural layer.
• The pigmented layer is a sheet of melanin-containing
epithelial cells located between the choroid and the neural
part of the retina.
• The Optical Components
• The optical components of the eye are transparent
elements that admit light rays, refract (bend) them,
and focus images on the retina. They include the
cornea, aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous body.
• The aqueous humor is a serous fluid secreted by the
ciliary body into the posterior chamber, a space
between the lens and iris. It flows through the pupil
into the anterior chamber between the iris and
cornea. From here it is reabsorbed by a ring like
blood vessel called the scleral venous sinus or canal
of schlemm.
• The lens is suspended behind the pupil by a ring
of fibers called the suspensory ligament.
• It is about 9 mm in diameter and 3.6 mm thick at
the middle.
• The vitreous body (vitre=glassy) or vitreous
humor is a transparent jelly that fills the large
space behind the lens.
The neural components
• The neural components are the retina and optic
nerve.
• Retina is a thin transparent membrane attached at
only two points—the optic disc, where the optic
nerve leaves the rear (fundus) of the eye, and the ora
serrata (the junction b/w retina and cilliary body).
• The retina is pressed smoothly against the rear of the
eyeball by the pressure of the vitreous body. It can
become detached (buckle away) from the wall of the
eyeball in some circumstances. It causes blurred
vision. It leads to blindness if the retina remains
detached for longer time from the choroid, on which
it depends for oxygen, nutrition, and waste removal.
• Directly posterior to the center of the lens, on the
visual axis of the eye, is a patch of cells called the
macula lutea (macula=spot; lutea=yellow) about 3
mm in diameter. In the center of the macula is a tiny
pit (small depression) called fovea centralis, which
contains only cones. The fovea centralis is the area
of highest visual acuity or resolution (sharpness of
vision).
• About 3 mm medial to the macula lutea is the optic
disc. Nerve fibers from all regions of the retina
converge on this point and exit the eye to form the
optic nerve.
• The optic disc contains no receptor cells, so it
produces a blind spot in the visual field of each eye.
 Photoreceptor Cells
• Photoreceptor cells are the cells that absorb light
and generate a chemical or electrical signal. There
are three kinds of photoreceptors in the retina:
rods, cones, and ganglion cells. These are special
nerve cells.
• Rods contain a protein pigment called rhodopsin.
• Rod cells are responsible for night (scotopic) vision
(scot=dark; op=vision).
• They can’t distinguish colors from each other
because they have only one kind of rhodopsin
which absorbs the light with wave length of 500 nm
• Cone cells are responsible for day (photopic) vision
as well as color vision.
• The cone cells have visual pigment as photopsin.
• There are three kinds of cones that absorb different
kind of wave length lights.
• Ganglion cells are the largest neurons of the retina.
Their axons form the optic nerve. Some of the
ganglion cells absorb light and transmit signals to
brain stem nuclei that control pupillary diameter.
 Rod and Cone cell

Rod cell
 Image Formation

• The eye is just like a camera.

• Its optical elements focus an image of an object on
a light-sensitive ‘film’ called retina.
• Image formation involves three processes:
• Refraction—bending of light by the lens and
cornea.
• Accommodation—change in shape of the lens.
• Constriction—narrowing of the pupil.
Refraction of Light Rays
• By entering the light rays into the eyes, they are
refracted by cornea (75%) and lens (25%) of the
eyes so that the light rays may come into exact
focus on the retina.
• Images focused on the retina are real and
inverted.
Accommodation
• Accommodation of the eye refers to the act of
physiologically adjusting lens to alter (increase) its
refractive power for the closer objects.
• The lenses of the eyes are convex and so converge
the light rays.
• When the eye is focusing on a close object, the lens
becomes more curved, causing greater refraction of
the light rays. This increase in the curvature of the
lens for near vision is called accommodation.
• The near point of vision is the minimum distance
from the eye that an object can be clearly focused
with maximum accommodation. This distance is
about 10 cm (4 in.) in a young adult.
Accommodation
 Constriction of the Pupil
• The diameter of the hole (pupil) is narrowed by the
contraction the circular muscles of the iris.
• This autonomic reflex occurs simultaneously with
accommodation and prevents light rays from
entering the eye through the periphery of the lens.
• Light entering the periphery cannot be refracted
and focused on the retina and would result in
blurred vision.
• The pupil also constricts in bright light.
 Pupillary Diameter control
The diameter of the pupil is controlled by two sets
of contractile elements in the iris:
1. The pupillary constrictor consists of smooth
muscle cells that encircle the pupil. When
stimulated by the parasympathetic nervous
system, it narrows the pupil and admits less light
to the eyes.
2. The pupillary dilator consists of contractile
epithelial cells called myoepithelial cells. When
stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system,
these cells contract, widen the pupil, and admit
more light to the eyes.
 Light and Dark Adaptation
• Light adaptation occurs when you go from the
dark into bright light. Going from dark into bright
light it is difficult to open eyes properly because of
a harsh glare which over stimulates the retinas.
The pupils quickly constrict to reduce the intensity
of stimulation. The rods bleach quickly in bright
light, and cones take over. It takes 5 to 10 minutes
to restore the normal vision in the light.
• Dark adaptation occurs when you go from the
bright light into dark. The rod pigment is
bleached in the light. In the absence of light,
rhodopsin regenerates within 20 minutes.
• Dilation of the pupils also helps by admitting
more light to the eyes.
 Refraction abnormalities
• For focusing clear image on the retina, the
normal eye, known as emmetropic eye, can
sufficiently refract light rays from an object 6 m
(20 ft) away.
• Improper Refraction results in:
• Myopia or nearsightedness, when the lens
becomes thicker and the image converges in
front of the retina which allows the myopic
individuals to see closer objects clearly, but not
distant objects.
 Refraction abnormalities cont….

• Hyperopia or hypermetropia or farsightedness in

which the lens becomes thinner and the image
converges behind the retina. Hypertropic
individuals can see distant object clearly, but not
closer ones.
• Presbyopia (presby =old + opia = vision) is
another age related vision problem in which the
lens loses its elasticity and ability to focus on the
nearby objects. Therefore the older people
cannot read the nearby print.
• Amblyopia, also known as lazy eye, is a vision
development disorder in which an eye fails to
achieve normal visual acuity, even with
prescription eyeglasses or contact lenses.
Amblyopia begins during infancy and early
childhood. In most cases, only one eye is
affected.
• Esotropia is a form of strabismus in which one
or both eyes turns inward. The condition can
be constantly present, or occur intermittently,
and can give the affected individual a "cross-
eyed" appearance. It is the opposite of
Exotropia.
• Glaucoma
• Cateracts
• Myosis
• Mydriasis