Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space

Author(s): Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o

Source: TDR (1988-), Vol. 41, No. 3 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 11-30
Published by: MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1146606
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 ofPower
Enactments
The PoliticsofPerformance
Space

Ngigi waThiong'o

Ed. note:In May 1996, wa Thiong'odelivered

theClarendon in En-
Lectures
Ngiggi
glishat OxfordUniversity,
Britain.Thefollowing
is thesecondofthefourlectures,
whichwillbepublishedby theOxfordUniversityPressin Fall 1997underthetitle:
Penpoints,Gunpointsand Dreams: Towards a CriticalTheoryof the Artsand
the Statein Africa.

The strugglebetweenthe artsand the statecan bestbe seen in performance

in generaland in the battleover performance space in particular.Performance
is representation of being-the coming to be and the ceasingto be of pro-
cessesin nature,humansociety,and thought.If beforethe emergenceof the
statethe domainof cultureembodiedthe desirableand the undesirablein the
realm of values, thiswas expressedthroughperformance.The community
learnedand passeditsmoralcodes and aestheticjudgmentsthroughnarratives,
dances,theatre,rituals,music,games,and sports.With the emergenceof the
state,the artistand the statebecome not only rivalsin articulating the laws,
moralor formal,thatregulatelifein society,but also rivalsin determining the
mannerand circumstances of theirdelivery.
This is bestexpressedin Plato's dialogue: TheLaws. The Atheniandescribes
how they,as the representatives of the state,mustrespondshould the tragic
poets come to theircityand ask forpermissionto perform:

We will sayto them,we also accordingto our abilityare tragicpoets,

and our tragedyis thebestand noblest;forour whole stateis an imita-
tion of thebestand noblestlife;whichwe affirm to be indeedthe very
truthof tragedy.You are poetsand we are poets,both makersof the
same strain,rivalsand antagonists
in thenoblestof dramas,whichtrue
law can alone perfect,as our hope is. Do not thensupposethatwe shall
all in a momentallow you to erectyourstagein the agora,or introduce
thefairvoices of youractors,speakingabove our own, and permityou
to harangueour women and children,and the commonpeople, about
our own institutions,in languageotherthanour own, and veryoftenthe
oppositeof our own. (1976:VII, 52)
TheDramaReview41, 3 (T155),Fall 1997. Copyright1997
?
Ngiig7wa Thiong'o

II

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12 Ngfigwa Thiong'o
The warbetweenartandthestateis reallya struggle betweenthepowerof
performance in theartsandtheperformance ofpowerbythestate-inshort,
enactments of power.The conflictin theenactments of poweris sharper
wherethestateis externally imposed,in a situation wherethereis a con-
querorandtheconquered as in colonialism.
forinstance,
JomoKenyattadramatizes an exampleof sucha confrontation in Facing
MountKenya([1938]1962).The storygoesthattherewas a briefperiodof
kingship in theAglkfiyi society.Thiswasreplacedbya newmoreegalitarian
system rootedin thefamily as thebasicunit.The replacement was effected
through a revolution, ituika,whichliterally meansa break,a complete break
withwhathasgonebefore.The new revolutionary councils,all thewayto
thehighest coordinating bodyof elders,derivedtheirauthority frombelow.
The comingto be of thisnewsystem was celebrated through an itulkacer-
emonyevery25 yearsor so. Thisalsomarked thepassing ofpowerfromone
generation to another. The festival
was spread overa periodof sixmonths,
anditinvolvedtheentire landinhabited the
by Agikfyfi. The British colonial
statewas established about1895.ThirtyyearslatertheAglkfiyfi community
wasinvolvedin a flurry to celebrate
ofactivities theitulkaceremony, butthis
was stoppedby thecolonialstate.The performance ofitulkawas takenas a
challengeto colonialstatepower.The annualBritishmilitary paradeat the
openingof thenew sessionsof thelegislative assembly replaceditulka-type
performances.
The mainingredients ofperformance areplace,content, audience,time,
andthegoal-the end,so to speak-whichcouldbe instruction or pleasure,
ora combination ofboth-in short, somesortofreformative effecton theau-
dience.The statehasitsareasofperformance; so hastheartist.Whilethestate
performs power,thepoweroftheartist is solelyin theperformance. Boththe
stateand theartist may have a differentconception of time,place,content,
goals,either of their
own performance or of the other,but they havetheau-
dienceas theircommontarget. Againthestruggle maytaketheformofthe
state'sintervention in thecontentof theartist's work-what goes by the
nameofcensorship-but themainarenaofstruggle is theperformance space:
itsdefinition,delimitation,andregulation.

II
I cantakeanyemptyspaceandcallit a barestage,saysPeterBrookin the
openingline of hisbook TheEmptySpace(1968).A manwalksacrossthe
emptyspacewhilesomeoneelseis watching him;thisis all thatis neededfor
an act of theatre.I wantto pose thequestion:Is a performance siteever
empty,as in thetitleofBrook'sbook?Therearemanywaysoflookingat
performance space.One is as a self-contained fieldofinternal thein-
relations:
terplayof actors
and and
props light and shadows-mise-en-scene-and be-
tweenthemise-en-scene as a wholeandtheaudience.The outerboundaries
ofthisspacearedefined bya wall,material or immaterial.The material could
be stoneor wood or natural hedges.The immaterial is theoutlineformed by
theaudiencein whatis otherwise an openspace.The director utilizestheen-
tireplaying to maximum
field,ithaakiro, effecton boththeactorsandtheau-
dience.He will look forvariouslevels,heights,centers,and directions of
forcein theactingarea.But theselevelsandcenters acquiretheirrealpower
onlyin relationship to theaudience.The entirespacebecomesa magnetic
fieldof tensionsand conflicts. It is eventually transformed intoa sphereof
powerrevolving arounditsown axislikea planetin outerspace.Thisis the
realmagicandpowerofperformance. It incorporates thearchitecturalspace

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 Enactments
ofPower 13
ofmaterial or immaterial wallsintoitselfandbecomesa magicspheremade
stillbyitsown motion-butit is potentially explosive, or rather, it is poised
to explode.Thatis whythestate,a repressive machine, oftentargets itsner-
vouseyeson thisaspectoftheperformance space.Forevenifit doesnotex-
plode,mightit not,by itssheerenergy, through itslaserbeamsofpower,
igniteotherfields?Forthemagicsphereis notsuspended in totalisolation.
Thereareothersocialcentersand fieldsof humanactions:farms, factories,
residences, schools.Lifegoes on there-births, marriages, deaths,and their
representations in celebratory ofwelcomeorin dirgesoffarewell.
festivals
Whichbringsus to anotherway,thesecondway,oflookingat perfor-
mancespace.The performance spaceis also constituted bythetotality ofits
external relations to theseothercenters andfields.Wherearetheyall located
relativeto each other?Who accessesthesecentersand how frequently? It
matters, in otherwords,whether, say,theartist'sspaceis locatedin a work-
ing-classdistrict,in a bourgeoisresidentialneighborhood, in theghettos, orin
theglossysectionsof our cities.The realpoliticsof theperformance space
maywell lie in thefieldof itsexternalrelations;in itsactualor potential
conflictualengagement withall theothershrines ofpower,andin particular,
withtheforcesthatholdthekeysto thoseshrines. The shrines couldbe the
synagogue, thechurch, themosque,thetemple, parliament, law courts, tele-
visionandradiostations, theelectronic andprintmedia,theclassroom-play-
ing fieldsof all sortsand guises.In otherwords,it is oftennotso mucha
questionofwhathappensor couldhappenon thestageat anyone timebut
ratherthecontrol ofcontinuous accessandcontact.
Thesequestions ofaccessandcontact becomeverypertinent in a colonialand
postcolonial statewherethedominant socialstratum is often unsure ofitshege-
moniccontrol andparticularly wherethepopulation is dividednotonlyalong
thetraditional linesoftheurbanandtheruralbutalsoon racialandethnicfis-
sures.Andwithinthoserunclassdivisions. The gapbetweenthepoorandthe
richis so glaring,so immediate, andso visiblethatthestatemaynotwantper-
formance spacesto existbecausetheykeeprubbing at thisfrictional area.In
sucha situation, thequestionofwhether thespaceis insidea building or not
mayacquiresymbolic valueandbecomethesiteofintense powerstruggles.

The statehasitsareasofperformance;
so hastheartist. While
thestateperforms power,the power of the artist
is solelyin
theperformance.

And thirdly,the performance space, in its entiretyof internaland external

factors,maybe seen in relationship to time;in terms,thatis, of whathas gone
before-history-and what could follow-the future.What memoriesdoes
thespace carry,and whatlongingsmightit generate?
It is clear fromthisthatthe performancespace is never empty.Bare, yes,
open, yes,but neverempty.It is alwaysthesiteof physical,social,and psychic
forcesin society.It is the instinctive
awarenessof thisthatpromptsthe Athe-
nian in Plato's Laws to want neverto permitthe seriousperforming artistto
haranguewomen, children,common people about "our institutions."And
hence thebattlesoverperformance space.
Drawing concretelyon my own experienceswith theatrein Kenya and on
specificproductions,I want to look at the performancespace of the artist.
Then I shallbrieflylook at the state'sown areasof performance, and finallyat

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 wa Thiong'o
14 Ngigi7
theirinteractionsand consequences on thebodyand mindof theartist and
thepopulationas a whole.In theprocesswe shallsee how thesespacesare
andthattherefore
tiedto time,thatis,history, theyaresitesofphysical,
social,
andpsychicforcesin a postcolonialsociety.We shallsee thatthepoliticsof
theperformance oftheentire
spaceis a complexinterplay fieldofinternal
and
external oftheseforces
relations in thecontextoftimeandhistory.

III
First,thespaceoftheartist. Thatthisspace,howeverbareit looks,is not
emptycamehometo me whenin 1976I becameinvolvedin theproduction
oftheplayTheTrialofDedanKimathi, whosenational andworldpremier was
in Nairobi,Kenya,on 20 October1976.The playscript was a jointeffort by
MicereMago andmyself. We werethencolleagues in theDepartment ofLit-
erature at theUniversity ofNairobi.Although sheandI hadfora longtime
discussed thepossibilityofcollaborating on a play,it is ironicthatwhatactu-
allytriggered intensifiedeffortson ourpartwas a responseto a callby the
state.The venuefortheSecondWorldBlackandAfrican FestivalofArtsand
Cultureoriginally scheduledforZairehadbeenchangedto Lagos,Nigeria,
forFebruary 1977.Kenyawouldbe presented in all theevents, fromdisplays
ofmaterial culture to performing arts,including theatre.
WiththeKenyanpresence atLagosin sight, theMinistry ofSocialServices,
underwhichculture andcultural wereadministered,
institutions hadsetup a
nationalcommittee to overseeall thepreparations. Thisin turnsetup sub-
committees forthevariousevents.The DramaSubcommittee was giventhe
taskofcomingup withtwoplays.I wasinitially thechairman ofthissubcom-
mittee,butlater,whentheplayon whichI had collaborated withMicere
MOfgo wassubmitted forconsideration, I gaveup thechair,andSethAdagala
tookup theposition. SethAdagalathenworkedwiththeMinistry, havingre-
signeda fewyearsbeforeas thefirst andatthattimetheonlyAfrican director
oftheKenyaNationalTheatre.The DramaSubcommittee eventuallyselected
twoplays:TheTrialofDedanKmathibyNg1giwa Thiong'oandMicereMOgo;
andBetrayal intheCitybyFrancis Imbuga.The twoplayswereto be runun-
derthenameKenyaFESTAC 77 DramaGroup.TirusGathwewas to direct
Betrayal in theCity,and SethAdagala,TheTrialofDedanKmathi.But Seth
Adagala,as theChairman oftheMinistry subcommittee, wasto be in charge
overall.
InJune1976,FESTAC 77 DramaGroupcameup witha brilliant butreally
commonsense proposal:sincethe two plays were supposedly to
going represent
Kenyain Lagos,it wasimportant thattheybe performed first
foraudiences in
Kenya,as a matter notofprivilege butofrightandnecessity. Therewas an
addedreason:Kenyawasgoingto hosta UNESCO general conference;there
wouldbe manydelegates fromallovertheworld,anditwoulddo Kenya'sim-
age a worldofgood werethedelegates to see effective African theatre.The
question now wassimply to determine thebest"symbolic" time and venue.
The monthofOctoberwasfinally selectedfortworeasons: theUNESCO
meeting wasto be heldthatmonth;butOctoberwasalsothemonthinwhich
Kenyanscelebrated theheroesofanticolonial struggles. We werealsounani-
mouson thequestionofthevenue:theKenyaNationalTheatre.After all,it
was calledNational,and it was undertheMinistry of Social Services;and
surely,apartfromanything else,itwouldbe thefocalpointofinterest forthe
UNESCO delegates. Guardians ofinternational educationand culture, they
wouldsurelybe interested in whattheKenyaNationalTheatrewouldoffer
during theirstayin thecountry. Thinking thateverybody wouldapplaudthis,

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 ofPower 15
Enactments

theleadership of FESTAC 77 DramaGrouppresented theproposals to the

management of the National Theatre. We were sure thatthere would be no
problems: and
logic good sensepointed to theselected timeand place.
The firstwake-upcalltookus allbysurprise. The management, whichwas
almostentirely composedofEuropeansandwhosemembers werelinkedto
themajorEuropeanamateur andsemiprofessional groups,toldus quiteliterally
thattherewasno roomat theinn!But thiswasin 1976,13 yearsafter formal
independence under the of
presidency JomoKenyatta! We drew theiratten-
tionto thesymbolism oftheevent:thedignity ofKenyabeforetheworld;the
factthatKenyansneededto see theplaybeforeit wentto Lagos;andsurely,
apartfromanything else,Kenyans neededto remind themselves thattheirin-
dependence was won through sweat and blood and the deaths of many!No
roomat theinn.The management wasalready committed to Bossman's Jeune
BalletdeFrance andtheCityPlayers' A FunnyThing Happened ontheWaytothe
Forum. Atthiscrucialpointin timeandin a national venue,Kenyawouldbe
seenthrough theeyesofa French balletanda Romanforum.
In thecourseofthestruggle overdatesandvenuestherenow arosebasic
questions ofprinciple. Shouldn'ttheKenyaNationalTheatreandtheKenya
CulturalCentrebe catering primarily to nationalinterests? In planningfor
culturalactivitiesfortheyear,didthemanagement nottakeintoaccountthe
Kenyanimagein andoutsidethecountry? Whatshowsshouldbe performed
on nationalholidays?And forthe eyesof theworldat the forthcoming
UNESCO Conference? So manyquestions, so fewanswers-except that,for
us,therewassimply no roomattheinn!
The management arguedthatthedateshadbeenbookedmonths beforeand
thatAfrican playsneverattracted theatre-lovers anyway. Statistics wereeven
quotedas evidence.They had neverstoppedto askwhy-assumingtheir
allegationsweretrue-therehadalwaysbeena low turnout ofAfricans at the
NationalTheatre.Werenotthereasonsveryobvious,givenwhattheypro-
posedto offeras Kenyanculturebeforetheeyesof theworldin October?
Couldit notbe thatovertheyearstheNationalTheatrehadcreated foritself
theimageofa service stationforWestern showssuchas Godspell, TheBoyfriend,
TheKingandI, andJesusChrist Superstar?Or, moretruthfully, a servicecenter
forthekindoftheatre described as deadlyinPeterBrook'sTheEmpty Space?
Actually,behindtheconflicting positions andarguments thereweredeeper
questions oftheperformance ofhistory. The story ofthespacedefined as "the
nationaltheatre" wasintertwined withthatofthesubjectmatter of TheTrial
ofDedanKimathi and thestoryof theentirecountry. Threestoriesbecame
lockedtogether in theunfolding dramaoftimesandvenues!
The NationalTheatrecomplexwas actuallyconstructed by thecolonial
state.Accordingto RichardFrost,former headof theEmpireInformation
ServicesandtheBritish Council'sfirstrepresentative in EastAfrica, theThe-
atrehadbeenputup underdirectinstructions fromthecolonialoffice to meet
theurgent needsforfostering goodracerelations in thecolonythrough cul-
turalpractices.The NationalTheatreandtheCulturalCentrecomplexwere
to be a placewhere"peopleofculture andposition"couldmeet.In thebook
RaceAgainst Time,Frostelaborates on this:

Atthattimeno Africanswereabletoliveanywhere nearthesitewhich

wasselected,
butthesitewasselected becauseitwashopedthatin due
timetheresidential wouldbe brought
apartheid to an endandMuthaiga,
Westlands,theHillandotherareas,whichwerethenopenonlyforEu-
ropeans,wouldbecomedistricts
whereleadingpeopleofallraceswould
live.Asitwasnotto be a "working-class" itwasbuiltin the
theatre,
middleofthe"well-to-do" Nairobi.(1975:73)

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16 wa Thiong'o
Ngig?
The NationalTheatrespace was also goingto be the hostsiteof the Kenya
Schools Drama Festival.The BritishCouncil, which had hatchedthe scheme
in 1951,had hoped to "win the goodwillof Europeansand to help themkeep
at a high standardthe culturalheritageof Britain"(Frost1975:196). Theatre
was theperfectinstrument:

Drama was a culturalactivityenjoyedby both actorsand audiencesand it

was also an activityin whichAfricansand Asiansengaged.It was hoped
thatthroughthe theatrethe goodwillof the Europeancommunitycould
be gained,and,lateron, membersof the different racescould be brought
togetherby participation in a common pursuitwhich theyall enjoyed.
(1975:196)

So, rightfromthe start,the place had been conceivedof as an emptyspace in

which a predominantly Britishtheatrewas going to help in the construction
of a new chapterof good race relationsin the country.

The strugglemaytaketheformof thestate'sintervention in

the contentof the artist'swork-what goes by the name of
censorship-butthemainarenaofstruggle is theperformance
space:itsdefinition, andregulation.
delimitation,

Butthesitewasnota spaceemptyofhistory in which,now,a narrative of

newracerelations couldbe written through themediating eyesofthecolonial
officein alliancewiththecolonizedpeople"ofgoodwill."Nextto theNa-
tionalTheatresitewas,andstillis,theNorfolk Hotel,builtbyLordDelamere,
one oftheearlyBritish attheturnofthecentury.
settlers, Itwasin factknown
morepopularly amongthesettlers as theHouse of Lordsbecausethatwas
wherethecolonialwhitenobility, or pretenders usedto meetfor
to nobility,
drinks andgossipandpolitics. The Norfolk Hoteloverlooks thesitewherein
1922 African workersweremassacred bytheBritish police.The workers were
marching to theCentralPoliceStationto demandthereleaseoftheirleader,
HarryThuku,who hadbeenarrested, andwhowaslaterimprisoned foreight
yearsbecauseof hisinvolvement in thenascentworkers'movement. Their
marchwasinterrupted bygunfire from the police.The policewere joinedin
themassacre bythewhiteLordson theterraces oftheNorfolk Hotel.The fig-
uresofthedeadarein dispute. The British admitto 22 only;buttherewereat
least15odead.The bodiesofthedeadandthewoundedlaysprawled on the
ground of thesitewhich years laterwas to house the National Theatre com-
plexandtheUniversity ofNairobi.HarryThukubecamea nationalist hero,
thesubjectof manysongsanddances.But opposedto HarryThukuandhis
workers' werethecolonial-appointed
politics chiefs whohadfounded thefirst
everloyalistmovement in thecountry.The colonialstateand theloyalist
chiefswereon thesamesideinblaming themassacre on thevictims.
The massacre hadalsoattractedinternationalprotest. MarcusGarvey, on be-
halfoftheUniversal NegroImprovement Association,dispatcheda telegram of
protestto then Prime
British Minister LloydGeorge, in which,inter he
alia, said:

You haveshotdowna defenselesspeoplein theirownnativelandexer-

their
cising as
rights men.Sucha policywillaggravatethemanyhistoric
heaped
injustices upon a racethatwillone daybe placedin a position
to

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 ofPower 17
Enactments
defend
truly notwithmeresticks,
itself, clubsandstones,
butwithmod-
ofscience.(inNgfigt
ernimplements 1987:40)

Garvey'sprophecycametruein 1952whena 22-year-old former primary

schoolteacherandaccountant escapedthetightsecurity netandslippedinto
themountains to becomeliterally themostformidable leaderoftheMau Mau
ArmedGuerrilla forces.His namewasDedanKlmathi.
UnderDedan KImathi's leadership, theMau Mau guerrillas putup one of
themostheroicstruggles againstimperialism in the20othcentury. It is often
forgotten thatwhile liberation movements in places such as Guinea Bissau,
Mozambique, Angola,andAlgeriahadfreeneighboring territories
thatserved
as rearbases,Mau Mau guerrillas werecompletely surrounded bytheenemy
administration andhad no fall-back positionin a friendly neighboring state.
Theyhadto dependalmostentirely on whatever armstheycouldstealfrom
theenemyforcesandon whattheycouldmakein thenascentunderground
armsfactories in thecountry's citiesand forests. Beforehiscapturein 1956
andexecution in 1957,eventheBritish government andthecolonialstatehad
to admitthat,despitethousands ofsoldiers brought fromtheBritish basesall
overtheworld,and despitebombings on a scalereminiscent of theSecond
WorldWar,therewerevirtually twogoverning authorities in Kenya:theco-
lonial,ledbytheGovernor, andMau Mau,ledbyDedanKimathi.
The periodsawthemostincredible upsurge ofKenyanculture. Therewere
severalnewspapers in Kenyanlanguages. Songsanddancescelebrating theAf-
ricanpast,condemning colonialpractices, andcallingforfreedom erupted. In
theeducational field,peopledevelopedtheirown schoolsundertheKikuyu
Independence SchoolsMovementandKikuyuKaring'aSchoolsAssociation.
Thiseducational movement culminated in thebuilding bythepeoplethem-
selvesofthefirst everinstitute ofhigherlearning in thecountry, Githfingfiri
African TeachersCollege,ledbyMbiyfi wa Koinange, a ColumbiaUniversity
graduate. The symbolic importance ofthiscanbe seenin thefactthatit was
notuntil1960,threeyearsbeforeIndependence, thatthesecondinstitute of
higher the
learning, University of
College Nairobi, built,ironically, a
was on
sitenextto boththeNorfolkHotel and theNationalTheatre.So by 1952
therewereperformances ofhopeeverywhere.
The colonialstateretaliated. In October1952,a stateofemergency wasde-
clared.African-run schoolswerecloseddownbecausetheywereseenas per-
formance sitesforthenationalist forces.Githfingfiri TeachersCollege was
closedas an educational institution andwas turnedintoa prisonwherecap-
turedMau Mau guerrillas andsympathizers werehanged.All cultural perfor-
manceswerestopped.Andon 20 October1952,Kenyatta and hundreds of
leadersofKAU (KenyaAfrican Union) and Mau Mau were arrested.Kenyatta
andsevenotherswerelatertriedin whatbecameone ofthemostcelebrated
trialsin colonialhistory, now immortalized in thebookbyMontagueSlater,
TheTrialofJomo Kenyatta (1955).The defendants werefoundguilty ofmanag-
ing Mau Mau and were for
imprisoned eightyears of hard labor. The colonial
statedidnotbotherwiththetrials ofhundreds ofothers; theyweresummarily
sentto concentration campsalloverthecountry.
The playTheTrialofDedanKimathi triesto capture theheroism anddeter-
mination ofthepeoplein thatmostgloriouschapter oftheirhistory, a mo-
mentthatnot onlybrokethe back of the BritishEmpireand its entire
colonialpolicy,butalso,forKenyans, a momentthatwastheculmination of
all theprevious struggles wagedbytheotherresistance heroesofourhistory,
suchas Waiyaki, Me Katilili, andKoitalel.Kimathi sawhimself as partofthe
tradition ofthatstruggle butalsoin relation to theTylerrebellion in Britain,
an eventhe referred to in a letteraddressed to theBritish fromhishideoutin

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 wa Thiong'o
18 Ngi~gi
themountains. The playtriesto capture thefearsandthehopes,thepromises
andthebetrayals, withthehintthathistory couldrepeatitself.
It is nowevident thatboththevenueandthetime-theparticular daysand
theentire month ofOctober-carried different memories. Forthemanagement,
1952wastheyearthattheNationalTheatre wasconstructed andopened.And
between1952-theyearthatsawthedeclaration ofa stateofemergency, the
banningofindependent African performances, theoutbreak oftheMau Mau
armedstruggle-and 1963,theyearofformal independence, theNational The-
atrespacehadremained a siteforbasically British a
theatre, site intowhich Afri-
canscouldbe admitted astheymatured intopeopleofculture andposition.
It wasthesemenandwomenofcultureandpositionwho,afterIndepen-
dence,wereindeedableto integrate intothosespecialareasthatFrosttalks
about:Muthaiga, Westlands, and the Hill. Independence removed racialapart-
heidbutretained economic barriers.SomeoftheseAfrican Kenyans, defined by
theBritish as menof"culture andposition," werealsoto assume veryimportant
seatsin thenewpostcolonial government. One ofthesewasthesonofone of
theearlycolonialchiefs whowerepartoftheloyalist movement opposedto the
nationalist of
politics Harry Thuku. He became an Attorney General and,as a
patron ofone oftheEuropean performing groups andwithhissociallinkage to
mostofthemembers ofthemanagement oftheKenyaNationalTheatreand
Cultural Centre, hewastoplaya crucial roleinensuring theuninterrupted con-
trolofthespacebymenandwomenwhocouldmaintain standards already set
bythecolonialstate.Andforhim,although he himself
wasa blackAfrican, the
onlypeoplewhocouldensurethatcontinuity weretheBritish white.In other
words,colonialpractices wereto be thestandard ofmeasure fortheperform-
ativeculture atthespace.Notsurprisingly, themanagement oftheCentrecould
sincerely feelit was its to
doing duty Kenyabyofferingdisplay a ofa French
balletduring thehistoricmonth ofOctoberandduring a UNESCO Conference
hostedbyKenya.Forthem,thesymbols ofFrenchballetanda Romanforum
stoodfortheauthentic tradition ofanAnglican Kenya.
TheTrialofDedanKimathi stoodfora different tradition.It celebrated the
Mau Mau heroismand its centrality in bringingaboutindependencefor
Kenya.But evenmoreimportant, it was affiliatedwiththecultureand aes-
theticofresistance developedbytheMau Mau activists as theyfought in the
mountains; as theyresisted in prisonand concentration camps and villages;
andas theycalledoutfora newKenyaanda newAfrica. A goodnumber of
theMau Mau patriotic dancesandsongs,now available in a collection edited
by Maina wa Kinyattiunderthe titleThunder fromtheMountains ([1980]
199o), were incorporated both in the text and performance oftheplay.
So theconflict overtheperformance spacewasalsoa struggle overwhich
culturalsymbolsand activities would represent thenew Kenya.The new
Kenyahad emergedfroman anticolonial struggle:Could a colonialculture
and heritage effectivelyform the basis of itsnationhood andidentity? Even
smallactscouldcarryconflicting visionsofthenew Kenya.At a timewhen
theFESTAC 77 DramaGroupwastrying to carryouta performance thatre-
flected national historyandto deviseemblems thatsymbolized this,theman-
agementof theKenyanNationalTheatrewas sellingChristmas cardsof the
NationalTheatrebuilding as itwasin 1952. It wasthen,ofcourse,flying the
UnionJack,theBritish flag,andthiswasquiteprominent on thecards.

IV
The Ministry,
probably bypressnoticesthata Kenyanplayhad
embarrassed
beenhandcuffedon Kenyatta
Day,intervened;theFESTAC 77 DramaGroup
wasgiveneightdaysbetween20 and30 Octoberto usethespace.So thetwo

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 Enactments
ofPower 19
plays,TheTrialofDedanKimathi andBetrayalin theCity,werecrammed into
fournights each,betweenBossman'sJeune BalletdeFrance(io to 18 October)
andtheCityPlayers' A FunnyThing Happened On theWaytotheForum (I to
21 November). Thatin effect
meantthatthetwoEuropeanshowswouldtake
up a totalof31 daysto oureight.
However,despitebeingsqueezedintoonlyeightnights, thesuccessofthe
twoproductions wasastounding, in
especially termsof thereception byAfri-
canaudiences. Everysinglenightoftheeightdayswassoldout.The opening
nightof TheTrialwasparticularly memorable becauseKimathi'swifeandher
childrenwereprominent guests.The familystayedwiththecastalmostthe
nightlong,tellingstoriesofthewarandsinging manyofthesongsoverand
overagain.As one newspaper putit: "NeverbeforehasthestoryofKenya's
freedom strugglebeen toldwithsuchforceand conviction"(Target1977).
Nor, ifI mightadd,had anypreviousproduction at theNationalTheatre
been receivedwithso muchenthusiasm a
by Kenyanaudience.For those
the
eightnights, space had been nationalized
truly bythefeetofso manyfrom
all walksoflifewho cameon foot,in privatecars,andin hiredvehiclesto
singanddancewiththeactors.

The performance spaceis neverempty.Bare,yes,open,yes,

but neverempty.It is alwaysthesiteof physical,social,and
psychicforcesin society.

But thedramatic highlightstillbelongedto theopeningnight.As theac-

torsperformed theirlastsonganddancethrough themiddleaisleoftheaudi-
torium, theywerejoinedbytheaudience.Theyall wentoutsidethetheatre
building,stilldancing.Whathadbeen confined to thestagehadspilledout
intotheopenair,andtherewasno longeranydistinction betweenactorsand
audience.It had becomea procession, and theyweavedtheirwaytowards
thehistoric NorfolkHotel,towardstheterraces wherein 1922 thesettlers
had sat and helpedthepolice in theirmassacre.Even in 1976 it was still
largelypatronized bywhites,mostly tourists.
As theprocessionwasaboutto
crosstheroad,thegroupwas metby a contingent ofpolicewho now told
them,politelybut firmly, to turnback. There was thenno antagonistic
physicalconfrontation. The actorsdancedback to the NationalTheatre,
formeda circleoutside,and continuedwiththeirdancesand songsthat
talkedaboutall theheroesofKenyanresistance. The sceneoutsidethethe-
atrebuildingrecurred eachofthefournights allocatedto TheTrial.Butthe
attempt to danceontothepremises oftheNorfolkHotelwas notrepeated.
Nevertheless, it was as ifthecastandtheaudienceweretrying to createan
Open Space all aroundtheKenyaNationalTheatrebuilding,a spacethat
wouldallowthemto communicate betterwiththespiritsofthosewho had
died in 1922. A namethatkepton croppingup in thesingingwas Mary
Mfithoni Nyanjirt, thewomanwho led theworkers' processionandwasthe
first
to fallunderthehailofcolonialbullets.
Aftertheeightdaysallocatedto thetwoplays,we all vacatedthespace,
peacefully.The Europeanscame withtheirproductions.One day Seth
AdagalaandI weresummoned to theNairobiHeadquarters oftheCriminal
InvestigationDepartment fora fewquestionsabouttheperformances at the
Theatre.Actually one question!Why were we with
interfering Europeanper-
formances attheNationalTheatre?

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20 Ngigigwa Thiong'o
V
For some of us, it was clear fromthatexperiencethatif Kenyan theatre
were ever to thrive,it would have to findand defineits own space, in terms
of both physicallocation and language. The TrialofDedan Kmathi had been
done in English on disputedgrounds. The real national theatresurelylay
where the majorityof the people resided:in the villagesof the countryside
and in the poor urbanareas.It would have to be the siteof a combinationof
what Brook describesas Holy Theatre,Rough Theatre,and ImmediateThe-
atre. It would have to be a theatrethatscrapedthe bottomof the historical
space of the people's experiencein orderto speakto theirimmediatepresence
as theyfaced theirtomorrow.To achieve any of that,it was important,we
felt,to have a performancespace directlyunder the controlof the people.
Those are some of the concerns,among others,thatled to the foundationof
KamifirfthfICommunityEducationand CulturalCentre.
I have told bits and pieces of the storyin threeof my books:
Kamrrrithfi
Detained:A Writer's PrisonDiary;DecolonizingtheMind;and Barrelofa Pen,so I
shall not go into too many detailshere. The project,which was startedin
1976 as a literacyand culturalprogramwith theatreat the center,became a
trulycommunityaffairinvolvingpeasants,factoryworkers,and plantation
workerswho were thenresidents in thevillageof thesame name. In 1977,to-
gether with the peasant and worker community of this village called
KamIrTithii-about30 kilometersfromthe capitalcity,Nairobi-we devel-
oped a play,NgaahikaNdeenda(I Will MarryWhen I Want), in whichpeople
were literallysingingabout theirown history.Here were peasantsand work-
ers who only the year beforehad been illiterate,who were used to singing
songsof praiseabout the leadershipand what it had done forthe people, and
who could now not only read and writebut were actuallysingingwithpride
about theirown abilities,about what theyhad done in the past, and now
about theirhopes of what theycould do tomorrow!What's more, theyhad
built an open-airtheatrein the villagecenterby theirown efforts-andwith
no handoutsfromthestate!They had reclaimedtheirhistoricalspace.
They tried to do the same when in 1982 they attemptedanotherplay,
MotherSingforMe. Again it was pridein theirown historyand faithin their
own abilitiesand hence theirhope forthefuturethatwas important. Professor
IngridBjorkman,who did researchon Kamirithfi in 1982,has writtena book
thatreallytestifiesto thisaspect.She came to Kenya in 1982 in the aftermath
of the governmentrepression, and she interviewedthe actorsas well as mem-
bersof the audiencewho had come to see theplayin thepublicrehearsals be-
forethe ban. She closes her main textwith the words of one of those who
had attendedtheshow:
The remarkable thingis thatin our kindof systemit is believedthatwe
have people who have to thinkforus. As workersand peasants,people
who actuallytoil,we are not supposedto associatethingsin isolationand
you alwaysknow thatyou are beingled into anything.Now hereNgfigi
showed in MotherSingforMe thatpeasantscan thinkand theycan com-
municatethosethoughts-theunderstanding of theirenvironment-to
otherpeople. They can understand whatmakesthemthatwhichthey
are. It beatssomebody,who has alwaysknownthathe is a thinker,to
thinkthata peasantcould act and could also formsongsthatcould ex-
presshimself.[...] So thisfeelingthatthepeasantscan understand a situa-
tionand actuallycommunicatewhattheyare thinkingis whatbecame
thebiggestthreat.Because to be led you have to be "sheep." And when
you show thatyou are not "sheep" theleaderbecomesdisturbed.
(I989:97)

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 Enactments
ofPower 21
The attempt amongthepeoplewouldcallfornew ques-
to locatetheatre
tionsandanswers aboutthecontent,form,andlanguageofAfrican theatre.
But in November1976I did notrealizethattheattempt to locateculture
whereit belongedwouldraiseevenmoreproblems and questions, notonly
abouttheperformance spaceoftheartist
butthatofthestateas well.

VI
Alltheworldis a stage,saidShakespeare inAs YouLikeIt,withmanyplay-
ershavingtheirexitsandentrances. The nation-state seestheentireterritory
as itsperformancearea;it organizesthespaceas a hugeenclosure, withdefi-
niteplacesof entranceand exit.These exitsand entrances aremannedby
companies ofworkers theycallimmigration officials.
The borders aremanned
byarmedguardsto keepawayinvaders. Buttheyarealsothereto confine the
population withina certain The
territory. nation-stateperforms itsown being
relentlessly,
through itsdailyexerciseofpowerovertheexitsandentrances,
bymeansofpassports, visas,andflags.
Withinthatterritorial enclosure,it createsotherenclosures,themost
prominent beingprison, with itsentrancesandexitsguarded byarmedmight.
How didprison,a muchnarrower stage,come to be such an important site
forthestate'sperformance ofpunishment? The statewouldprefer to actout
itspower,watchedbytheentireterritorial audience.In thetelevision agethis
is possible,
thoughtherearerestraints. Historically,punishments werenotal-
waysenactedin a hiddenenclosure. In Discipline
andPunish, Foucaulthasde-
scribed,in minutedetail,scenesof punishment in I8th-century Europein
termsofspectacle, whathe callsthetheatrical representation ofpainbythe
state."Therewereevensomecasesofan almosttheatrical reproduction ofthe
crimein theexecutionof theguiltyman-withthesameinstruments, the
samegestures" (1979:45).Theseusedto happenin theopen."In theceremo-
nies,"writesFoucault,"themaincharacter was thepeople,whoserealand
immediate presence wasrequired fortheperformance" (58):
An execution thatwasknownto be takingplace,butwhichdidso inse-
cret,wouldscarcely havehadanymeaning. The aimwasto makean ex-
ample,notonlybymaking peopleawarethattheslightest
offence
was
likelytobe punished,butbyarousing ofterror
feelings bythespectacle
ofpowerletting itsangerfallupontheguilty
person.(1979:58-59)
In hisTDR article "Theatre foranAngry God,"MarkFearnow hasdescribed
a similarphenomenonin I8th-century America.He discussesthe public
burningsandhangings in colonialNewYorkin 1741in terms ofperformance,
whathe describesas "themostrevolting endstowhichtheatrical can
techniques
be applied:publicexecution as popular
entertainment,thedisplayofrotting
and
exploding corpsesas triumphant (1996:16).Butthisspectacle
spectacle" didnot
alwaysproduce the desired ends, on theaudience.Foucaultwrites
particularly
thatthecondemned, byhowhe reacted to thepain,couldsometimes winthe
sympathy andeventheadmiration ofthosewatching,andthattherewasalways
thedanger ofthecrowdintervening. The people,drawnto a spectacle
meantto
terrorizethem,could expresstheirrejectionof the punitivepowerand
sometimes revolt.

Preventingan execution
thatwasregardedas unjust, a con-
snatching
demnedmanfromthehandsoftheexecutioner, obtaininghispardonby
force,possibly andassaulting
pursuing theexecutioners,
in anycaseabus-
ingthejudgesandcausingan uproaragainst
thesentence-allthis

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22 wa Thiong'o
Ngi~g?
formed
partofpopularpractices
thatinvested,
traversed
andoftenover-
turned
theritualofpublicexecution.
(Foucault1979:59-6o)

And evenafterhisdeath,theso-calledcriminal couldturnintoa saintand

comebackto hauntthestate.The condemned foundhimself
transformed into
a herobythesheerweightofthedramaandpublicity surrounding hiscase:
"Against thelaw,againsttherich,thepowerful, themagistrates,
theconstabu-
lary,or thewatch,againsttaxesand theircollectors, he appearedto have
wageda struggle withwhichone alltoo easilyidentified"
(Foucault1979:67).
Therewerepre-I8th-century precedents: themostfamouscasein biblical
antiquityis thatofJesusChrist,
whosepublicexecution waslaterto hauntthe
Romanstateandempire.So, in time,thisopen-airtheatrical representationof
painwaswithdrawn fromtheopenspaceintoan enclosure. But,wryly com-
mentsFoucault:

Whatever thepartplayedbyfeelings
ofhumanity forthecondemned in
theabandonment oftheliturgyofthepublicexecutions, therewas,in
anycase,on thepartofthestatepower,a political
fearoftheeffectsof
theseambiguousrituals.
(1979:65)

Fearnowdescribes thesamefear-thethreat to publicorderin thefairsthat

developedspontaneously aroundsuchexecutions-asbeingbehindtheban-
ningof gibbeting in Englandin 1845.The truthoftheseobservations is at-
testedto inrealhistorical cases,as described by Foucault,but alsoin literature.
The Dickensian condemned in GreatExpectations couldalwayswinsympathy,
evenifit wasthatofa smallboy-the PipsfortheMagwitches oftheworld.
In Kenya,thecolonialstatecarried outpublicexecutions anddisplayed bodies
ofthecondemned Mau Mau, butthisalwaysarousedmoreangeragainst the
state,as I havedramatized in mynovelA GrainofWheat (1967).Andwhenin
1984thepostcolonial stateordered processions in whichmyeffigy wasburned
andtheasheswerethrown intorivers, lakes,andintotheocean,thespectacle
onlyarousedmoresympathy forme andthecauseI wasespousing: therelease
ofallpolitical in the of
prisoners Kenya.Although practice publicpunishment
stillcontinues in somecountries, and certainly in othermoreindirect ways
throughout theworld,removing thespectacle ofpunishment fromthelarger
territorialspaceintoan enclosure is a logicaldevelopment. No statewantsits
designated "criminals"transformed into heroes and with
saints, thepossibility
oftheirgraves becoming somekindofrevolutionary shrine.

The nation-stateperformsits own being relentlessly, through

its daily exercise of power over the exits and entrances,by
means ofpassports, visas,and flags.

But thoughthepunishment was movedfromtheopenintoan enclosure,

theelementofperformance remained,
particularlyforpolitical
andintellectual
prisoners-artists,
mostly. The prisonyardis likea stage,whereeverything,
movement,
including is directed
and choreographed by thestate.The mise-
en-scene,theplayof lightand shadows,thetimingand regulation of ac-
tions-eventhoseof eatingandsleepinganddefecating-are directed
bythe
armedstagehandstheycall prisonwarders.It is literally
a proscenium stage
withthefourthwalladdedandsecurely lockedso thatthereis no questionof

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 Enactments
ofPower 23
a privilegedspectatorpeepingthrough it andseeingthemise-en-scene. Nev-
boththestateandthecondemned
ertheless, artist
areawarethatthereis an
interestedaudienceoutsidethewallsoftheenclosure. The statetriesto inter-
pret,fortheaudienceoutside,whatis happening insidetheclosedwalls:the
prisonerhas confessed; theprisoneris healthy;or whateverfabrications it
wantsto feedtheworldabouttheartist-prisoner.
The prisonertriesto counterthe government propaganda by whatever
meansareat hisdisposal. Escapeis impossible,suicidaleven.So he resortsto
pen and paperwhenhe can findthem.Hence thestruggle fortheliterary
meansof production.Prisonnarratives are essentially
by artist-prisoners a
documentation ofthebattleoftextsandofthecontinuous contestation
ofthe
state'sperformance space.Thiscontestation,whileaimedat thegroupsofin-
terested watchersoutsidethegates-AmnestyInternational, International
PEN, ReleaseWriters Committees, andotherhumanrights groups-isulti-
matelyaimedat therealaudience:thepeoplewaitingin theterritorial space.
The statetriesto directthedramaoftheartist-prisoner's self-condemnation-
a confession of crimesof thought, hisown guilt,so to speak-and thishas
parallelswiththegallowsspeechesof thosetheatrical spectaclesofmedieval
andfeudalEurope:

The riteofexecutionwasso arranged thatthecondemned manwould

himselfproclaimhisguiltbytheamende thathe spoke,bythe
honorable
placardhe displayed
andalsobythestatements thathe wasno doubt
forcedto make.Furthermore, atthemoment ofexecution,itseemsthat
he wasgivenanother opportunityto speak,notto proclaimhisinno-
cencebutto acknowledge hiscrimeandthejusticeofhisconviction.
(Foucault1979:65)

The artist-prisoner,
witheveryfiberofhisbeing,resists "theplac-
displaying
ardofself-condemnation," andevenifhe is forcedthrough to display
torture
it,he willtryto dispatch
to theworld,through someofthemoresympathetic
stagehands,another placarddenying thecontent ofthefirst. Thiscontestation
ofthestate'sprisonperformance spaceis alsoa means of a meansof
resistance,
stayingalivein thistorture
chamber ofthespirit. It is,in otherwords,one of
thewaysofdenying thestatea triumphant epilogueto itsperformance.

VII
Thereis no performance withouta goal. The prisonis theenclosurein
whichthe stateorganizesthe use of space and timein such a way as to
achievewhatFoucaultcallsdocile bodies and hence,docile minds.The
struggle to subjugate
themindoftheartist-prisoner is paramount.That'swhy
onceagainbooksandreading materialsbecomeso vitalan objectofstruggle.
Prisonnarratives arefullofaccountsaboutthebooksthatone is notallowed
to readandtheonesthattheartist-prisoner is permittedto read.The autho-
rizedandbannedlist,a kindofprisonindexoftheprisoninquisition, canbe a
windowintothemindof thestate.In hisbook, Kenya:A PrisonNotebook
(I986),historianMainawa Kinyatti records manyepisodesin whichhe is for-
biddento readanyofmyworks."Ngigi'snovelsarepolitical, theyaredan-
gerous,"he is toldoverandoveragainduring hissixandhalfyearsin various
maximum security
prisons.Buthe hasto findwaysto readthesesamebooks,
orsimilar ones.ThusMainawa K1nyatti is amusedbythefactthathe canread
RichardWright andMaximGorkywithout problems. A political in
prisoner,
fact,is actingoutan aesthetic
ofresistancethroughbodilyor mentalgestures.
He is fighting againstthedocilityof themindintendedby thestate.Even

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24 wa Thiong'o
Ngiig?
withintheprisonwallshe willtryto createa physical, social,andmental space
forhimself.He willtryto usehisallotted timeandspaceandhislimited social
ina manner
interactions thatgiveshimmaximum psychicspace.
We havea humorous ofthisin Hama Tuma'sTheCaseofthe
illustration
Socialist (1993).In thestory"The Case of thePrison-Monger,"
Witchdoctor
Hama Tuma tellsof an Ethiopianintellectual who describeshimselfas a
"prisonmaniac." He claimsthathe reallylovesprison.Everytimehe comes
outofprison, he commits a crime,howeverpetty, so thathe canbe sentback
tojail. The prosecuting teamaskshim:Doesn'tit botheryou to spendten
yearsoftheprimeofyourlifebehindprisonwalls?No, he replies.He argues
thatpeoplearereallyin prisononlywhentheybelieveit to be so. A house
canbe a prison.Evena palacecanbe a gildedprisonfora king.On theother
hand,themonkwho shutshimself up in totalisolationin a cave is notin
I metverymanyreallyfreepeople,"he asserts,
prison."In prison, to theutter
astonishment ofthejudge/prosecutor who cannotunderstand thislogic.Then
followsthisexchange:

Whatsentence do younowexpectforyourcrime?
I shouldbe sentto prisonforfiveyearsas thearticle
689ofthePenal
codestates.
Whatifyouaresetfree?
Thatwillbe a crime,theaccusedsaysreallyshockedatthepossibility of
freedom.
Butifyouaresetfree, wouldyoucommit a crimeagain?
I couldn'tavoidit.Forthepublicgoodandmine.
Ifyoucommit threemorecrimes, youwillbe killed.
Thendeathwillbe a relief indeed.Not punishment butrealsalvation.
(1993:I20--21)

Andnowcomesthejudgment:

You, theaccused,youarea no-good,fasttalking, lazy,strange,

crazy
person.You area parasite.
You arealsodangerous. Whoeverfinds joy in
whoeverfeelsfreein ourjailsgoesagainst
prison, theorderofthings,
theexpected.
goesagainst A cow can'tgivebirthto a puppy.Prisonis a
punishment,nota sourceofcalmandfreedom. Ifsuchfeelings
asyours
our
spread, security willbe in chaos.I with
agree the You
prosecutor.
areherebysentencedto immediate freedom. (1993:121)

The accusedalmostfaints fromtheshockofhissentence. Whenhe recovers

fromtheshock,he is shouting andscreamingatthejudge:"You can'tdo this!
You mustsendmebackto prison!"
The pointis now made.Forhim,theactualprison,theenclosure, is less
evil thanthewiderterritorial spaceunderthemilitary regime.The entire
country is one vastprisonwherepeople'smovements aretightly
controlled,
wheretheycanbe dislocated fromfamiliarspacesintothoseeasilypatrolled.
In anycase,dislocation anddispersal
can be one wayof removing anybasis
fora collectiveperformanceofidentityandresistance.
The methodhadbeen
triedduring plantation inAmerica
slavery andtheCaribbean islands.

VIII
In SongofOcolbyOkotp'Bitek(1988),theleadcharacter, a memberofthe
wantsto ban all performances
rulingelite,actually
postcolonial so thatthey
maynotreflect hisblackness.He wails:"Mother,mother, whywas I born

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 Enactments
ofPower 25
black?"Buttheeasiestwayis to obliterate
theruralspacealtogether,
because
thisis thesiteofthoseperformances
thatmostremind himofhisAfricanbe-
ing.His visionfor is
Africa
postcolonial in
described termsofa hugecitythat
swallows theruralcompletely:

I seethegreatgate
Of thecityflungopen
in (1988:149)
I seemenandwomenwalking

The ruralpersonhasonlytwoalternatives:

Eitheryoucomein
Throughthecitygate
Or taketherope
Andhangyourself(49)

Do we hearin thisechoesofEnglisheconomichistory withitsenclosures in

theI8thcentury? The goalis to takeawaytheland,whichis thebasisofthe
peasantry, andturnthetillers intowageslavesin theurbanenclosures called
factoriesandghettos.It is another of the
way restricting performance spaceof
thetiller.
Prison,then,is a metaphor forthepostcolonial space;forevenin a country
wherethereareno military regimes, thevastmajority ofpeoplecan be de-
scribedas beingcondemned to conditions ofperpetual physical,social,and
psychic confinement.The stateperforms its of
rituals not
power onlybybeing
ableto controlexitsandentrances intotheterritorialspace-itsentireperfor-
mancespace-butalsobybeingableto movepeoplebetweenthevariousen-
closureswithinthenationalterritorial space.But theaesthetic ofresistance
thatsurvives in boththesmaller prison and the territorialone mayforcethe
stateto tryothermeasures. So sometimes it actsoutthoserituals ofabsolute
controlovertheentireterritorial spacebyforcing people,citizens,outofthe
territorial
spaceofthenation-state andintoan existence as anchorless
wander-
ersin theglobalspace.Thereis thespecialcaseofthepenalcolony,themost
strikingbeingAustralia,wherea wholepeople,deemedundesirable, werere-
movedfromone territorial spaceto another, equallybigorbigger.In Africa,
thereis theexampleofAngola:it was usedas a penalsettlement. In herhis-
toricalnoteto hertranslation ofPepetela'snovel,Yaka(1996),MargaHolness
saysthatin additionto Portuguese colonialofficialsand troops,thewhite
community in the 19thcentury includedex-convicts, politicalexiles-Re-
publicans, anarchists-and somewho had fledfromthenewlyRepublican
Brazil.Forcingwriters andartists intoexileis a variant formofpenalsettle-
mentattheleveloftheindividual. The onlydifference is that,unlikea penal
settlement, theglobalspacewheresuchwriters mayfindthemselves is not
controlled bythesamestate.Butthespiritual effects
maybe thesame.

IX
A writer in spacewithoutanchorage
floating in hercountry is likea con-
demnedperson.NawalSa'adawifeelsas ifsheis injail whenever sheis away
fromherEgypt.Forher,exilebecomeslikeanother prison. So exileis a wayof
movingthewriter froma territorial
confinement,whereheractsofresistance
mightigniteotherfields,
intoa global"exclosure."
The hopeis thatheractions
fromthisexclosure,whatevertheyare,willnotdirectly affectthoseconfined
withinthevastterritorial
enclosure.
Buthere,as insidea prison,therearemany
contradictory
consequencesforboththestateandtheartist. The artist in exile

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 wa Thiong'o
26 Ngaig?

knowsthathe orshehasbeenremoved fromthespacethatnourishes imagina-

willnevertheless
tion.The artist tryto break outoftheexclosure andreachout
to theterritorial
space.Fromexile,he orshewillstilltryto challenge thestate's
absoluteholdon theterritorialspace.Andbecauseofthis,thestateis alsoin a
dilemma. To letan artistgo intoglobalspacemeansthecontinued rivalry for
theattention ofa globalaudience.Besides,thewordoftheexiledmayvery
welltravelbackto theterritoryandcontinue to hauntthestate.Whichis what
happenedin 1984.Dan Barron-Cohen, an Oxfordgraduate, andI directed a
Londonproduction of TheTrialofDedanKimathi at Africa Centreusingtech-
niquesdevelopedat Kamr"~lthfi. The Kenyanstatesoughtto havetheperfor-
mance,bothat AfricaCentreandat theCommonwealth Institute,stopped.
TheywantedtheBritish government to do itforthem;butthistimetherewas
no cooperative response.In Zimbabwe,Ng'ig'wa M7rilhasutilizedandex-
tendedthe experienceto createone ofthemostcontinuous com-
Kamnrithf
movements in Africa.The statetriedin vain to make
munity-theatre Kenyan
theZimbabwean stateactagainstNgggi'sactivities.
That'swhybanningperformances or confining in prisonor killing
artists
themaretheactionsto whichthestatefrequently resorts.
But to avoidthe
contradictoryrepercussionsofimprisonment, exile,andphysical elimination,
likethepossiblecondemnation by the national or international audience, the
statemayfindit mucheasierto denytheartist spacealtogether. It is thepath
thatinvites andcondemnation.
leastresistance It is themethodhighly recom-
mendedbyPlato:"Andtherefore whenanyof thesepantomime gentlemen
who areso cleverthattheycan imitate anything makesa proposalto exhibit
himselfandhispoetry, we shallsendhimawayto another city"(1976:111, 23).

X
We can nowmakea tentative observation: thatthemoreopentheperfor-
mancespace,themoreit seemsto terrify thosein possessionof repressive
power.Thiscanbe seenthrough a quickcomparison oftheactionsoftheco-
lonialandthepostcolonial statesto performances in theopenspace.
The precolonial African performance areawas oftentheopen spacein a
courtyard or in an arenasurrounded bywood andnatural hedge.It couldalso
be insidebuildings, wherestories weretoldin theevening aroundthefireside.
Buttheopenspacewasdominant, andevenin theintimate circlearoundthe
it wastheopenness
fireside, oftheperformance areathatwasmarked. In this
kindofspace,thestoryteller andtheinteractive listenersarein thesamearea.
Visitorscancomeintothesceneatanytime,forthemaindooris notbarred to
would-beguests. Equallywell, any of the listeners
can go in and out.Anyspace
canbe turned intoa performance areaas longas therearepeoplearound.Thus
theperformance spaceis defined bythepresence orabsenceofpeople.
Colonialconquests resulted in thecreation ofclear-cut boundaries thatde-
finedthedominated space with controlled pointsof exitsand andin
entrances,
theformation ofa colonialstateto runtheoccupiedterritory. Andright from
thebeginning, thecolonialstatewasverywaryoftheopenair.Itwasnotsure
ofwhatwasbeingdoneoutthere, in theopenspaces,in theplains,in thefor-
estedvalleysand mountains. It was evenlesssureofpeopledancingin the
inmarket
streets, squares,in churchyards andburialplaces.Andwhatdidthose
drumbeats in thedarkofthenightreally mean?Whatdidtheyportend?
Attempts to suppress or strongly limitall open-airperformances withinthe
spacefollowed.A fewexamples
territorial fromKenya:I havealready men-
tionedthestoppage oftheitulkaceremony. Thiswasone ofmanysuchstop-
pages.Afterthe1922HarryThukumassacres, womendeviseda song-dance

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 Enactments
ofPower 27
formationcalledKanyegenyuiri,
whichneededno permanently defined ground
in orderto be performed.The song-poem-dance wasbannedbythecolonial
regime:it couldnotbe sungor dancedor recitedanywhere on Kenyansoil.
The colonialstatetreated
anotherdanceformation, developed
Mathtrigti, after
theSecondWorldWar,in thesamemanner. Andin 1952,whenthecolonial
regimeonceagainactedagainst thenationwide upsurgeofanticolonial
dances
andsongs,itbannedall open-airperformances in anypartofthecountry. It
didnotmatter whatwasbeingperformed at a particular
moment. Everyper-
formance, a simplegathering
forprayers
even,hadto be authorized. Commu-
nicationsbetweenone spaceandthenexthad to be authorized. The entire
wasone vastperformance
territory space,fullofthreatening motionsofinnu-
merablemagicspheres.In theeraofapartheid in SouthAfrica,an elaborate
passsystem wasdevelopedto regulate
theentireterritorialspace-it beingthe
grounds fordailyperformance.

So exile is a way of moving the writerfroma territorial

con-
finement, where her actsof resistancemightigniteotherfields,
into a global "exclosure."

The postcolonialstateexhibitssimilarsensitivities. The collectiveexpres-

sion ofjoy and even griefoutsidethe watchfuleyesof the statemay,in some
instances,constitutea crime.So the postcolonialstatetriesto enactlimitations
similarto thoseof the colonialstate.In Kenya,underthe Chief's Act,a gath-
eringof more thanfivepeople, no matterwhereor no matterwhat the occa-
sion, requiresa police license. The performancespaces forprayers,funeral
dirges,marriageceremonies,namingtea parties,familygatherings, sports,are
dependenton the issuanceof a permit.Thus when the police breakinto any
gatheringand breakup storytelling sessionsin people's homes,theyare abso-
lutelywithinthe law. Performances were to be containedin controllableen-
closures:in licensed theatrebuildings,in schools, especially-but theywere
not to takeplace in open spaceswherethepeople resided.
In otherwords,saysGuillermoG6mez-Pefiain his articlein TDR, "The
Artistas Criminal,"describingsimilarscenes of the suppressionof streetper-
formancesin Mexico in 1994:

It is one thingto carryout iconoclasticactionsin a theatreor museum

beforea publicthatis predisposedto tolerating radicalbehavior,and
quite anotherto bringtheworkintothe streetand introduceit intothe
minedterrainof unpredictable social and politicalforces.(1996:112)

A comparisonbetweenthe firstperformance of The TrialofDedan Kimathi

on 20 October 1976 within an enclosure of stone and concrete called the
Kenya National Theatreand of I WillMarryWhenI Wantat Kamrfflthfi vil-
lage on 2 October 1977 at the Open Air Theatre,a constructionwithoutroof
and stone walls,is instructive.
The productionof The TrialofDedan Kmathi
was done by university studentsin English;thatof I WillMarryWhenI Want,
by a cast of peasantsand workersin Gikiiyfilanguage.Thus in 1976, despite
the tensionsand the publicitysurroundingthe productionsof The Trial of
Dedan Kmathi, and despitethe police questions,therewas in factno action
takenby the stateagainstthe performance.But on 16 November 1977, the
statebannedfurther performances of I WillMarryWhenI Want.And in 1982

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 wa Thiong'o
28 Ngi-gi

theybarredthesameKamirithfi groupfromperforming anywhere, evenat

theNationalTheatre.
Butthestate'sreaction to thetwospacesis evenmoreinstructive. In 1976
and 1982,thepostcolonial statecouldbarpeoplefromtheNationalTheatre,
butthebuildingwas neverdestroyed. In 1982,afterthesamecastofvillage
actorstriedto perform another play,Mother SingforMe,thestatereactedby
notonlyrefusing to licensetheperformances, butbysendingarmedpolice-
mento razetheKamIflthfi Open Theatre to theground.Performances,not
onlyat theCentrebutin theentireLimurucounty, werebanned.The state
attachedso muchvalue to thedestruction of the open-airspace,thatthe
wholeperformance oftheban on Kam1irithfi on 12 March1982was
Players
televisedforall thecountry to see. Therewas theprovincial commissioner
withall theregional bureaucrats underhim,guardedbyarmedtroops,sum-
moningan entirevillageto a meetingat whichtheceremonyof denying
spaceto Kamirlthfi Playerswas to takeplace.The ceremony was preceded
by prayersfrom leaders of the various established
religiousdenominations,
who had been draggedintothesceneto bestowtheoccasionwithdivine
sanctioning.Butitwasalsonoticedthatmostoftheprayers tooktheformof
askingGod to endowthehumanheartwiththespiritoftolerance. Again,in
1976 Seth Adagala and I gotaway with justpolicequestioning. in 1977I
But
was arrestedandincarcerated in a maximum prisonforone year,re-
security
leasedonlyafterthedeathof thefirst headof state,JomoKenyatta; andin
1982I foundmyself in exilefromKenya.

The collectiveexpressionofjoy and even griefoutsidethe

watchfuleyesof thestatemay,in someinstances, a
constitute
crime.

The openspaceamongthepeopleis perceived bythestateto be themost

dangerous areabecauseit is themostvital.ThustheKenyanstate'sperfor-
manceofitsritualofpowerovertheterritorialspacetooktheformofremov-
ing me from the first
people, byconfining me in prisonfrom1977-1978,and
thenbyforcing me outoftheterritorialspacealtogetherin 1982.Theycould
havedoneworsebyremoving me fromtheglobalspacea la Ken SaroWiwa,
as hashappenedto thousands ofotherKenyans.

XI
The performance spaceoftheartist stands
foropenness; thatofthestate,for
confinement.Artbreaksdownbarriers betweenpeoples;thestateerectsthem.
Artaroseout ofthehumanstruggle to breakfreefromconfinement. These
confinementscouldbe natural. But theycan alsobe economic,political, so-
Artyearnsfora maximum
cial,andspiritual. ofphysical,social,andspiritual
spaceforhumanaction.The statetriesto demarcate, limit,andcontrol.
Thatis whythequestionofthepoliticsoftheperformance spaceis ger-
maneto anytheorizing aboutthepostcolonial condition.Forthepoliticsof
theperformance spaceis muchmorethana questionofa physical sitefora
show.It toucheson nearly
theatrical allaspectsofpowerandbeingin a colo-
nialandpostcolonial It is germane
society. to issuesofwhatwillconstitute the
nationalandthemainstream. In a postcolonial statethistakestheformofa
strugglebetweenthosewho defendthecontinuity ofcolonialtraditions
and

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 Enactments
ofPower 29
thosewho wantto see reflections ofa new nationand a newpeoplein the
performance space as a unifiedfield
ofinternal andexternal relations.
But ultimately, thepoliticsoftheperformance spaceanditslocationis a
classquestion.Forhumanlaboris therealartist in theworld.All otherforms
of artistic
expression imitatethatofthehumanhandandmind.Andthehu-
manhandandmindhavetheentirelimitless spaceandtimefortheirperfor-
manceof thestruggle forhumanfreedom and self-realization.
But theclass
societythathascomeintobeinghascreatedallsortsofborders, enclosures,to
confinethatfreedom.The enclosures couldbe thenation-state, religions,
race,gender,ideology,languages-anysocialvariationon thosethemes.
Questionsoftheperformance spacearetiedto thoseofdemocracy, to those
ofcivilsociety,to thoseofwhichclasscontrols thestate.
One ofthemosteffective waysofensuring minoritysocialcontroloflabor
andtheproducts oflaboris theexclusion ofwholeclassesofpeoplefromef-
fectiveparticipationin thenationallife.Wholeclassesofpeoplecanbe put
intopsychic enclosure: slavesandserfsin feudalsocieties;theworking people
in mostadvancedcapitalist countriestoday;andwomenin mostsocieties. In
such societiesthisis done throughwhatAntonioGramscidescribedas
hegemonicratherthanformalexclusionarylaws (1967). In Africa,the
exclusionofthemajority andtheirenclosure in a narrowed psychicspaceis
achievedthrough thedominanceofEuropeanlanguagesin additionto the
morebrutalmethodsofthepoliceboots.But thelanguageofcultural force
canbe as brutalto thecommunal psycheas themilitaryforceis to thephysical
body.Hencethestruggle forperformance spaceis integralto thestruggglefor
democratic spaceandsocialjustice.

References
Bjorkman, Ingrid
1989 'MotherSingforMe': People's Theatrein Kenya. London: Zed Press.

Brook, Peter
1968 The EmptySpace. New York: Avon Books.

Fearnow, Mark
1996 "Theatre for an Angry God: Public Burnings and Hangings in Colonial New
York, 1741." TDR 40, 2 (TI5o):I5-36.
Foucault,Michel
1979 andPunish.New York: Routledge.
Discipline
Frost,Richard
1975 RaceAgainstTime.London:Rex Collings.
Guillermo
G6mez-Pefia,
1996 "The Artist
As Criminal."TDR 40, I (TI 49):II2-18.
Gramsci,Antonio
1967 TheModern andOtherWritings.
Prince, New York: International
Publishers.
Hama Tuma
1993 TheCaseoftheSocialist
Witchdoctor.
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Kenyatta,Jomo
1962 [19381 FacingMountKenya:TheTribalLifeoftheGikuyu.New York:VintageBooks.
Mainawa KinyattT
theMountains.
1990 [1980] Thunderfrom Trenton,NJ:AfricaWorldPress.
wa Thiong'o
Ngfigi
1987 A Writer's
Detained: Prison
Diary.London:Heinemann.

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 wa Thiong'o
30 NggTg?
Okot p'Bitek
1988 SongofOcol.Nairobi:Heinemann.
Pepetela
1996 Yaka.Translated
by MargaHolness.Oxford:Heinemann.
Plato
1976 ofBeauty.Editedby AlbertHofstadter
Philosophies and RichardKuhns.Chi-
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Ngifigwa Thiong'o is Professor

ofComparative Literature
and PerformanceStudies,
and ErichMaria RemarqueProfessorofLanguages at New YorkUniversity. One of
TDR's ContributingEditors,
Nguagiis theauthor
of novels,
literary and
essays, plays,
includingDecolonizing the Mind (Heinemann,1984),Matigarima Nijuungi
(1986),and Moving the Centre: The Strugglefor CulturalFreedoms (1993).
WithhiswifeNjeeriwa Ngi-g7,hepublishestheGiktiyalanguagejournalMfitiiri.

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