Sts - Prelims - : Science, Technology and Society PPTX #1 Introduction To STS

STS - PRELIMS | 1PTA - Santander, Rivero, Zabat, Pating, Tan, Ty, Quizon, Tolentino
technology studies, is a branch or

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY offspring of science studies. It
considers how social, political, and
PPTX #1 Introduction to STS cultural values affect scientific
● What is Science, Technology and Society? research and technological
○ Thomasian Core Values innovation, and how these, in turn,
○ Laudato Si affect society, politics and culture.
■ Chapter 1: "What is happening ● History of STS?
to our common home?" ○ Like most interdisciplinary programs,
■ Chapter 3: "The human roots it emerged from the confluence of a
of ecological crisis?" Chapter variety of disciplines and disciplinary
4: "Integral Ecology" subfields, all of which had developed
■ Chapter 5: "Lines of approach an interest— typically, during the
and action" 1960s or 1970s— in viewing science
■ Chapter 6: "Ecological and technology as socially embedded
Education and Spirituality” enterprises.
○ UN SDGs ● Hierarchy of Sciences
■ GOAL 1: No Poverty - by increasing complexity and
■ GOAL 2: Zero Hunger decreasing generality
■ GOAL 3: Good Health and ○ Mathematics
Well-being ○ Astronomy
■ GOAL 4: Quality Education ○ Physics
■ GOAL 5: Gender Equality ○ Chemistry
■ GOAL 6: Clean Water and ○ Biology
Sanitation ○ Sociology
■ GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean ● Key Themes in STS
Energy ○ History of technology, that examines
■ GOAL 8: Decent Work and technology in its social and historical
Economic Growth context
■ GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation ○ History and philosophy of science
and Infrastructure (1960s)
■ GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality ○ Social movements (women’s studies)
■ GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities ○ Science, engineering, and public
and Communities policy studies emerged in the 1970s
■ GOAL 12: Responsible ● Important Concepts
Consumption and Production ○ Deliberative Democracy
■ GOAL 13: Climate Action ○ Tragedy of the Commons
■ GOAL 14: Life Below Water ○ Alternative Modernity
■ GOAL 15: Life on Land ○ Pace of Innovation
■ GOAL 16: Peace and Justice ○ No Innovation without Representation
Strong Institutions ○ Privileged Positions of Business and
■ GOAL 17: Partnerships to Science • Legacy Thinking
achieve the Goal ○ STS Social Construction
○ Pillars of Education (UNESCO) ○ Techno science (techno-scientific)
■ Learning to Know Learning to ○ Gentle Tyranny
Do ● The Meaning of Scientific Literacy
■ Learning to Be
■ Learning to Live Together The Gräber model for scientific literacy (2001),
● What is STS? (PDF 1) illustrated in Figure 1, is put forward as competency-
○ Science, Technology and Society based. The model reconsiders the balance between
(STS), also referred to as science and the various competencies and reflects on the specific
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contribution science education can make to the 8. Resource Management
education of adults. (page 279)
9. Internationalization
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

THOMASIAN CORE VALUES
- Are a blueprint to achieve a better and more
3 Thomasian Values: sustainable future for all. They address the global
challenges we face, including poverty, inequality,
- Competence climate change, environmental degradation, peace
and justice.
- Compassion
- At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development
- Commitment
Goals (SDGs), which are an urgent call for action by
all countries - developed and developing - in a global
Revised Mission Statement:
partnership. They recognize that ending poverty and
The University, in pursuit of truth, guided by reason other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with
and illuminated by faith, dedicates herself to the strategies that improve health and education, reduce
generation, advancement, and transmission of inequality, and spur economic growth – all while
knowledge to form competent and compassionate tackling climate change and working to preserve our
professionals, committed to the service of the oceans and forests.
Church, the nation, and the global community.
- The goals and targets stimulate action over the
Revised Vision Statement: next 15 years in areas of critical importance for
humanity and planet
Faithful to its centuries-old tradition of excellence,
the University of Santo Tomas envisions itself as a - Must be achieved by 2030
premier Catholic institution of learning in Asia,
17 SDGs
committed to the professional and moral formation of
her stakeholders for social transformation.
1. No poverty
UST preserved its motto “Veritas in Caritate” or
- Donate what you don’t use. More than 700
“truth in charity,” which is found in Ephesians million people still live in extreme poverty.
4:15.
2. Zero hunger
9 Directional Areas of the University’s strategic
plan: - Waste less food and support local farmers. A
third of the world’s food is wasted, yet 821 million
1. Thomasian Identity people are undernourished.
2. Leadership and Governance 3. Good Health and Well-Being
3. Teaching and Learning - Vaccinate your family. Vaccinations resulted in an

80% drop in measles deaths between 2000 and
4. Research and Innovation 2017.
5. Community Development and Advocacy 4. Quality Education
6. Student Welfare and Services - Help educate the children in your community.
617 million children and adolescents lack minimum
7. Public Presence proficiency in reading and mathematics.
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5. Gender Equality - Avoid plastic bags to keep the oceans clean.
Over three billion people depend on marine and
- Empower women and girls and ensure their coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods.
equal rights. 1 in 3 women has experienced physical
and/or sexual violence. 15. Life on Land
6. Clean Water and Sanitation - Plant a tree and help protect the environment.
Forests are home to more than 80% of all terrestrial
- Avoid wasting water. Water scarcity affects more species of animals, plants and insects.
than 40% of the world’s population.
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
- Stand up for human rights. In 2018, the number
- Use only energy-efficient appliances and light of people fleeing wat, persecution and conflict
bulbs. Three billion people still lack clean cooking exceeded 70 million.
fuels and technologies.
17. Partnerships for the Goals
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
- Lobby your government to boost development
- Create job opportunities for youth. 1/5 of young financing. Achieving SDGs could open up US $12
people are not in education, employment or training. trillion of market opportunities and create 380 million
new jobs by 2030.
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
LAUDATO SI
- Fund projects that provide basic infrastructure.
Roads, water, sanitation and electricity remain - “Praise to you, my Lord”
scarce in many developing countries.
- In the words of this beautiful canticle, St. Francis
10. Reduced Inequalities of Assisi reminds us our common home is like a
sister with whom we share our life and a beautiful
- Support the marginalized and disadvantaged. mother who opens her arms to embrace us. “Praise
The poorest 40% of the population earn less than be to you, my Lord, through our Sister, Mother Earth,
25% of global income. who sustains and governs us, and who produces
various fruit with coloured flowers and herbs”.
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
- Chapter One (What is Happening to our
- Bike, walk or use public transportation. 9 out of
Common Home)
10 urban residents breathe polluted air.
- From 17-61
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
I. Pollution and Climate Change
- Recycle paper, plastic, glass and aluminum. By
2050, the equivalent of almost three plants could be i.i. Pollution, waste and the throwaway
required to sustain current lifestyles. culture
13. Climate Action i.ii. Climate as a common good
- Act now to stop global warming. Global II. The Issue of Water
emissions of carbon dioxide have increased by
almost 50% since 1990. III. Loss of Biodiversity
14. Life Below Water IV. Decline in the Quality of Human

Life and the Breakdown of Society
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V. Global Inequality II. Cultural Ecology
VI. Weak Responses III. Ecology of Daily Life
VII. A Variety of Opinions IV. The Principle of the Common

Good
- Chapter Two (The Gospel of Creation)
V. Justice Between the
- From 62-100 Generations
I. The Light Offered by Faith - Chapter Five (Lines of Approach and Action)
II. The Wisdom of the Biblical - From 163-201

Accounts
I. Dialogue on the Environment
III. The Mystery of the Universe in the International Community
IV. The Message of Each II. Dialogue for New National and
Creature in the Harmony of Creation Local Policies
V. A Universal Communion III. Dialogue and Transparency in

Decision-making
VI. The Common Destination of
Goods IV. Politics and Economy in
Dialogue for Human Fulfillment
VII. The Gaze of Jesus
V. Religions in Dialogue with
- Chapter Three (The Human Roots of the Science
Ecological Crisis)
- Chapter Six (Ecological Education and
- From 101-136 Spiritually)
I. Technology: Creativity and - From 202-246
Power
I. Towards a New Lifestyle
II. The Globalization of the
Technocratic Paradigm II. Educating for the Covenant
Between Humanity and the
III. The Crisis and Effects of Environment
Modern Anthropocentrism
III. Ecological Conversion
iii.i. Practical relativism
IV. Joy and Peace
iii.ii. The Need to Protect Employment
V. Civic and Political Love
iii.iii. New Biological Technologies
VI. Sacramental Signs and the
- Chapter Four (Integral Ecology) Celebration of Rest
- From 137-162 VII. The Trinity and the
Relationship Between Creatures
I. Environmental, Economic and
Social Ecology VIII. Queen of all Creation
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IX. Beyond the Sun o Too slow/too rapid
PDF # 1 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY 4.5 No Innovation without representation

(Langdon Winner and Massimiano Bucchi)
Science, technology, Society (Elting E. Morrison) - Democratic ideal
- Anthropology, history, political science, - Everyone represented fairly in
sociology, etc. technological developments
o Relevant parties have a say
4.1 Deliberative Democracy (Joseph Bessete)
⁃ Public Discussion & debate of popular 4.6 Privileged positions of business and science
topics w/c affect society - Unique authority (of businesses) –
o Popular, complex, controversial economic, political, technosocial affairs
o Opposing viewpoints heard
⁃ Aristotle 4.7 Legacy thinking
⁃ Bessette (Deliberative Democracy: The - Inherited method of thinking imposed
Majority principle in Republican from an external source w/o objection by
Government) the individual
● Equality, vility, inclusivity - Widely accepted by society
● Reality – experience & commitment - Drive technology in their favor> greater
● Leadership good
● Stake - Prevents progress
● Apprenticeship · Net neutrality
o Dial-up
4.2 Tragedy of the Commons (Garret Hardin) - E.g. privatization of clean drinking waters
- Rational people act against the best ● Veil of ignorance
interest of the group by consuming a
common resource 4.8 Social constructions (Laura Flores)
- Degradation of the environment - Human created ideas, objects, or events
- E.g. internet (virtual spying) created by series of choices & interactions
● net neutrality - E.g. class, race, money, citizenship
o X Internet dominated by 1 - E.g. correlation between intelligence
particular group (rich) & ethnicity/race
· Privatization - E.g. high-wheel bicycle-> accidents
o Counteract
o X overuse of Long Island beaches 4.9 Technoscience
-> susceptible to flood (Hurricane - Inseparable connection between science &
Sandy) technology
- Scientific knowledge requires an
4.3 Alternative modernity (Andrew Feenberg) infrastructure of technology
- Present western society - To remain Stationary or move forward
- Political & social structures of society,
sum of interpersonal discourse 4.10 Gentle Tyranny
- Incapable – alternative directions - Unintended restrictions placed on population
- Ineffective at analyzing thru social constructs; sociological
· Modernization theory ● Hobson’s choice (Thomas Hobson)
- Societies progress (pre-modern to - Illusion of choice, none in reality
modern) - “Take it of leave it”
● E.g. environmental pollution, “brown
4.4 Pace of Innovation chemicals”
- Speed – technological - Waste generated
innovation/advancement
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- Reduction in air quality - d/t extensive research on ARPANET
● E.g. purchasing automobile or transit by other & ARPA (Advance Research Project
means Agency)
- Restricted travel or unemployment - Modern day computer/laptop
- E.g. Online banking
5 Technosocial - Moved into digital world d/t
● Technological action demand
- Social factors and technology - intertwined,
dependent upon each other 5.1 Concepts - Technosocial
- Social process ● Technoscience - science & technology =
● Social, Political, Economic factors - intertwined, dependent
inherent in technology ● Technosociety - society’s reliance on
● Social structure - influences what technology
technologies are pursued ● Technological Utopianism - positive
● E.g. Ford Pinto outlook: effect on social welfare
- Fiery explosion, hundreds are killed & ● Technosocial Systems - people &
injured technologies = heterogeneous but functional
- Ignored improving their tech wholes
- Profit-driven motives
- strict internal control 5.2 Classifications - Technosocial
- Competition from foreign ● Technological Optimism - positive effects;
comptitiors (Volkswagen) used to improve welfare
● DDT/Toxins ● Technological Pessimism - negative
- Insecticide effects; discouraged
- Wide spread use on public ● Technological Neutrality - no systematic
health & environment (Rachel effects
Carson) ○ individuals - ultimately responsible
- “Silent Spring” ○ Technologies - mere tools
- Caused serious illness ● Technological Determinism - cause
(cancer) particular societal outcomes
- Criticized by chemical ● Scientism - total separation of facts & values
com ● Technological Progressivism - means to
- Banned by United an end itself & inherently positive pursuit
States EPA after
arduous research PDF #2: MEANING OF SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
● Autopilot/Computer Aided Tasks
(CATs) ● Seeing science education as
- Technological advance: less reaction ○ ‘Education through science’
time required & computational error ○ Not ‘science through education’
- Direct impact: increase safety
- Constantly improve SCIENTIFIC LITERACY (Paul deHard Hurd - 1958)
● Cell phones - Sums up intentions of science education
- Bell Laboratories - avoid distracting detail
- 1st gen: Motorola - Convincingly portrays a complex idea w/c
- Now entering 4th gen intuitively appears to be correct
- Revolutionize the way people
socialize & communicate ● Components (key words only)
- To establish modern social a. Substantive content; distinguish from
structure non-science
● Internet b. Science, and its applications
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c. What counts as science - Prevalent on Internet
d. Think scientifically ● Civic Scientific Literacy
e. Scientific knowledge in problem - Level of understanding of science &
solving technology needed to functions as a
f. Intelligent participation in citizen
science-based issues ○ Amount of basic school science
g. Nature of science; relationship with - Strongest predictor in adults
culture ● “Scientific literacy” is metaphorical
h. Appreciation & comfort; wonder & ● Goal of science education
curiosity ○ Scientific
i. Risks & benefits ○ Scientific & technological
j. Think critically about it; deal with ○ Literacy
scientific expertise
Two Views
1. Knowledge of science (central role)
● OECD - 2007: longitudinal international study - Fundamental ideas; essential/crucial
- Determine scientific literacy for future 2. Society usefulness (scientific literacy)
adult - Requirement to adapt to challenges of
- Developing countries in poor shape to rapidly changing world
achieve scientific literacy - Life skills
- Reasoning skills (social)
● Retain use of scientific literacy - For all
● Relevance of learning - Even if different career or no
○ ...toward student enhancement of specialization in science
scientific literacy - Refute need for 2 types of school
science courses (GenEd & specialist)
● Scientific and Technological Literacy
- Relationship between science & ● Gräber model for scientific literacy
technology in everyday life - Continuum of views
● La culture scientifique et technologique - Between subject competence &
- Reflects cultural intention metacompetence
● scientifically and technologically - Competence-based
literate person - Far more than knowledge
○ can function within society as - Integrates component of
a whole values/ethical education (essential
○ X simply a scientist comp. of science educ)
- Interrale w/ human rights, tolerance,
● Scientifically & technologically literate education for peace, gender equity,
person (NSTA) place of indigenous technologies
- Need intellectual capacity & other
attributes (Refer to pdf for ● Bybee’s comprehensive hierarchical
enumerated attributes) model
❖ Intellectual (Higher Order Thinking - Subjected competence is important
Skills) - Propagated by general competences
❖ Attitudinal - Project 2061
❖ Societal - General aim:
❖ Interdisciplinary - Orient towards societal reqs
- Deal with social issues
● ‘Knowing science’ - Rationally founded decisions
- Limited to intellectual component
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● Promoting competent consumers of science ● The capacity to use scientific knowledge, to
w/ ability to gain knowledge from experts identify questions and to draw
(Shamos) evidence-based conclusions
- help make decisions about the natural
The Trend Towards interpreting the Meaning of world and the changes made to it
Scientific Literacy through human activity
- Inclusion of issue-based teaching, beyond - OECD PISA Study - 1998
scientific problem solving
- Socioscientific decision making ● 3 dimensions
- Enable citizens to actively participate - OECD Pisa - 2007
in real worlds 1. Scientific concepts - to understand
- X short term product approach certain phenomena; changes made
- Long term view thru human activity
- Science awareness (Shamos) 2. Scientific process - acquire,
interpret and act upon evidence
● 4 functional levels (Bybee) a. Scientific questions
○ Nominal - X clear understanding b. Evidence
(meanings of terms) c. Conclusions
○ Functional - vocabulary out of d. Communication of conclusions
context e. Demonstration of
○ Conceptual & procedural - understanding (concepts)
understanding & relationship 3. Scientific situations - people’s
(concepts); use processes w/ everyday lives
meaning
○ Multidimensional - developed ● The capability to function with understanding
perspectives and confidence, and at appropriate levels, in
■ Nature & role of science & ways that bring about empowerment in the
technology in personal life & made world and in the world of scientific and
society technological ideas.
■ Goal for long-term view of - ICASE-UNESCO
scientific literacy
● Developing the ability to creatively utilise
● 3 levels (Shamos) sound science knowledge in everyday life or
- Increasing sophistication in a career, to solve problems, make
a. Cultural literacy - factual info; rote decisions and hence improve the quality of
recall only no understanding life.
(scientific terms); assume they are - Cover scientific & technological
literate literacy
b. Functional literacy - draw on recall - Holbrook & Rannikmae
w/ some understanding of science - Emphasize socio-scientific decision
c. True science literacy - know making
theories of science - Way of thinking
- Aware of major conceptual
schemes (foundation of Nature of Science
science), etc - No specific description
● Rejected meanings
○ big ideas
Possible Definitions of Scientific Literacy ○ ways scientists work; scientific
methods, process skills
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● Accepted: Encompasses socio-scientific ● “Relevance of projected subject matter”
decision making (process) ○ Why learn these science
- Interact w/ other areas components?
- Science as tentative ■ Satisfying a need, not
- No definite answer potential to satisfy only
- Bear reasoned argumentation
on scientific theories & Towards a Model of Relevance in Science
methods Education
- Decision making w/in societal frame ● Relevance - measure of appropriateness for
○ Basis of scientific literacy = nature of student as perceived by the student
science, personal attributes & social ○ R = Relevance
development ○ Rs,t = total relevance for the
○ ‘Education through science’ student
(Holbrook & Rannikmae) - If Rs,t = 0 -> irrelevance
■ Socio-scientific issues & ● Function
decision making ● Rs,x = initial introduction for self
■ Societal POV instead of ○ Initial teaching set-up/scenario
scientist’s POV ○ Intrinsic motivation (most
■ Investigatory instead of inquiry important)
■ Positive towards development - If Rs,x is high = learning
of society & scientific - popularity & liking
endevours - Sustaining relevance (y &z z)
■ Refer to table - similarities & ● Rs,y = component of motivation
differences ● Rs, z = satisfaction & performance
- extrinsic motivation
Relevance ● Rs, t, c = curriculum
- For enhancement of scientific literacy perception/implementations +
● Whether content/instruction satisfied assessment deminads
personal needs & personal/career goals ● Rs, t, p = teacher perception (ability)
● Student’s interest
○ 4 aspects of relevance (science in
school) ● Enhancing scientific literacy through
1. Personal - satisfy needs of science education
student ○ Developing an ability to creatively
2. Professional - possible utilise appropriate evidence-based
profession scientific knowledge and skills,
3. Social - role in social issues particularly with relevance for
4. Personal/social - develop everyday life and a career, in solving
responsible situations personally challenging yet meaningful
scientific problems as well as making,
● “Relevance of the topic” responsible socio-scientific decisions.
- Initial impact of learning on students
○ Why study this? ● dependent on the need to:
■ Whether leaning will meet the ○ Develop collective interaction skills,
need (student) personal development and suitable
○ Why am I studying this? - Emotional communication approaches as well
response as the need to exhibit sound and
- Title of section & situation persuasive reasoning in putting
(impression) forward socio-scientific arguments.
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PDF 3A: THE VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY activity. An onlooker at events,
I. Metaphysics: nature of reality never influencing them.
A. Cosmology : nature of cosmos and d. Double Aspect Theory: mind
explanations of its origin and and body are two aspects of a
development. fundamental reality; nature is
1. Some considerations in cosmology: unknown.
-Causality: nature of cause and e. Emergence Theory: mind is
effect relations. something new produced by
-nature of time nature in evolutionary process,
-nature of space neither identical with body,
2. Two distinct view in cosmology are: parallel to it, wholly dependent
-Evolutionism: universe evolves of upon it.
itself. f. Spiritualism: (idealist and
-Creationism: universe as the result of spiritual realist) mind is more
the working of a creative cause of fundamental than body.
personality Relation of body and mind as
B. Nature of man as one important compared to the
aspect of reality. common-sense description
1. Problem of essential nature of self. which mind depends upon
No particular terms but divergent body.
answers that can be identified with 3. Problem of freedom
general view points a. Determinism: Man is not free.
a. Self is a soul, spiritual being. His actions are determined by
A principle of idealism and forces greater than he is.
spiritual realism. b. Free Will. Man has the power
b. Self is essentially the same as of choice and is capable of
the body. A principle of genuine initiative.
naturalism and physical c. Third alternative proposed by
realism the experimentalists, for which
c. Self is a social-vocal no name. Man is neither free
phenomenon. A principle nor determined; but he can
held especially by and does delay some
experimentalist responses to construct a total
(experimentalism) response, not completely
2. Problem of relation of body and automatic but not free, which
mind does not give a new direction
a. Interactionism: mind and to subsequent activity.
body are two different kinds of
reality, which can affect the C. Concept of and about God.
other 1. Atheism: no ultimate reality in
b. Parallelism: mind and body or behind the cosmos; which
two different kinds of reality, is Person or Spirit.
which do not and cannot affect 2. Deism: God exist quite apart
each other. Some unknown from, disinterested in the
way, every mental event physical universe and human
paralleled by a corresponding beings. He creates both and is
physical event. Author of all natural and moral
c. Epiphenomenalism: mind is laws.
merely a function of the brain,
overtone accompanying bodily
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3. Pantheism: All is God and spirit and matter, good and
God is all. Cosmos and God veil. The antithesis is
are identical. weighted, one of the two is
4. Conception of God as considered more important
emerging, no common name. and more enduring than the
God is evolving with the other.
cosmos; end power which it is 3. Pluralism: Reality is many,
moving, beginning from which minds, things, materials,
it came energies, laws, processes,
5. Polytheism: Spiritual reality is etc., considered equally real
plural rather than a unity. More and to some degree
than one God. independent of each other.
6. Theism: reality is a personal G. Ontology: meaning of existence as
God; a more than cosmos but such. To exist , to have being.
within whom and through 1. Space Time or Nature as
whom the cosmos exist identical with existence. To
D. Teleology: whether or not there is occupy time and space, to be
purpose in the universe. matter or physical energy.
1. Philosophies holding that the (e.g., naturalism and
world is what it is because of physical realism)
change, accident, or blind 2. Spirit or God as identical
mechanism are non existence, to exist means to
teleological be mind or spirit , or to depend
2. Philosophies holding that upon mind or spirit.
there has been purpose (especially true of idealism)
discerned in history, are 3. Existence as a category of
teleological philosophies. which is not valid. The
3. Special case must be made of pragmatists (pragmatism)
experimentalists; do not find insist that everything is flux or
purpose inherent in the change and nothing which fits
cosmos but by purposeful into the category of existence
activity seek to impose in any ultimate sense.
purpose upon it. Epistemology: theory of nature of
E. Considerations relating to the knowledge
constancy, or lack of it, in reality. A. Possibility of knowledge
1. Absolutism: fundamental 1. Agnosticism: position that
reality is constant, conclusive knowledge of
unchanging, fixed, and ultimate reality is an
dependable impossibility.
2. Relativism: reality is changing 2. Skepticism: questioning
things. So called realities are attitude toward possibility of
always relative to something having any knowledge.
or other 3. Affirmation of knowledge, a
F. Problems of quantity: number of position that true knowledge of
ultimate realities, apart from qualitative aspects. ultimate reality is possible.
1. Monism: reality unified. It is 4. Affirmation of functional
one, mind or matter, or energy, knowledge, a position that
or will-bit only one of these. knowledge is always
2. Dualism: Reality is two. functional, never total, and
Realities are antithetical, as functions in a present field or
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situation. It is needed, and that C. Syllogism: form to cast deductive reasoning.
we can appropriate such Comprised of three prepositions: major
fractional and functional premise, minor premise, and the conclusion
knowledge (especially true of D. Experimental reasoning or problem
experimentalists). solving. A form of reasoning, largely
B. The kind s of knowledge. inductive but using deduction as well, begins
1. A posteriori: knowledge with a problem, formulate hypothesis, and
based upon experience and test them.
observation E. Dialect: method reasoning which the conflict
2. Experimental Knowledge: of contract of ideas is utilized as a means of
not regarded as something detecting the truth. Hegel’s formulation: three
finally to be concluded from stages: thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.
experience or observation by IV. AXIOLOGY. Theory of value, nature of values,
induction. To work in different kinds of value, specific values worthy of
experience as a function possession.
which carries forward A. Nature of Value
satisfactorily. 1. Interest theory: values depend upon
3. Knowledge is self evident. the interest of the person who enjoys
Principles which once them. They do not exist but are
understood, are recognized to supported by the interest of the
be true and do not require valuer. What is desired has value.
proof through observation, 2. Existence theory: values have an
experience, or experiment. existence which is independent of the
C. Instrument of Knowledge valuer and his interest. Values are not
1. Empiricism: position that sensation, qualities or essences without
or sense-perceptual experience, foundation in existence. ESSENCE
medium through which knowledge is PLUS EXISTENCE.
gained. 3. Experimentalist theory: yields a
2. Rationalism: position that reason is greater sense of happiness in the
the chief source of knowledge present and the same time opens the
3. Intuitionalism: Position that way to further goods in future
knowledge is gained through experiences.
immediate insight and awareness 4. Part-whole theory: realizing and
4. Authoritarianism: position that much enjoying value effectively relating
important knowledge certified to us parts to the whole.
by an indisputable authority, (bible, B. Realms of value.
church, or the state) 1. Ethics: good and evil. Problems of conduct
5. Revelation: God presently reveals and ultimate objectives
Himself in the BIble and the Church a. Worth of Living
III. LOGIC: science of exact thought, (1) Optimism: existence is good , life
systematic treatment of the relation of ideas methods is worth living
distinguishing valid thinking from thinking which is (2) Pessimism: existence is evil; not
fallacious worth the struggles; we should
A. Induction (inductivism) : particulars to a escape it by some means .
general conclusion. (3) Meliorism: Conclusions as to the
B. Deduction (deductivism): general principle goodness or evil of existence cannot
to particulars included with the scope of that be made final.
principle. b. Highest good or summum bonum,
end, aim, or objective of living
which is above all other ends.
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(1) Hedonism: highest good is - Social Values: kind, nature, and worth of
pleasure; highly refined and enduring values realized in community and in the
pleasure and contentment. individual’s relation to society.
Utilitarianism: form of hedonism, - Utilitarian Values: kind, nature, and worth of
society as its frame of reference. values realized in harmonious
(greatest happiness of the greatest - adjustment to or efficient control of the forces
number is the prime objective) of the physical environment.
(2) Perfectionism: highest good is
perfection of the self, or self
realization. Social frame of reference, PDF #3B: PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE
envisioning an ideal social order as - Both interested in knowledge.
the ultimate objective of society. - Field of inquiry and investigation.
c. One’s conception of the highest good - Both ask questions and seek to determine
follows logically certain practical answers.
principles for everyday living. - Knowledge is an end toward which both
(1) Kant’s Maxim: act only on strive.
those principles should Important differences between two lies in the kind of
become universal moral laws. knowledge they seek.
(2) Spencer’s principle: action A. SCIENCE
to be right must be conducive - Seeks knowledge of facts
to self preservation. - Exception of pragmatism
(3) Dewey’s principle: discover B. PHILOSOPHY
the probable consequences - Seeks ultimate knowledge
going through an imaginative - Ultimate knowledge is more
rehearsal of possibilities. fundamental than the facts of science
(4) Religious Principle: obey the - Constituted by the facts of science
will of God; commit yourself - To keep pace with the times and have
completely to the fulfillment of any meaning for the contemporary
God’s purpose. mind
D. kind of scope of the interest which - Take full cognizance in finding of
guides conduct. science
(1) Egoism: interest of self, FACTS: mark the border line between science and
served by an individual’s philosophy
actions. A. SCIENCE:
(2) Altruism: interest of others, - Seeks to determine facts
social groups served by an - Facts as end product
individual’s actions. His own - Constantly improving instruments and
fullest selfhood in seeking the methods of investigation
best interests of others. - Seek aid mankind by providing it with
- Aesthetics: conscious search for the effective knowledge of facts of life .
principles governing the creation and - Serve men generally speaking in a distinct
appreciation of beautiful things. field
- Religious Values: kind, nature, and worth of - Establishing facts, proceed to meaning for life
values possessed in worship, - METHOD: observation, experimentation,
religious experience, and religious service. description, and explanation of the immediate
- Educational Values:kind, nature, and worth relations of facts.
of values inherent in the educative - Limits its attention to particular situations
process. - Necessary for fractional in its outlook
- Attention is focused, concern is to analyze
- Most minute details may be recognized
13
B. PHILOSOPHY -difference can be accentuated by contrasting the
- Begin its work with these facts differing perspectives of science and philosophy.
- Enters the field of factual investigation
- Ceases to be a philosopher and becomes
scientist during preoccupation of pure facts PPTX#2 Science and the Philosophy of Science
- Significance of the facts which interest a Origin of the Scientific Method
genuine philosopher. ● What is the Intellectual Revolution? The
- Believes can aid mankind by helping to Scientific Revolution—The Copernican
determine the significance of facts Revolution
- Sojourns in the realm interpretation ● Intellectual revolution is Greek speculation
- METHOD:interpretation and explanation of about “nature.”
the ultimate relations and meaning of facts. ● The physics of logic.
- Total and comprehensive, deals with ultimate,
final , and all-inclusive meanings. The Concept of Nature
- Parts are considered light of their relation to ● Before 1600s
the ultimate whole ○ Nature was merely a manifestation of
- Largest whole can be conceived. a super- nature – the supernatural
OBSERVATION: bare senses or with highly accurate and unobservable – the world of
instruments religion.
A. SCIENTISTS: ● After 1600s
-to find facts as they are. ○ Nature is what is observable in the
- introduces into observed situation ( active world.
element over he has control) ○ Nature is thought about, described,
-attempt to bring out facts in simple and explained through experiments
observation and theory and scientific paradigms.
-Description: instrument by which attempts to
record these facts, simply and accurately Features of Speculation
presenting the details without yielding infer ● The world is a natural whole (supernatural
causes forces do not make things happen)
-causes will properly refer only to more ● There is a natural order (laws of nature)
immediate relations ● Humans can discover those laws
-METHOD OF SCIENTIST: descriptive and
observational How did we discover those laws?
E.G. : “when A and B are brought together in ● Scientific Method
a certain manner, C is the result which - Is a methodological approach to the
follows. “ process of inquiry – in which
-outlook is partial and detailed empirically grounded theory of nature
B. PHILOSOPHER: is constructed and verified.
-more inclusive Origin of the Scientific Method
-taken given facts ● check PDF 3C it’s the same with the PPT
-pointing relations to the totality of our ● After Newton’s grand synthesis of
experiences mechanical theory, the new scientific
-suggest meaning for life disciplines of physics and chemistry were
-infers from the facts of human experience begun, describing material behavior in the
-nature of the universe new Newtonian mechanics.
-meaning and purpose of living ● The development of the disciplines of
-METHOD OF PHILOSOPHER: science, physics, chemistry, and biology did
interpretative begin after Newton’s synthesis of mechanical
theory.
14
Hierarchy of Sciences ■ Morris Schlick – Ernst Mach
- by increasing complexity and decreasing Society
generality ■ Gustav Bergmann
○ Mathematics ■ Rudolf Carnap
○ Astronomy ■ Herbert Feigl
○ Physics ■ Kurt Fodel
○ Chemistry ■ Tscha Hung
○ Biology ■ Victor Draft
○ Sociology ■ Karl Menger
■ Richard von Mises
Critical Component Parts of Scientific Method ■ Marcel
● Observation and Experimentation ■ Natkin
● Instrumentation and Instrumental Techniques ■ Theodor Rdakovi
● Theoretical Analysis and Model Building ■ Rose Rand
● Theory Construction and Validation ■ Moritz Schlick
● Paradigm Development and Integration ■ Friedrich Waismann
■ Wittgenstein
Steps of Scientific Method (In the Light of the ■ Karl Popper
Copernican Revolution) ● The Scientific Conception of the World: The
● Copernicus Vienna Circle
○ A scientific model that could be - Experiment is the foundation (base,
verified by observation ground) of knowledge.
● Brahe - Regularity in the world (logical order)
○ Precise instrumental observations to must be discovered and not
verify the model presupposed philosophically
● Kepler (metaphysically).
○ Theoretical analysis of experimental Theory is constructed directly from experiment.
data
● Galileo PDF #3C: ORIGIN OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
○ Scientific laws generalized from
experiment Intro:
● Descartes and Newton ● Scientific method
○ Mathematics to quantitatively express ○ methodological approach process
theoretical ideas inquiry
● Newton ● Origin of modern scientific method:
○ Theoretical derivation of an ● Chain of research events from Copernicus to
experimentally verifiable model Newton
● Gravitational model of the solar system
Vienna Circle’s Logical Positivism ● The theory of Newtonian physics to express
● Two positions: the model
○ That all objects in science must be ● Many important intellectual precursors to
observable, and science
○ Scientific theory is merely logically ○ Ex. ALCHEMY – confusion of
induced from experiment practices and un-grounded theory.
● “Weiner Kreis” ○ @ medieval Europe – fundamental
○ Philipp Frank stuff of the universe was viewed as
○ Hans Hahn air, earth, fire, water – alchemy
○ Otto Neurath ○ @ modern Europe – fundamental
○ Other members include: stuff of the world = energy and mass,
15
atoms and molecules, fields and ○ Refined by Claudius Ptolemy of
particles – chemistry and physics Alexandria (wrote scientific treaties,
○ Ex. Historical roots (Egyptian, Greek an astronomical treatise (Almagest),
and Arab geometry and algebra) Geography, and “Four Books”
● Before, nature = manifestation of a astrology.)
super-nature – the supernatural and ■ Model: earth @ center;
unobservable – the world of religion Earth-centric
● Afterward, nature = only what is observable ■ Venus retrograde
in the world
● Nature thought about, described, and
explained through experiments and theory
and scientific paradigms Tycho Brahe (1546-1601): PRECISION OF
MEASUREMENTS - PLANETARY MOTION
● born in Denmark
Scientific Method ● University of Copenhagen study law
● Began from research of 6 individuals: ● Predicted eclipse in 1560, attention now put
○ A scientific model that could be into astronomy
verified by observation (Copernicus) ● Work stimulated by Copernicus because he
○ Precise instrumental observations to wanted to determine which model was
verify the model (Brahe) correct by direct astronomical observations
○ Theoretical analysis of experimental ● experimental scientist
data (Kepler) ○ understood that it was the precision of
○ Scientific laws generalized from measurements = closer to reality
experiment (Galileo) ● greatly improve measurements (precision of
○ Mathematics to quantitatively express measurements -planetary motion)
theoretical ideas (Descartes and ○ Venus, Mars, Jupiter
Newton)
○ Theoretical derivation of an Johannes Kepler (1571-1630):
experimentally verifiable model PHENOMENOLOGICAL LAW - ELLIPTICAL
(Newton) ORBITS
● born in Germany
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): SUN-CENTRIC ● University of Tubingen took theology
● born in Torum city in Poland astronomy; liked Copernican model
● entered the Kraków Academy in 1491 ● hired by Brahe (1600) to analyze data
● 4 yrs later – went to Italy (University of ● moved his family from Austria to Poland for
Bologna and University of Padua [finished his work
studies here]) study medicine and law did not ● Brahe unexpectedly died in 10/24/1601
become a priest like his uncle ● Declared as successor of Brahe
● Became assistant of Domencio Maria Novara ● Through finding planets sweep out equal
da Ferrara made 1st astronomical areas of their orbits in equal times, Found law
observations that fits the data:
● Published De revolutionibus orbium ○ phenomenological law – regular
coelestium, patterns of relationship observed as
● theoretician but thought of himself as a occurring in phenomenon of nature;
“natural philosopher” property of elliptical orbits
● Proposed idea that the universe should be ● Astronomia nova, describing the elliptical
modeled with the sun as a center and not the orbits
earth – sun-centric versus earth-centric ● Major step in development of scientific
system method because it showed the need of
quantitative data
16
● Mysterium Cosographicum - first expression of physical theory contemporary
astronomical work of Galileo
○ defended the Copernican System ● “I think, therefore I am”
● Added algebraic expression in analytic
Galileo Galilei: TWO NEW SCIENCES geometry
● (1564-1642); born in Pisa, Italy ● Proposed vectors X,Y,Z; points in space = x,
● University of Pisa took medicine instead y, z
studied math ● analytical geometry would provide the critical
● Advocate Copernican model mathematical representational basis for
● Priests opposed sun-centered universe physics and for Newton’s calculus. Without
● Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World analytical geometry and calculus, modern
Systems - Published which compared 2 physics would not have been possible.
views of universe
● Heresy Isaac Newton (1643-1727): DIFFERENTIAL
○ House Arrest because of CALCULUS, PHILOSPHIAE NATURALIS,
pagpapahiya sa priest (earth-centric MECHANICS (g)
believer) ● born in England
○ Wrote Two New Sciences - This book ● Cambridge University @ 19yrs old
would establish the laws of physical ● think about infinitesimal quantities and
motion changes in velocities, and how to calculate
■ Isaac Newton built his with them in Cartesian space → start
revolutionizing physical theory developing Calculus
● Made Telescope (three power magnification) ○ Leibnitz: integral calculus
at 1608 ○ Newton: differential calculus (which
● 1st to observe Jupiter w/ 4 moons circling it he called fluxions)
○ Clear analogy of Copernicus model ● published Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
○ Back to sun-centric because of this Mathematica.
discovery ○ Established physics on a quantitative
● Established 1st scientific laws of physics, basis (and now called the Newtonian
performed experiments about motion and Mechanics). It contained the three
gravity universal laws of motion.
● Pioneered scientific method of doing ○ Law of Inertia - The motion of a body
quantitative experiments whose results could is constant unless acted upon by an
be generalized in mathematical expression, external
● Galileo’s physical laws provide a second ○ force.
historical example of modern scientific ○ Law of Force - The effect of an
method. external force upon a body is to
change its acceleration, proportional
Rene Descartes (1596-1765): ANALYTIC to the body’s mass: F = ma = m dv/dt.
GEOMETRY ○ Law of Action-Reaction - For every
● born in France action (force) upon a body, there is an
● University of Poitiers graduated law equal
● Thinking of math ways to solve physics ○ and opposite reaction (reactive force)
● Euclidean geometry + algebra = analytic ● combine Galilean physics with that Cartesian
geometry representation of space as a 3D geometry (as Descartes work is now called)
coordinate system; quantitative description of and also with Kepler’s astronomical ellipses
space to create a dynamic model of the solar
● improve the language of quantitative analysis universe; grand scientific synthesis of
– the invention of analytical geometry and of mechanism
calculus and their application to the
17
● Equation of force and motion (F = m dv/dt) is 2. Instrumentation and instrumental
now called “differential equation” techniques
● Next issue to Newton → quantitative 3. Theoretical analysis and model
expression for gravitational force building
○ as proportional to the product of the 4. Theory construction and validation
masses attracted by the force of 5. Paradigm development and
gravity between them and integration.
○ decreasing in force as the square of
the distance: Fg= gMm/r2 ● X empirically grounded = X scientific
○ differential force equation (F = ma) ● Experiments on nature, empiricism
equal to the gravitational force to ● Theory-construction, theoretical
obtain a differential equation of
motion for planets around the sun: m Vienna Circle’s Logical Positivism
dv/dt = gMm/r2
● Differential equation of motion of planets ● Logical positivism - philosophy of science;
orbiting the sun bound by gravity (scientific 2 positions
theory) was created by methods of science = ○ (1) that all objects in science must be
measurement. Analysis, theory construction observable
and prediction → modern physics began ■ corresponds w/ actual
through this historical events in science
● Hooke also claims to have discovered gravity ○ (2) scientific theory is merely logically
● Newton claims he independently discovered induced from experiment
the square of the distance form of gravity ● Wiener Kreis (1907) - Philipp Frank, Hans
from Hahn and Otto Neurath about philosophy of
○ (1) reconsidering Kepler’s previous science) → meeting turned to logical
work (Kepler’s third law having the positivism; many joined
wrong proportion for diminution of ○ “Vienna Circle”
gravity with distance) ○ (1) experience is the only source of
○ (2) obtaining information from knowledge and
Flamsteed and Halley about the ○ (2) logical analysis is the way to solve
length of orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, philosophical problems.
Newton then concluded that the ● Attacked metaphysics as any source of
gravitational force between two knowledge
massive objects diminished as the ● Attracted logicians
square of the distance between them ● 1929 - “manifesto” for the Ernst Mach
increased Society, The Scientific Conception of the
World: The Vienna Circle → abolish
Scientific Method as Empirically Grounded metaphysics as contender to physics
Theory ● Central assumptions of logical positivism
- Process; scientific knowledge has been ○ (1) Experiment: foundation of
obtained knowledge
● Newton’s synthesis of mechanical theory ○ (2) Regularity in the world (logical
● development of the disciplines of classical order): must be discovered and not
physics and chemistry and mathematics and presupposed philosophically
biology (metaphysically)
○ Social sciences and computer ○ (3) Theory: constructed directly by
science too induction from experiment
● empirically grounded theory ● Ernst Mach – (born in Czech Republic)
1. Observation and experimentation physicist, photographed and described
shock-waves in air
18
○ also advocated a philosophy of ○ Technische Hochschule in Vienna;
phenomenalism, recognizing University in Strasbourg, Munich,
sensations as the ground of reality. Gottingen
● Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970) ○ wrote mathematical papers in
○ “metaphysical: represent knowledge functional analysis, topology, set
about something which is over or theory, the calculus of variations, real
beyond all experience, e.g., about the analysis, and order theory
real Essence of things, about Things ● Otto Neurath (1879-1934)
in themselves, the Absolute such ○ University of Vienna → doctorate from
like… (Traditional metaphysics) Department of Political Science and
pretended to teach knowledge which Statistics
is of a higher level than empirical ○ After WWI → directed museums for
science. Thus they were compelled to housing and city planning
cut all connection between their ○ Fled to Holland and to England, dying
(metaphysical) propositions and from illness
experience; and precisely by this ○ sociology, economics, and philosophy
procedure they derived them of any ○ 1920s, he joined the Vienna Circle
sense” and was an author of its manifesto
■ Basically, he doesn’t believe in ● Wittgenstein - made really no significance in
metaphysics → absolute is understanding scientific method;
impossible and it is ○ according to Carnap:
unexplainable ■ Inconsistent;one cannot state
○ Philosophy → should become logical philosophical propositions,
analysis; cannot speak yet made a
■ “analyze all knowledge, all philosophical book
assertion and the connections ○ Carnap does not agree with his
between them; find out statement that all his propositions are
method verification for quite as much w/o sense as
proposition of specific given metaphysical propositions are.
proposition” ● Resulted to Vienna Circle emphasizing role
○ born in Wuppertal, Germany of logical analysis in philosophy
○ University of Jena, served army (3yrs) ○ emphasized experience as the source
○ Space and time of knowledge but
■ Axiomatic approach ○ supposed that inductive inference is
■ Traditional Kantian approach the way theory is constructed.
○ Wrote Logical Syntax of Language ● Led to simple view of scientific method:
(Carnap 1934) ○ (1) formulating a hypothesis (theory)
● Moritz Schlick (1882-1936) and
○ born in Berlin ○ (2) then validating or invalidating that
○ University of Heidelberg, Lausanne, hypothesis by an experiment.
and Berlin → took physics ● Karl Popper (1902-1994)
○ 1910 - “Nature of Truth According ○ Focused upon the emphasis in logical
to Modern Logic” positivism was of the role of
○ Shot and killed by former student who “induction” in theory construction
became a member of Austria Nazi ○ 1928 - joined logical positivists’
Party movement in Vienna
● Hans Hahn (1879-1934) ○ argued that if theory is only induced
○ born in Austria from experiment, then theory can
never be completely validated – never
be certainly true.
19
■ “Probably true” only ○ Newtonian theory of mechanics →
○ Assumed scientific theory could never uses both Inductive + Deductive
be verified but only falsified – reasoning - Scientific method
because Popper believed all scientific ○ Inference may proceed either from
theory is only constructed inductively particular statements to general
○ Proposed simple methodology → statements (induction) or vice versa
formulating a hypothesis and testing (deduction)
the hypothesis for falsification ○ Socratic Method of questioning - in
○ Born in Vienna the classical dialogs of Plato about his
○ University of Vienna → doctorate in teacher, Socrates, Plato emphasized
philosophy logic’s importance of probing at the
○ 1934 - published The Logic of assumptions of an intellectual
Scientific Discovery. position.
○ Aristotle’s syllogism inference was
Illustration: Inference in Newton’s Gravitational deductive, going from general
Solar Model premises to particular instances
○ 1. Copernicus provided a scientific
● Newton’s theory predicts this as an orbiting model that could be verified by
Earth – and with great precision and certainty observation – deductive logical
○ certainty” of the scientific theory lies in approach.
the verified solar model – in the ○ 2. Brahe developed instruments and
elliptical orbits which are solutions to made more precise measurements to
the gravitational-force model verify the model – inductive logical
UNLESS, new force disturbs this approach.
● Idea of inference in logic - inductive and ○ 3. Kepler made a theoretical analysis
deductive inference of experimental data, developing a
○ Originated as a formal structure of a phenomenological law about
language, the grammar of the planetary motion – inductive logical
language approach.
○ reasoning is an operation of the mind ○ 4. Galileo performed physical
that both constructs and relates experiments and formulated scientific
mental objects, concepts laws generalized from the
○ Language not only provides modes experiments – inductive logical
of expressing experience in approach.
sentences but also as connections ○ 5. Descartes integrated geometry and
between experiences as inferences. algebra and Newton created
● Inference - proper form for making valid differential calculus to provide new
arguments from premises; may proceed mathematics for describing and
either from particular statements to general modeling physical events –
statements (induction) or vice versa deductive logical approaches.
(deduction) ○ 6. Newton formulated a
○ Inductive reasoning - statements of phenomenological law of gravitation
particular facts are generalized into as a force varying inversely with the
general ideas about the facts; square of the distance – inductive
Socratic Method → conclusions to the logical approach.
assumptions of the argument ○ 7. Newton theoretically derived
○ Deductive reasoning - particular Copernicus’s solar model as a
statements of facts are deduced from consequence of his newly formulated
general statements of theory; mechanics – deductive logical
Aristotle’s syllogism → general approaches.
premises to particular instances
20
Circularity Between Empiricism and Theory in For empirical scientific research, modeling is more
Scientific Method likely a fruitful research activity for researchers
than merely hypothesis-making-and-testing.
● Empirical research technique combined w/
theoretical techniques of analysis, modeling, Summary
and theory to create this dramatic progress in
physical science → combination of both 1. Science began when the scientific method of
inductive and deductive inferences inquiry was established as the systematic way of
○ Newton’s model of the solar system understanding nature – basing theory construction
● research methodology is complicated. → and validation upon experimental data.
because the process of scientific inquiry is
not linear in logic, going directly from 2. Empirical and Theoretical techniques in
empiricism to theory nor theory-to-empiricism scientific method enable the construction of
○ Scientific progress proceeded empirically grounded theories of nature.
circularly in the logic of empiricism
and theory
○ Empiricism and induction in the logic
of scientific inquiry really operate by
circularly interacting with deductive
theory construction
○ Empiricism in science is grounded in
observing nature. Theory is grounded
in the empirical observations of
nature.
● Due to influence of logical positivists’ →
simple methodological idea - theory
construction consists of only a “hypothesis
testing” as a research technique
○ In social sciences:
○ (1) formulating a hypothesis,
○ (2) conducting an experimental
sample, and
○ (3) statistically analyzing the
probability of the truth or falsity of the
hypothesis.
● Weakness of
Popperian-research-approach - occurs
when researchers do not address → where
or how should hypotheses come
● Scientific history → Scientific model rather
than a hypothesis which has provided the
basis for scientific verification
● a hypothesis which is not derived from a
scientific model of a phenomenon has often
been insignificant.
○ a significant scientific hypothesis
worth testing experimentally should
be derived from a scientific model.
21
PDF #3D: THE METHODS OF SCIENCE?

Inductivism, Hypothetico-Deductivism, Falsificationism and Kuhnian Reconciliation
by Anthony Ferrucci
➢ Differ in approach & scope within the scientific community
➢ The first 3 greatly differ in interpreting the statement “ science is based on facts”
➢ Though it is tempting to support one approach, the attempt to make science better is by trial & error, an
idea not restricted to a particular approach.
Inductivism Hypothetico-Deductivism
● Common understanding of the universe’s laws ● Rejects the context of discovery

● Laws of nature, uniformities, govern these. Laws ● “Facts” are:
are fixed, uniform, & objective ○ X always observable, esp. in microbiology &
● “Facts” are observable (objective), thus physics
theories are derived from observation of these ○ theory-laden & dependent
facts ● Things come from accidents
● High degree of faith on senses because these ○ e.g. dreams, visions, & pre-existing
relay facts to be qualified by the observer theories
● “Facts are prior to and independent of theory”– ● Scientific progress is understood by examples
Alan Chalmers of accidental discovery, confirmed conjectures, &
● “Seeing is believing” thinking theory derived hypotheses
● Scientific knowledge is constructed by ● More scientific theory is confirmed, the better
establishing facts then build a theory that fits ● Every test that reaffirms the hypothesis adds
them credibility to original theory
● Turkey allegory by Bertrand Ruseel ● Raven’s paradox
○ Turkey is fed every day at 9am & claims that ○ “All ravens are black” is reaffirmed with every
it is fed every day at 9 am. On Xmas day it black raven seen. Problem of equivalence, all
was killed at 9am. non-black things are not raven.
○ Obstacle of inductivism ○ Serves as an essential critique to the
● 3 Possible attempts to sidestep the obstacles fundamental tenet of
1. The number of observations forming the Hypothetico-deductivism– theory of
basis of a generalization must be large confirmation & its logical foundation
2. The observation must be repeated under a ● Scientific progress is made by confirmation of
wide variety of conditions pre-existing theories
3. No accepted observation statement with the ● Not that accepting to pseudo-science due to the
derived law context of discovery
● More accepting to pseudo-science ○ May or may not accept astrology &
creationism based on the theory of
confirmation
Falsificationism Kuhnian Reconciliation
● Reject strict context of discovery, although not ● The Structures of Scientific Revolutions in
that accurate as compared to HD 1962 by Thomas Kuhn
● Just because you confirm that a hypothesis is ○ Bought previous theories in the history
true does not mean you have given enough & philosophy of science into a whole
confirmation new context
● How many observations must be witnessed ○ Sir Karl Popper was in the process of
before a theory is confirmed? championing falsificationism
22
○ Obstacle of falsificationism ● Coined the term Paradigm
● Confirmation is not the sole factor ○ Where anomalies are created with
● Body of science must be falsifiable through problem-solving mentality
testing ● “Normal science”- where Kuhn places most
○ What makes “science” for them scientists during their careers
● Reject the idea that science is based on ● Revolutionary science- period where
observable facts theories are checked, previously help
● Falsiicationist are prepared to reject previous formulations are re-analyzed & possible
theories for new ones to have scientific progress refutation are generated, for a new paradigm,
○ Never-ending quest to falsify previous or paradigm shift to occur
theories for better ones because old ones ● Paradigm shift- Kuhn’s view of scientific
can turn out to be incorrect progress
○ Scientific theories are tentative ● Reject old theories for new & improved
● Little room for pseudo-science paradigms (similar to falsification)
○ “A body of science must be falsifiable...A ● The new paradigm’s treatment of past
theory must be open to possible refutation”– theories which brings the discussion on
Michael Ruse scientific approaches full-circle
○ Subject them to tests to falsificate ○ Prematurely rejects theories because
○ Most critical to creationism & astrology of an apparent false instance (similar
○ Refutation is key, leaving pseudo-science to falsification)
dependent on abduction or credit ○ Redeemed when Kuhn talks about the
● Many scientist subscribe to this belief scientific progress later on
○ Science must go on thru an open quest i. new candidate must seem to
to test existing theories and be resolve some outstanding and
subjected to criticism & refutation generally recognized problem
that can be met in no other way
ii. new paradigm must promise to
preserve a relatively large part
of the concrete problem solving
activity that has accrued to
science through its
predecessors
● Got it right especially on how he treats
problems that can be met in no other way but
any & all the approaches that can solve a
problem which leads to scientific progress
23
PDF #3E: WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC THEORY? it can be studied simply as a

WHAT IS A SCIENTIFIC THEORY? piece of pure mathematics.
● Characterization of calculus -
There are other kinds of simple questions for which a highly schematic in nature
precise answer can be given but for which in ● In vocabulary logic or logical
ordinary talk a rather vague answer is usually given calculus, it is unheard of to
and accepted. find a substantive example
of a theory actually worked out
Scientifìc theories are not like rational numbers or as a logical calculus in the
nectarines. Certainly, they are not like nectarines, for writings of most philosophers
they are not simple physical objects. They are like of science.
rational numbers in not being physical objects, but ● In the second part of the
they are totally unlike rational numbers in that theory, coordinating definitions
science theories must be defined in any simple or or empirical interpretations of
direct way in terms of other non-physical, abstract some of the terms are also
objects. highly schematic.
● Variety of different empirical
The Standard Sketch interpretations (ex: different
A scientific theory consists of two parts: methods of measuring mass) -
1. Abstract logical calculus vague schema therefore,
a. in addition to vocabulary making precise
logic characterization is difficult
b. primitive symbols of the ● It is difficult to impose a
theory and the logical definite pattern on the rules of
structure of the theory is fixed empirical interpretation as we
by stating the axioms or move from precisely
postulates of e theory in terms formulated theory on to the
of its primitive symbols very loose experimental
2. Set of rules that assign an language used by scientists.
empirical content to the logical
calculus ● The view I want to support in this essay is not
a. by providing what are usually that this standard sketch is wrong, but rather
called “co-ordinating that it is far too simple. Its very sketchiness
definitions” or “‘empirical makes it possible to omit both important
interpretations” for at least properties of theories and significant
some of the primitive and distinctions that may be introduced between
defined symbols of the different theories.
calculus
Models Versus Empirical Interpretations
● It is emphasized that the first ● Philosophers speak of the first part of the
part (a.) is not sufficient to theory as a logical calculus purely in
define a scientific theory. syntactical terms
Without a systematic ● philosophers find it easier to talk about
specification of the intended theories than about models of theories.
empirical interpretation of the ○ The reasons for this:
theory, it is not possible in any 1. Philosophers’ examples of
sense to evaluate the theory theories are usually quite
as a part of science, although simple in character, and
therefore are easy to discuss
24
in a straightforward linguistic ○ (Physics) reduction of
manner. thermodynamics to statistical
2. The introduction of models of mechanics
a theory inevitably introduces
a stronger mathematical Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Characterization
element into the discussion. ● Bear directly on the question of
● Standard Formalization characterizing a scientific theory
○ precisely defined set of sentences of ● The formulation of a theory as a logical
the theory calculus or as a theory with a standard
○ It is a natural thing to talk about formalization, gives an intrinsic
theories as linguistic entities characterization
○ theories that are formulated within ○ not the only approach.
first-order logic. ○ Within first-order logic
■ First-order logic - the logic of ● To formulate a question in a precise manner,
sentential connectives and ○ have some extrinsic way of
predicates holding for one characterizing the theory.
type of object. ● Define the intended class of models of the
■ When a theory assumes more theory - one of the simplest ways of providing
than first-order logic, it is extrinsic characterization
neither natural nor simple to ● Example of a theory formulated both
formalize. extrinsically and intrinsically- extrinsic
■ Formalization of theories in formulation of the theory of simple ordering
first-order logic is utterly that are isomorphic to a set of real numbers
impractical (ex: theories under the familiar less-than relation.
mainly studied in pure ● The extrinsic characterization of a theory
mathematics in their degree of usually follows these orderings:
complexity) ○ Designate a particular model of the
■ Main reason for this being that theory
the notion of a sentence of the ○ Characterize the entire class of
theory is not well defined models of the theory in relation to this
when the theory is not given distinguished model
in standard formalization ● The problem of intrinsic characterization:
● Isomorphism- isomorphism of models is that formulate a set of axioms that will
we may then use all our familiar knowledge characterize this class of models without
of computational methods, as applied to the referring to the relation between models, but
arithmetical model, to infer facts about the only to the intrinsic properties of any one
isomorphic empirical model. model.
■ Linguistic formulation of this ● A casual inspection of scientific theories
central notion of an empirical suggests that the usual formulations are
model of a theory of intrinsic rather than extrinsic in character,
measurement being and therefore that the question of extrinsic
isomorphic to a numerical formulations usually arises only in pure
model is extremely awkward mathematics.
and tedious to formulate. ○ Our philosophical intuition is surely
● Reductionism (Representation theorem) that an intrinsic characterization is in
○ For instance, the thesis that general to be preferred to an
psychology may be redacted to extrinsic
physiology ● The problem of intrinsic axiomatization of
scientific theory is more complicated and
considerable more subtle
25
○ Precisely by explicit consideration formal machinery for relating a theory to data
of the class of models of the theory is required
○ Axioms for classical particle ● Concrete experience that scientists label
mechanisms- coordinate system, as a an experiment- cannot itself be connected to
frame of reference, tacitly assumed a theory in any complete sense
○ Effect is that relationships deducible 1. Experience must put through a
from the axioms are not necessarily conceptual grinder
invariant with respect to Galilean 2. Once passed in the grinder in the
transformations form of quite fragmentary records of
● We can view tacit assumption of a frame of the complete experiment, the
reference as an extrinsic aspect of the experimental fata emerge in
familiar characterizations of the theory canonical form and constitute a
● Galilean Transformations model of the experiment
○ Each of these different models 3. This model of experiment for which
represents the tacit choice of a direct coordinating definitions are
different frame of reference provided. It is a relatively different
○ All models represent the same logical type from that of the model of
mechanical facts that are related to theory. This model of experiment
Galilean transformations must be highly discrete and finisitic
○ Does not have any theoretical in character.
significance, may be regarded as ❏ Relation of model of
defect of the axioms that these experiment and model
trivially distinct models exit of theory- a
○ Is not the kind of point usually made characteristic
under the heading of empirical problem of modern
interpretations of the theory statistical
● Conceptual point- theoretical side of methodology
physics ❏ Methodology- formal
● In order to provide a simple instance of how and theoretical in
explicit consideration of models can lead to a nature; to develop an
more subtle discussion of the nature of a elaborate theory of
scientific theory experimentation that
● Philosophical standpoint- should be intercedes between
expressed only in terms of Galilean invariant any fundamental
relationships, and customary formulations are scientific theory and
defective in this respect raw experimental
experience
Coordinating Definitions and Hierarchy of 4. To elaborate methods, for
Theories estimating theoretical parameters in
Theory- refer only to the first part of the the model of theory from models of
theories; to the axiomatization of the theory or the experiment are not adequately
expression of theory as a logical calculus covered by a reference to
● Necessity of providing empirical coordinating definitions
interpretation of a theory is important as the
development of the formal side of the theory
● Often described by philosophers have their “What is scientific theory?”
place in popular philosophical expositions of ● Would seen inevitable if we include a more
theories, but in actual practice of testing detailed description of theories a
scientific theories a more elaborate and methodology for designing experiments,
26
estimating parameters and testing theories than does the view already
goodness-of-fit of the models of theory sketched
● X = a scientific theory if, and only if, ● Theories are not regarded even as principles
so-and-so of inference but as methods of organizing
● Important to recognize that the existence of a evidence to decide which of the several
hierarchy of theories arising from the actions to take
methodology of experimentation for testing ● It is a straightforward matter to return to the
the fundamental theory is an essential classical view and to connect a theory as a
ingredient of any sophisticated scientific principle of inference with the concept of a
discipline theory as a true major premise in an
argument
Instrumental View of Theories ○ Certainly more remote and indirect
● View that theories are to be looked at from to taking an action
an instrumental viewpoint ● No serious discussion of the treatment of
● The most important function of a theory, is scientific theories from the standpoint of the
not to organize or assert statements that are statistical decision theory
true or false, but to furnish material ○ No genuine alternative to the
principles of inference that may be used in semantical notions of truth and
inferring one set of facts from another validity
● “All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; ○ Formal development of the theory is
therefore is mortal,” the major premise of dependent on the standard notions
“all men are mortal.” according to this and in no sense replaces them
viewpoint, is converted into a principle of ● No single discussion is made in which
inference particular observation statements are treated
● Thus, now has only the minor premise in terms of utility rather than in terms of their
“Socrates is a man” truth or falsity
● When theories are regarded as principles of ● Statistical Decision Theory does not, at the
inference, than major premises, we are no present time, offer a coherent or original new
longer concerned directly to establish the view of scientific theories
truth or falsity but to evaluate their ● Characteristic of many instrumental
usefulness in inferring new statements of analyses
fact ○ Distinguish the status of theories from
● One concerted serious effort to provide a the status of particular assertions of
formal framework for evaluation of theories fact
which replaces the classical concept of truth ○ Point of a more radical instrumental,
● Modern Statistical Decision Theory behavioristic view of the use of
○ Typical theory that talks about language to challenge the distinction
actions rather than statements ○ To look at the entire use of language,
○ Once the focus shifts from statements including the statement of theories as
to actions, it is quite natural to replace well as of particular matters of fact,
the concept of truth by that of from a behavioristic viewpoint
expected loss or risk ● All uses of language are to be analyzed with
○ It is appropriate to ask if a statement strong emphasis on the language users
is true, but does not make much ● It is claimed that the semantical analysis of
sense to ask if it is risky modern logic gives an inadequate account
○ It is reasonable to ask how risky an even of the cognitive uses of language
action is, but not to ask if it is true ○ It does not consider the production
○ It is apparent that statistical decision and reception of linguistic stimuli by
theory, literally, projects a more
radical instrumental view of
27
speakers, writers, listeners and
readers
Answer to “what is a scientific theory?” by a

behaviorist:
● Can be given only in terms of an explicit and
detailed consideration of both producers
and consumers of the theory
● There is much that is attractive in this
behaviorist way of looking at theories or
languages in general
● What it lacks at present, is sufficient
scientific depth and definiteness to serve
as genuine alternative to precise notions of
modern logic and semantics
● Language of models and theories first
mentioned is surely so approximately correct
that any behaviorist revision of our way of
looking at theories must yield the ordinary
talk about models and theories as a first
approximation
● It is a matter for the future to see whether or
not the behaviorist’s approach will deepen
our understanding of the nature of scientific
theories
● In the current perspective, methods and
concepts of modern logic provide a
satisfactory and powerful set of tools for
analyzing the detailed structure of
scientific theories
● Needed in the present: deeper and more
detailed application of these tools to the job
of analysis
28
PDF #4A TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM AND PART I: CREATING MYTH
IDEOLOGY The Information Society
Introduction: ● Late 20th century → decline in economy; led
‘prospective buyer’ → dark skinned women; to development of ‘post-industrial society’,
targeted audience were other races such as ‘service economy’ and most recently,
Chinese, Indian, Brazilian, Thai ‘information society’ and ‘knowledge-based
‘Digital revolution’ → prospecting the poor as the economy.
target market; Business week was presenting a ● Information society had been adopted by:
particular strategy to what has become the ‘digital - politicians, with support business and
divide’ (division of the poor from the ‘information - the media, as the basis of policy
society’) ● Information society is consistently presented
● fired by the engines of the Information and as having been created by technology, the
Communications Technologies that changed product of the convergence of new digital
the way people live ( in creating knowledge, information and communication technologies.
educating people, disseminating info) ● The mythical association between
● “access to info.. Has the capacity to improve technological revolutions and a better social
living standards for millions of people around future was established by the report’s
the world and better communication between contention that the information society was
peoples helps resolve conflicts and attain the result of the “dawning of a multimedia
world peace world” (multimedia - integrated technology
● WSIS bridging purpose of digital divide → to that results from the convergence of the
harness the potential of information and previously separate technologicies of sound,
communication technology to promote the text and image.)
development goals of the Millennium ● “Throughout the world, information and
Declaration → swiss president Pascal communications technologies are generating
Couchepin created new political concept → a new industrial revolution already as
‘digital solidarity’ significant and far-reaching as those of the
● Relationship between technology and social past. It is a revolution based on information,
change made by media and by policymakers itself the expression of human knowledge.
different aspects to this representation: Technological progress now enables us to
○ 1. Ignores fundamental nature of the process, store, retrieve and communicate
creation of technology by human ● “The creation of the information society
society, instead → reifies technology should be entrusted to the private sector and
‘phantom objectivity’ as agent of to market forces” - European Commision
social change; conceal every trace of press
its fundamental nature: the relation ● Information society did not have much
between people influence to the US. However, a parallel
○ 2. Inter-related representation dominant normative concept was developed
involves the myth of the ‘technical fix’. there simultaneously, that of the Information
The implicit assumption that Age. This derived largely from the influence
technology provides the only feasible of Alvin Toffler’s 1980 book The Third Wave
solution to complex social problems → had predicted that the future would be
○ 3. Use of myths about technology in shaped by the new information technologies
order to promote particular policies (introduction to his previous book, Future
and help create particula ideologies; Shock, Toffler had made clear that the
new technologies are associated with purpose of predicting the future was to help
neo-liberal ‘free-market’ ideology citizens adapt to it.)
● The IITF developed an Agenda for an Action
on the National Information Infrastructure →
developing this will help unleash an
29
information revolution that will change forever ● Al Gore and published under the overall title
the way people live, work and interact. of “Falling through the Net”. → about term
● US government took Global Information digital divide; studies looked at the
Infrastructure to world stage → development disparities in access to ICTs in the US by
would be prerequisite for building network of geography, income, race and gender.
networks ○ second of these reports, published in
○ “GII will be a metaphor for democracy 1998 “Falling through the Net II: New
itself” Data on the Digital Divide”
● information age means more ○ third report, published in 1999, was
decentralization, more market orientation, “Falling through the Net: Defining the
more freedom for individuals, more Digital Divide
opportunity for choice, more capacity to be ○ These reports received widespread
productive without controls media and political attention and were
● The information society is not only affecting responsible for popularising the term.
the way people interact but it is also requiring ● February 2000 “From Digital Divide to Digital
the traditional organisational structures to be Opportunity: the Clinton-Gore Agenda for
more flexible, more participatory and more Creating Digital Opportunity
decentralised. ● “Technology has the power to make such a
● The conclusions also adopted some ‘core positive difference in people’s lives, we have
principles’ in order to realise their common a simple obligation: spread it.” - Bill Gates
vision of the Global Information Society, ● Bridge the digital divide → compatible with
including: some strands of neo-conservative thinking
○ promoting dynamic competition ● Don Tapscott (one of the gurus of
○ encouraging private investment Information Age, writer of s Paradigm Shift:
○ defining an adaptable regulatory The New Promise of Information Technology,
framework The Digital Economy and Growing Up Digital,
○ providing open access to networks one of theoritiants of digital divide) → erasing
The Digital Divide digital divide wil be aggressive
● The G7 group of countries sponsored a ○ Coined term: philanthorpreneuring
conference on the theme of ‘Information ○ Argued that from a shrewd business
Society and Development’ (ISAD) which took perspective, companies should be
place in South Africa in May 1996. → able to find ways to benefit from their
Information and Communication philanthropic activities spreading IT
Technologies and Service have a potential across the divide through both tax
offer to offer a significant contribution towards advantages and brand enhancement
growth in all countries but, huge gap → which might well be greater than the
highly-industrialized and less-industrialised benefits that they obtain from their
● UNESCO and International advertising budgets.
Telecommunications Union → ‘Africa ● digital opportunities → creation of the
Information Society Initiative: An Action ‘DOT-COM Alliance: Development in the
Framework to Build Africa’s Information 7 Information Age’ which was funded by US
and Communication Infrastructure’ in 1996. Agency for International Development
Africa was the first continent to undertake (USAID) and sought to bring together public
such a programme. bodies, universities, NGOs and private
● concern for the international gap in access to companies with expertise in ICTs in order to
ICTs → fear that a gap was opening up provide support to USAID’s efforts to “bring
between the ‘information haves’ and the the benefits of ICTs to under-served regions
‘information have–nots’ which governments and populations”.
needed to help bridge ● DOT-COM → convince developing country
governments to adopt policies that
30
encourage private investment, competition have all the characteristics of a technological
and equitable regulation, leading to universal myth
access and diverse service. Included: ● President of Cisco Systems claims that we
fostering privatization, competition and open can change the life of every child who
networks, and universal service in dreams of creating something new, but that in
telecommunications policy order to do so we have to work together to
● @ the end of January 2000 was entitled enable all to have access to the technology
“From Digital Divide to Digital Opportunity: ● inevitability and benefits of the information
Business Leaders Report from Davos” → society are systematically associated with the
Cisco Systems expansion of the market and the dismantling
● IT driven economic and social transformation of government control and regulation.
→ help individuals and societies to use ○ ‘Building the Information Society for
knowledge and ideas; renew our commitment All’
to the principle of inclusion (no one left ○ The market said to be in most need of
behind) de-regulation is the labour market. Its
● G8 created a Digital Opportunities Task regulation, whether by governments
Force to address the problems of the digital or as the product of effective
divide collective action by trade unions, is
● DOT Force delegated some yrs of to Digital presented as one of the greatest
Opportunity Initiative, a public-private obstacles to the development of the
partnership made up of the United Nations information society
Development Fund ● divide within countries → the real incomes of
● The Digital Opportunity Initiative adopted the the rich have risen whilst those of the poor
slogan “From Digital Divide to Digital have declined.
Opportunities for Development ● huge rise in inequality → “a threat to the
PART II: Dealing with Reality social fabric”
‘information society’ and of the ‘digital divide’ have ○ Clinton Administration chose to focus
been consistently used to → promote particular the problem around the concept of the
policies ‘digital divide’ which it then
● creation of what Mosco (2004) has called the successfully transferred to the global
‘digital sublime’ = this makes use of the stage.
power of myth in mobilising human ● no evidence that ICT technologies will make
imagination to engender commitment to any contribution to closing the
particular policies socio-economic divide.
● Technological Myth ● ‘Philanthropreneurism’ will never be more
○ mantra that the technology has a than a means for corporations to improve
revolutionary potential to fulfil the their image by pretending to be addressing
deepest human aspirations the problems of the dispossessed.
○ For it to be successful → has to ● unlikely that other raced customers will make
create “euphoric clarity” (clear contribution to Hewlett Packard’s balance
image, devoid of nuances and sheet
contradictions and devoid of politics) ● Technological determinism perceives the
○ But hide human agency and particular relationship between technology and social
political interests in promoting a change as one in which technology is a
particular direction of social change quasi-natural force driving social change
● Technology is consistently presented as the ○ An ideological weapon favouring the
driver of the process powerful and seeking to hide the fact
● ‘information society’ or the ‘information age’ that there are winners and losers from
are presented by the powerful in ways that change.
31
○ Approaching the problem of
socio-economic inequality through the
concept of the ‘digital divide’
perpetuates mystification and
prevents real problem from being
addressed
● ‘Building the information society for all’,
‘bridging the digital divides’ or ‘creating digital
opportunity’ are therefore inappropriate
slogans for those concerned with rising
inequalities in society. ‘Digital solidarity’ is not
an appropriate way to address concerns with
increasing individualisation
● The issue is building a society for all.
● This can only be done by ‘bridging the
socio-economic divide’.
○ Such bridges cannot be built without
challenging wealth and privilege.
○ Social solidarity cannot be
constructed by embracing the very
mechanisms which promote the
increasingly individualised
consumption and economic greed
which the continuous expansion of
markets requires of society
32
PDF #4B TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM AND
IDEOLOGY: QUESTIONING THE “INFORMATION
SOCIETY” AND THE “DIGITAL DIVIDE” PDF #4C THE QUESTION CONCERNING
digital revolution TECHNOLOGY
-fired by engines of the Information and
Communication technology ■ Questioning - Builds a way, the way is a way
-fundamentally changed the way people of thinking
think, behave, communicate, work, and earn their ■ Technology is not equivalent to the
lives essence of technology, the essence of
-create knowledge, educate people, and technology is by no means anything
disseminated information technological.
-world conducts economic and business ■ the essence of a thing is considered to be
practices what the thing is
-provide speed delivery of humanitarian and ■ Instrumentum - (technology in Latin)
health care. Technology itself is a contrivance
-access to information and capacity to ○ modern technology too is a means to an
improve living standards end.
-the development gap between rich and poor ● Technology - no mere means, is a way of
among and within countries has also increased revealing
INFORMATION SOCIETY: ○ if we give heed to this, then another
-found genesis and development of the whole realm for the essence of
concept of the information society and in how it has technology will open itself up to us. It
been used by policymakers, business leaders and is the realm of revealing, i.e., of truth
the media. ● Technikon - means that which belongs to
-originates in academic attempts to techne¯.
understand and explain changes that took place in - two things with respect to the
the economic structure meaning of this word:
-normative concept is essentially a European ○ One is that techne¯ is the name not only for
construct. the activities and skills of the craftsman,
-creation of information society entrusted to but also for the arts of the mind and the
the private sector and market forces. fine arts
-did not have much influence in the United ○ other point that we should observe with
States regard to techne¯ is even more important.
-a paralleled dominant normative concept (opening up it is a revealing)
was developed simultaneously.
“multimedia” : widely interpreted in technological ■ Techne¯ is a mode of ale¯theuein
terms as the integrated technology - reveals what does not bring itself forth
-results from the convergence of previously
separate technologies of sound, text, and image. ■ What is modern technology?
Core Principles (to realise their common vision of ○ too revealing
Global Information Society) ○ Only when we allow our attention to rest on
-pronouncing dynamic competition this fundamental characteristic does that
-encouraging private investment which is new in modern technology show
-defining an adaptable regulatory framework itself to us
-providing open access to network ○ revealing that holds sway throughout modern
The Digital Divide technology does not unfold into a
-”Information Society and Development” bringing-forth in the sense of poiesis
-Information and Communication Technologies and ○ But the revealing never simply comes to an
Services have a potential to offer a significant end
contribution toward growth in all countries.
33
○ man in the technological age is, in a Gewähren ordinarily means to be surety for, to
particularly striking way, challenged forth into warrant, to vouchsafe, to grant
revealing. Nur a Gewährte währt. Das anfänglich aus der
○ Modern science’s way of representing Frühe Währende ist das Gewährende. A literal
pursues and entraps nature as a calculable translation of the second sentence would be, “That
coherence of forces (physics not applied which endures primally from out of the early. . . .”
science) “coming-to-pass” translates the noun Ereignis (in
Notes this essay)
Wessen - traditional translation of the German noun “Safekeeping” translates the noun Wahrnis
Wesen, find true meaning by the “correct way”
Vorstellung - conception (or representation)
Instrumentum - signifies that which functions to
heap or build up or to arrange, equated with
Einrichtung, translated “contrivance,”
“Come to pass” translates sich ereignet.
Das, was ein anderes verschulde - “that which is
the cause of something else.”
In - confines into
An-wesen - presence (to continue toward)
Ver-an-lassen - Veranlassen ordinarily means to
occasion, to cause, to bring about, to call forth, used
here as “to start something”
Hervorbringen - includes to bring forth or produce,
to generate or beget, to utter, to elicit
Entbergen - must usually be translated with
“revealing,”
gehört in - belongs with in, gehort zu - belongs to
Wahrheit - truth
Herausfordern - to challenge, to call forth or
summon to action, to demand positively, to provoke
Stellen - embraces the meanings of a whole family
of verbs: bestellen (to order, command; to set in
order), vorstellen (to represent), sicherstellen (to
secure), nachstellen (to entrap), verstellen (to block
or disguise), herstellen (to produce, to set here),
darstellen (to present or exhibit)
Bestand ordinarily denotes a store or supply as
“standing by.”
“Enframing” for Ge-stell
“That which is primally early” translates die
anfängliche Frühe
Idea - not english but greek
“Coming to presence” here translates the gerund
Wesende
Geschick and the related verb schicken, meaning
resident
dessen was ist. On the peculiar significance of das
was ist (that which is)
The open” here translates das Freie, cognate with
Freiheit, freedom
34
PPTX#3 Historical Antecedents of Science and - also called the Old Stone Age
Technology - began about 2.5 million years
Historical Antecedents of Science and Technology ago and lasted until around
● Sumerian 8000 B.C.
○ Cuneiform, Uruk City, The Great PALEOLITHIC AGE
Ziggurats of Ur, Irrigation and Dikes, ● Surviving in the Paleolithic Age
Sailboats, Wheel, The Plow, Roads - paleolithic people often moved
● Babylonian around in search of food
○ Hanging Gardens of Babylon - nomads or people who
● Egyptian regularly move from place to
○ Papyrus, Ink, Hieroglyphics, place to survive
Cosmetics, Wig, Alarm Clock - traveled in groups, or bands,
(Clepsydra) of about 20 or 30 members
● Greek - survived by hunting and
○ Alarm Clock, Water Mill gathering
● Roman - hunted buffalo, bison, wild
○ Newspaper, Codes, Architecture, goats, reindeer, and other
Numbers animals, depending on where
● Chinese they lived
○ Silk, Tea Production, The Great Wall - along coastal areas, they
of China, Gun Powder fished
● Medieval/ Middle Ages - also gathered wild nuts,
○ Printing Press, Microscope, berries, fruits, wild grains, and
Telescope green plants
● Philippine Inventions - current research indicates that
○ Salamander/ Amphibious Tricycle, two-thirds of the energy was
Salt Lamp, Medical Incubator (Dr. Fe derived from animal foods
Del Mundo), Mosquito Ovicidal/ - fat content of the diet was
Larvicidal Trap System, EJeepney believed to be similar that of
the present day
PPTX #4 Historical Transitions of Technology
● Science and Technology - paleolithic men and women
- makes difficult and complicated tasks performed different tasks within the
easier group
- developments in this field are not just - men hunted large animals, not
products of one time thought process women
- brought about by gradual - over time, they
improvements to earlier works from developed tools and
different time periods weapons to help them
● Human Revolution (Human Origin) hunt
- refers to the remarkable and sudden - traps and spears they
emergence of language, made increased their
consciousness and culture in our chances of killing their
species prey
- historians call the early period of - women stayed close
human history the Stone Age to the camp, which
- earliest part of this period was the was often located near
Paleolithic Age a stream or other body
- paleolithic means "old stone" of water
in Greek
35
- looked after the - spears and bows and
children and searched arrows made killing large
nearby woods and animals easier
meadows for berries, - spears with sharp points,
nuts, and grains and fishhooks increased the
- some evidence suggests that number of fish caught
some men and women may - early humans used
have hunted in monogamous sharp-edged tools to cut up
pairs plants and dig roots
- means that a man and - they used scraping tools to
a woman worked clean animal hides, which they
together to find food for used for clothing and shelter
themselves and their - By the end of the Paleolithic Age,
children people were making smaller and
- such groupings sharper tools.
became the first - they crafted needles from
families animal bones to make nets
- everyone worked to find food, and baskets and to sew hides
because it was the key to the together for clothing
group's survival ● Changes in the Paleolithic Age
- some scientists believe that an - paleolithic humans learned to make
equal relationship existed their own shelters
between Paleolithic men and - people constructed tents and huts of
women animal skins, brush, and wood
● Invention of Tools During the Paleolithic Age - in very cold climates, some people
- technology tools and methods to made shelters from ice and snow
perform tasks were first used by - many lived in caves
Paleolithic people ● The Use of Fire During the Paleolithic Age
- before this time, sticks, stones, and - Archaeologists believe early humans
tree branches served as tools. produced fire by friction.
- later, people made devices from a - They learned that by rubbing two
hard stone called flint (hard, pieces of wood together, the wood
sedimentary crystalline form of the became heated and charred.
mineral quartz) - Fire provided warmth in cold caves.
- Hammerstone from - Cooked food, they discovered, tasted
Manjuangou, China better and was easier to chew and
- Stone Tools from Lokalalei, digest.
Kenya - Meat that was smoked by fire could
- paleolithic people learned that by be stored.
hitting flint with another hard stone, - They also discovered that a certain
the flint would flake into pieces stone, iron pyrite, gave off sparks
- these pieces had very sharp when struck against another rock.
edges that could be used for ● Communication and Arts During the
cutting Paleolithic Age
- Flint technology was a - development of spoken language
breakthrough for early peoples - Spoken language of early people was
- hard axe: a large piece of flint constantly growing and changing.
tied to wooden pole - Paleolithic cave paintings have been
- Over time, paleolithic people made found all around the world.
better, more complex tools.
36
- Early artists crushed yellow, black, INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
and red rocks and combined them - 1870-1900
with animal fat to make their paints. - Period when the face of industry changed
- They used twigs and their fingertips to dramatically.
apply these paints to the rock walls. - Lasting impact on the economies of the world
and the lives of the person.
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION (FIRST - Introduction of inventions that made the life of
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION) people easier.
- wide-scale transition from a lifestyle of ● Textile
hunting and gathering to one of agriculture - The advancement of the textile
and settlement industry was a key development in
- The Neolithic was a period in the the Industrial Revolution.
development of human technology. - The cotton increased productivity of
- (10200 BC and ending between 4500 and removing seed from cotton gin by a
2000 BC) factor of 50.
- These settled communities permitted humans ○ Assembly line in the textile industry
to observe and experiment with plants to - Large gains in productivity
learn how they grew and developed. also occurred in spinning and
- This new knowledge led to the weaving of textile
domestication of plants. - The first that employed the
● Neolithic Society factory system.
- growth of agriculture made - The use of machines and an
permanent houses possible "assembly-line" approach.
- Mud brick houses and stilt-houses ● Stem Engine
settlements were also common. - heat engine that performs mechanical
- The clothing of the Neolithic humans work using steam as its working fluid
were made of animal skins. - uses the expansion principle of
- Reliance upon the foods produced chemistry, where heat applied to
from cultivated lands. water transforms the water to steam
- Production of surplus crop yields. and then pushes a piston (cylinder)
● The Introduction of Agriculture - this pushing force is typically
- Surpluses could be stored and traded. transformed, by way of a connecting
- Agricultural life afforded securities. rod and flywheel, into rotational
- Sedentary farming populations grew force for work
faster than nomadic. ● Mining
● Technology - Following the invention of the steam
- The polished stone tools were engine, demand for coal increased.
characteristic of Neolithic technology. - Coal mining is the process of
- e.g. Neolithic Grinding Stone extracting coal from the ground.
and Sickle - Coal is valued for its energy content.
- Neolithic people were skilled - Industrialization increased the
farmers. demand significantly.
- They were also skilled ● Iron-making
manufacturers of a range of other - The substitution of coal for charcoal
types of stone tools and ornaments, greatly lowered the fuel cost of iron
including projectile points, beads, and production.
statues. - The steam engine began being used
- The polished stone axe allowed to power blast air in the mid 1750s,
forest clearance in a large scale. enabling a large increase in iron
production.
37
● Invention of Machine Tools - John Hall and Bryan Dorkin would
- The first machine tools were invented open the very first commercial
during the industrial revolution. canning factory in England in 1813.
- These included the screw cutting ● Internal Combustion Engine
lathe, cylinder boring machine and - invented by Jean Leanoir in 1858
the milling machine. - internal combustion engine: heat
- Machine tools made the economical engine where the combustion of a fuel
manufacture of precision metal parts occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in
possible. a combustion chamber that is an
● Chemicals integral part of the working fluid flow
- The large-scale production of circuit
chemicals was an important - Eventually this engine was used in
development during the Industrial mass transportation.
Revolution. ● Electricity
- Production of sulphuric acid by the - development of electricity as a source
lead chamber process invented by of power had been done by an
the Englishman John Roebuck in international collection of scientists
1746. including Benjamin Franklin of
- Germany took world leadership in the Pennsylvania, Alessandro Volta of
chemical industry during the industrial the University of Pavia, Italy, and
industry. Michael Faraday of Britain
- Aspiring chemists flocked to German - It was the latter (Michale Faraday)
universities during the period. who had demonstrated the nature of
● Cement the elusive relationship between
- In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British electricity and magnetism in 1831.
bricklayer turned builder, patented a - In particular, French, German,
chemical process for making portland Belgian, and Swiss engineers evolved
cement. the most satisfactory forms of
- the process involves sintering armature (the coil of wire) and
a mixture of clay and produced the dynamo, which made
limestone to about 1,400 °C the large-scale generation of
(2,552 °F), then grinding it into electricity commercially feasible.
a fine powder which is then ● Automobile
mixed with water, sand and - Henry Ford was by far one of the
gravel to produce concrete. most imperative inventors of the
● Agriculture Industrial Revolution.
○ 1730 - It enabled people to go wherever they
- Joseph Foljambe's wanted whenever they wanted.
Rotherham plough of 1730 - The automobile modernizes the
was the first commercially transportation industry entirely.
successful iron plough. ● Telephone
○ 1784 - Alexander Graham Bell created the
- The threshing machine, telephone in 1876.
invented by Andrew Meikle in - further improved communications and
1784, displaced hand eventually led to the various
- threshing with a flail, a communications devices used today
laborious job that took about ● Camera
one-quarter of agricultural - Beginning in 1814, Joseph
labor. Nicéphore Niépce the first person to
● Tin Can ever take a photograph.
38
- In 1827 he successfully produced the - it deposited
first, long-lasting image using a plate radionuclides – atoms
coated with bitumen. with excess nuclear
- This was then washed in a solvent energy across a wide
and placed over a box of iodine to area.
produce a plate with light and dark - Since 1952, more explosive
qualities. thermonuclear weapons have
● Phonograph been tested
- Thomas Edison created the ○ Fossil Fuels
phonograph in 1877. - The products of burning fossil
- Prior to the creation of the fuels mark Anthropocene age.
phonograph the only option for - Current rates of carbon
entertainment was for live musicians emission are thought to be
or actors to perform. higher than at any time in the
- This allowed people to listen to music last 65 million years.
anywhere. - The concentration of carbon
● Airplane dioxide in the atmosphere has
- Brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright risen sharply since 1850.
created the first airplane in 1903. ○ Plastics
- Ability to fly had long been a dream of - initially developed in the 1900s
humanity. - have grown rapidly since the
- Within a few decades' planes had 1950s, and we now produce
changed the face of personal and 500 million tons a year.
business travel and had dramatically - Sediments containing plastics
altered warfare. will be a clear sign of the
Anthropocene.
ANTHROPOCENE PERIOD ○ Changed Geology
- time in which human activity has been the - Every time we destroy a patch
dominant influence on climate and the of rainforest, this changes the
environment future of Earthʼs geology.
- human activity has been the dominant - We have transformed more
influence on climate and the environment than 50 percent of Earthʼs land
- Scientists in the Soviet Union appear to have area for our own purposes.
used the term "Anthropocene" as early as the - Deforestation, farming,
1960s to refer to the Quaternary, the most drilling, mining, landfills,
recent geological period. dam-building and coastal
- term was widely popularized in 2000 by reclamation are all having
atmospheric chemist Paul J. Crutzen, who widespread effects on
regards the influence of human behavior on sedimentary processes.
Earth's atmosphere in recent centuries as so - Disrupting how layers of rock
significant as to constitute a new geological are laid down, which will be
time detectable thousands of years
● Issues that identified the Anthropocene in the future.
Period ○ Fertilizer
○ Nuclear Weapons - Our attempts to feed an
- War efforts have left their mark increasing population will
on geology. leave clear indicators, too.
- When the first nuclear weapon - Levels of nitrogen and
was detonated on 16 July phosphorus in soils have
1945 in New Mexico doubled in the last century
39
because of our increased use - Calculative mind versus meditative
of fertilizers. mind
- We produce 23.5 million tons - “But where the danger is, grows the
of phosphorus a year. saving power also”
- Human activity had the - “Essence of technology is nothing
biggest impact on the technological”
nitrogen cycle for 2.5 billion - “Everywhere we remain unfree and
years. chained to technology, whether we
○ Global Warming passionately affirm or deny it”
- unusually rapid increase in - The four causes why technological
Earthʼs average surface devices affect us
- temperature over the past - Causa materialis: the material
century primarily due to the or matter
greenhouse gases released - Causa formalis: the form or
as people burn fossil fuels. shape the material or matter
- The global average surface enters
temperature rose 0.6 to 0.9 - Causa finalis: the end
degrees Celsius (1.1 to 1.6° F) - Causa efficiens: the effect that
between 1906 and 2005, and brings about the finished result
the rate of temperature ● The Dark Side of Technology (Michio Kaku,
increase has nearly doubled in 2012)
the last 50 years. - there are wild cards that can destroy
- Temperatures are certain to go the human race
up further. - weaponizing a virus
- Average global sea levels are - e.g. ebola virus can be
higher than at any point in the weaponized so that its
past 115,000 years and are airborne
rising rapidly, which may also - e.g. the Spanish flu
be detectable in future. genome is available in
○ Mass Extinction the internet and is
- The moment of extinction is downloadable
generally considered to be the - killed more
death of the last individual of people than the
the species. entirety of WWI
- Mass extinctions sparked by - not long enough, HS
massive global changes mark kids will be able to
the Anthropocene period. manipulate life form
- It is expected that - nuclear bombs
three-quarters of species are - laser enrichment of
set to be wiped out in the uranium is decreasing
coming centuries. in price thus imposing
a threat since anyone
TECHNOLOGY IN THE DANGEROUS WORLD can buy one and build
● The Question of Technology (Heidegger, a nuclear bomb in their
1977) own basement
- Technology - laser beams can be
- a means to an end used to separate
- human activity uranium
- contrivance - global warming
- aletheia, poisesis and techne
40
- parts of the world will
soon be underwater
- global warming will
spark nuclear wars
since refugees will try
to diminish borders
between countries
- government will use
nuclear bombs to
eliminate refugees
AAAAA THANK YOU GUYS! MAKAKA-UNO TAYO

SA STS AND THY PRELIMS, claiming it!!!!
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Sts - Prelims - : Science, Technology and Society PPTX #1 Introduction To STS

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STS - PRELIMS | 1PTA - Santander, Rivero, Zabat, Pating, Tan, Ty, Quizon, Tolentino

technology studies, is a branch or

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AAAAA THANK YOU GUYS! MAKAKA-UNO TAYO

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