Puente Cinta

Stress Ribbon
Pedestrian Bridges
12.1 lntroduction ................ ......................................................................463
12.2 Structural Arrangement ................................................................. 466
Stress Rjbbon • Structural Arnngcment of
the Ot.'(:k • Structural Arrangemcnt al Picrs ;md
Abut.nems • Transferring Stress Ribbon Force into the Soil
12.3 Erection ................. .............................................................................477
Construe~jon Scquences A • Construction Sequences 6
12.4 Stat ic a nd Dynamic Analysis .......................................................... 479
Single Cable • A nalysis of Stress Ribbon as a Cable • Analysis
of the Stress RibbOfl as a Geo.netrically Non·Linear St ruct ure
• Dynamic Analysis • Oesi,gni1lgofStructural Mc.nbers
• éxample of the Analysis
12.5 Stress Ribbon Supported by Aren ................................ .............. .. .. 495
12.6 Exa m pies ............................................................................................ 498
DS·L Bridgcs: Bridge across thc Vltava River in Prnguc·Troja,
Czcch Rcpublic • Sacramento River Trail Bridge. Rcdding,
CaUfornia • lake Hodges Btidge, San Diego, Califor1'\ia • Bridge
across the Medway River~ Maidstone, KeJlt, UK • Kikko Bridge,
)iri Strasky Japao • Btidge across 1he Ex-ptessway R35 Jtear Olornouc, Czech
Sttasky. Hust}' twd Republic • McLoughlin Boulev;ITd Bridge, Portland, Oregon
Partllers. Ltd. References ...................................................................................................... 514
12.1 Introduction
"What would be the best bridge? Well, the one wh ich could be reduced toa th.r ead, a line. without
anything left over; which fulfilled s trictly its function of uniti ng two separated distances."
Pablo Picasso
Stress-ribbon bridge is the tenn that has been coined to describe structures fonned by directly walked
prestressed concrete deck with the shape of a catenary. The conception was tirst introduced by Ulrich
Finsterwalder, wbo repeatedly proposed such a structure for bridging largespans (Walther 1969; Straskl'
2011). Among the bridges suggested they were those over Bosporus (see Figure 12.1), Lake Geneva and
Zoo in Kéiln.
The load-carrying structure consists of slightly sagging tensioned cables, bedded in a very thin con-
crete slab compared with the span length. This slab serves as a deck, but apart from distributing the load
local! y a nd preserving thc continuity it has no othcr function. lt is a kind of suspcnsion structure where
the cables are tended so tightly that the traffic can be placed directly on the concrete slab embedding the
463
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464 Bridge Engineering Handbook, Second Edition: Supersuucwre Design
cables. Compared with otber structuraltypes its load path is extremely simple. On the otber band, tbe
force in the cables is ver y large making the aochoring of the cable ver y expeosive.
The stress ribbon structures combine a structural form of primitive bridges formed by ropes from
liana or bamboo with the structural arrangement of prestressed suspended roofs. 'lbe characteristic
feature of the stress ribbon structures is a variable slope that disqualified using of this structural type
for highway bridges.lt is difficult to imagine that the structure preseoted in Figure 12.1 would be accept-
able for higbwayagencies. A stress ribbon structure might represen! a right solutioo only in specialcases
when the bighway is straight and the profile is a concave (sag) curve. On the other h and, the variable
slope is acceptable or even advantageous for pedestrian bridges built in a countryside where there is no
straight line.
The first stress ribbon bridge built for the public was designed by Pro f. Walther across the freeway N3
near Pfáfikon, Switzerland in 1965 (Walther 1969). From that time the stress ribbon bridges were built
in many countries all ovcr the world. In the Un ited States the first stress ribbon bridge of span of 127m
(417ft.) was built in 1990 across the Sacramento River in Redding, CA (Redfield and Strasky 1992) (see
Figure 12.2).
..
. ,, ...
FIGURE L2.1 Bosporus Bridge-U. Finsterwa1der 1958.
FIGURE 12.2 Bridge across the.Sacramento River in Redding, CA.
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Stress Ribbon Pedestrian Bridges 465
'Ibe stressribbon structures can be designed with one or more spans and are characterized by soeces·
sive and complementary smooth curves. The curves blend into the surrou nding envi ronment and their
forms, tbe most simple and basic of struclural solutions, d early arliculate the flow of interna! forces.
'lbeir fine d imensions also correspond lo a hu man scale.
lt is evident that the stress ribbon slructu re represenls tbe simples! struclural form. Both eng.i neering
and aesthetic beauty of this bridge type Hes in the fael that tbe suspended walkway itselfis lhe structure.
11 ca rries itself without the need for any a rms, props. masts, cables, d ampers, and so on. Its stiffness and
stabilily result from its geometry.
Such structures can be eíther cast in-sítu or formed of precast units. 1n the case of precasl structures,
the deck ís assembled from precast segments that are suspended on bearí ng cables and sh ífted along
tbem to their final posít íon (see Figure 12.3}. Preslressíng ís applied after castíng the joínts between tbe
segments lo ensu re sufficient rigidity of the structtLres.
The maín advanlage ofthese structurcs is thal they have mínima! e nvironmental impact because lhey
use very little material and can be erected indcpende ntly from the existing terrai n. Since they do not
need bearings or expansion joints lhey need o nly minimallong-term maintenance.
They are able Lo resist not o nly uniformly d istributed load buL also la rge concentrated loads c reated
by the wheels ofheavy trucks (Strasky 1987a) (see Fig ure 12.4}. Ex tremely large floods lhat occu rred
in the Czech Republic in summer 1997 a nd 2002 also confirmed that they are able 10 resista large
ultimate load. Ahhough the bridge was totally nooded, the ir static function remains without any
changes.
Even tbough the stress ribbon structures bave low natural frequencies, ou r experience confi rmed
tbat the speed of motion of tbe deck created by walking is within acceptable limits. Also our detailed
dynamic test confirmed thal vanda ls cannot damage these Slructures.
Although lbe above structu res have a ver y simple shape, theí r design is nol straigbtforwa rd.lt requi res
a deep understandiog of slructural forms, functíon of structural detaíls and behavior of prestressed
concrete slructures posHensioned by interna! and/or externa! tendons. Also the slatic and dynamic
analysís requíres understandíng of the function of cables and resolves varíous problems in regard to
both geometric a nd materíalnon-linearity.
FIGURE 12.3 Erection ofthe bridge across the Sacramento River in Redding, CA.
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466 Bridge Engineering Handbook, Second Edition: Superstructure Design
FIGURE 12.4 Loading test ofthe bridge across the Vltava River in Prague-Troja, Czech Republic.
12.2 Structural Arrangement

12.2.1 Stress Ribbou
The beauty ofthe suspension and aren structures comes from their cconomic strucrural shape. lt is well
known that a suspension cable can span severa! m iles. However, its shapc has to be funicular to the given
load and the structures need to nave an economic rise or sag.
The layout of pedestrian bridges is influenced by two requirements. In cable supported structu res
where the deck follows the shape ofthecables on ly limited slopewith correspondingsag can be accepted.
Furthermore, these bridges need to have sufficienl stilfness that guarantees comfortable walking and
stabiJity oftbe shape (see Figure 12.5). 11 is therefore necessary to stiJfen them.
The deformation of the suspension structures (see f igure 12.6a) can be reduced by stiffening the
cables using dead load (see figure 12.6b}, externa! cables (see Figure 12.6c) or by creating a prestressed
concrete band witha certain amount ofbending stiffness to guarantee tbe distribution oflocalloads and
the stabiJity of the overall shape (see Figure 12.6d.).
The importance of the stiffening of directly walked suspension structures shown in figure 12.6 is
evident from Figttre 12.7 in whicb four stress ribbon structures a re compared. 1be bridge has a span of
99 m (325 tt.) with a maximum dead load slope of8%, which yields maximum sag at mid-span of 1.98 m
(6.50 tt.}. The bridge may be formed by following five cases:
l. Timber boards a re placed on two cables with a total area of A,= 0.0168 m(26 in 2 }. The dead load
2
g = 5 kN/m (0.343 kip/ft.} and the horizontal force H8 = 3094 kN (696 kip).
2. Concrete panels of 125 mm (5 in.) th ickness a re supported by two cables with a total area of
A,= 0.0252 m' (39 in.1 ).
3. A concrete band of 125 mm (S in.) thickness is supported by two cables with a total area of
A, = 0.0252 m' (39 in.'). The cables are embedded in the band that is fully prestressed and there-
fore uncracked.
4. A concrete band of 125 mm (S in.) thickness is supported by two cables with a total area of
A, = 0.0252 m' (39 in.'). The cables are embedded in the band that is partially prestressed and
therefore cracks can form in tne concrete. lt is assumed that the crack spacing is 125 mm (5 in.)
and that the concrete between cracks resists resistance of the tension. Tbe area of concrete tnat
resists the tension to taken as shown in Figure 12.7b-4.
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FIGURE 12.5 Hukusai Bridge, )apan.
(a)
(b)
(e)
(d)
FIGURE 12.6 Cable stiffening.
S. A concrete band of250 mm (!O in.) th ick ness is supported by two cables with a tota l area of A,=
0.0392 m ' (67.6 in. 2) . The cables are embedded in the band that is fui! y prestressed and therefore
uncracked.
Struc tures 2- 4 are stressed by a dead load g = 17 kN/m (1.165 kip/ft.) with corresponding horizontal
force H8 = 10,519 kN (2,365 kip). Structure 5 is stressed by a dead load g = 33.345 kN/m (2.286 kip/ft.)
with corresponding horizontal force H 8 = 20,635 kN (4,639 kip). The contribution of the prestressing
tendons and reinforcing steel to the tension s tiffness of the band is neglected in structures 3-5.
The A,= A,+ E/E, A, = A, + 3~ A, . above structures were analyzed for the elfec ts of the dead load
95
g and live load p = 20 kN/m (1.371 kip/ft.) placed on one half of the s tructure. TI1e analysis was per-
formed for the structure modeled as a cable of effective tension stiffness E,A, and zero bending stiffness.
The effective stift'ness E,A, was determ ined from the modulus of elasticity of the cable E, = 195,000 MPa
(28,000 ksi) and an etfective area A, that depends on the area of the cable A, a nd concrete band A, (or
A,,,~ respectivcly) as well as the ratio ofthe modulus of elasticity ofsteel E, and concrete E"
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468 Bridge Engineering Handbook, Second Edition: Superstrucwre Design
-
IIIJ!i l illliliU!il p q g+p
-
U UI IJUIIIUIJII 11 11 1111 11 (il 1 ll l ll S
X
~-1~----"-y:_L,c.=: . 9"'9-'.~"'·9-:""'------l 7 ' as

l JI
NwN H, , H,
"
w ]m] (e)
x ]m]
2
:- ll
: t=l25mm
![ ;
- 0.20
¡ t= 125 mm _
3 -
0.00
~
1~ ~ i/ r=
5 /
0.20
FE
3 4 125 mm
0.40 ~' 4
f;::?' /) 31 1 1
0.60 ~ /__ '/
\ 5
¡t=250 mm_
0.80
1.00 \ J
1.20
0.00 49.50 99.0
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.7 Stiff'ness of the stress ribbon structure: (a) load a nd deformation and (b) diff'erent types of stress
ribbons structures.
Resulting deformations presented in Figure 12.7 shows that the fully prestressed band of thickness of
250 mm (lO in.) has the smallest d eformations. Also fltlly and partially prestressed structures 3 and 4
of thickness of 125 mm (S in.) have reasonable deformations. Although the deformations of structures
1 a nd 2 could be reduced by substituting the cables with strips of structural steel that have lower allow-
able stresses and therefore requires a la rger cross section, the deformations are still significan!.
It is evident that the prestressed concrete deck (fully or partially prestressed) has a superior bchavior.
1l1e monolithic concrete deck gives the structure not only sufficient tension stiffness but its membrane
stiffness also guarantces the transverse stiffness of the bridge. These structures are furthcr called stress
ribbon structures.
Stiffening of the suspension structures by tension cables of the opposite curvature (see Figure 12.6c)
has simi lar effects to the stiffening of the structure dead load (see Figure 12.6b). However, this arrange-
ment requires complicated connect ions of the cables and good maintenance.
12.2.2 Structural Arrangement of the Deck

Since the stress ribbon bridges with prestressed concrete deck ha ve superior behavior they will be fur-
ther discussed in a greater detail.
The deck of a stress ribbon structure can be fonned by a monolithic band or can be assembled of pre-
cast segments. The band is fixed to the abutments and is supported by intennediate piers. Dueto Umits
on the maximum slope. tbe ribbon is stressed by a large horizontal force that has to be transferred into
the soil.
Only in special cases the deck is casi in formwork supported by a false work. Usually, the stress rib-
bon structures are erected independently from the existing terrain. The lormwork of precast segments
is suspended on beari ng tendons and shifted along them into their design position (see Figure 1.3).
Copynghted matenal
n''''UPer.
x:::::::: A ., ~
~------ÁL~",
-~---_-_-_-_-_-_-77
(a)
Dlll lllfiP
(b)
FIGURE 12.8 Static function: (a) erection and (b) sen•ice.
Prestressing applied after the casting of the whole band. or the joints between the segmeots, guara otees
the structural integrity of the complete deck.
1be s tnJCtul'al arrangement of the stress ribbon bridges is determined by theiT static function and
by their process of construction. During the erectioo the s tructure acts as a perfectly flexible cable (see
Figure 12.8a), during service as a prestressed band (stress ribbon) that is stressed not only by normal
forces but also by bending moments (see Figure 12.8b). However, the shape and the stresses in the struc-
ture at the end of the erection determine the magnitude of the stresses that will occur in the structure
during the service.
Although a prestressed band can resist very heavy loads it can be very slender (see Figure 12.4). In
order to undcrstand the behavior ofthe stress ribbon structures, the bending moments in the deck dueto
prestressing, live load, and temperature changes are shown in Figure 12.9. The structure has a span of99m
(325ft.); its sag is 1.98 m (6.50 ft.). Thedeck is thc samc as the deckofthestructure studicd in Figure 12.7(5).
The concrete band of modulus of elasticity of E,= 36,000 MPa (522 ksi) had section propcrties taken from
a basic rectangular section ofa width of5.00 m (16.4 ft.) anda depth of0.25 m (0.82 ft.).
The deck was suspended on bearing tendons of area A,.~, = 0.0196 m' and post-tensioning was applied
with tendons of arca A,,p, = 0.0196 m 2•
TI1e horizontal force H8 dueto tbe dead load g = 33.345 kN/m (2.286 kip/ft.) is 17.30 MN (3889 kip). The
structure was loaded by dead load (1), temperature changes Al= +20 •e (2) and (3), live load p = 20 k.N/m
(1.371 kip/ ft.) on tbe whole (4) and balf(5) ofthespan and by a point load F= 100 kN (22.5 kip) at mid-span
(6). The structure was analyzed as a geometrically non-linear structme of the program system ANSYS
witbout aod witb post-teosioning of the deck witb a prestressing force P = 25.52 fvlN (5737 kip).
f igure 12.9a shows the position of the loadings, deformations and bending moments for the oon-
prestressed deck; Figure 12.9b for tbe prestressed deck.
From tbe presented results it is evident that significan! bending momeots origioate only at tbe sup-
ports. The beoding moments due to tbe concentrate load representing a typical maintenance car are
relatively very low. Since the deck is a lways post-tensioned, the negative beoding momeots at the sup-
ports are very low. However, positive bending moments are very large and h ave a significan! iniluence
on the detailing of the stress-ribbon structure at the supports.
Since a long the whole length of the structure the deck is stressed o nly by normal forces, the deck can
be formed by a very slender solid sectionthat can be further reduced by wa.JJ1es that creare a coftered sof-
fit. The mínimum arca ofthe deck is deternüned from the requirements that under the various loading
condition (including prestress) thcrc are li.mitcd or zero tcnsion stresses in the deck, and that maximum
compressive stresses are not exceeded. Since the bending moments due to the point load are low, the
Copynghted matenal
-
1 L41111 (411 1 ll 1 U 1111 tg 2111 l llll lll 1 !IU!Itll g 31 lll li 111 ll lUIJU lll g
Hg
-
H, H.,H
ót = +20'C
H,HH,H
M=-20'C
Hg,H
_....
M A-
+ ~ +
(a)
11 1 111 ' 1' 1¡ 1' 1' 1' 11 J11g 2111 ¡ 1' 1' 1' 1' 1¡ 1' 11 1' 1 g 31 1111 1 ' ' 11 J ' 11 1' 11 1' 1g
H,, H H,, H H0, H H,, HH• . H Hg, H
-- 6.t=+20"C ---. --+
M •
+V 1+
+r 1+ + +
o.o J.O 2.0 [MNm]
(b)
-1\..
M
+
A-
+ --
+
A-
(a)
IF
Hg, H
11111 uaa1tu u1111 r~ s:¡:¡:¡;¡:: :~ "'," n• s
H,, H~§' H
611
H,, H H,, H
"",,u t.,, JI", "s
H•, H
......,__ --..~ -......
M ..
+
0.0 1.0 2.0 [MNm)
(b)
FIGURE 12.9 Deformation and bending moments. (a) Without prestressing. (b) With prestressing.
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depth of the deck is essentially determined by tbe cover requirements of the prestressing steel. Usually
the mínimum depth guarantees a sufficient stiffness of tbe deck.
The deck of stress ribbon structures ca n be casi in a form tbat is suspended on the bearing cables (see
Figure 12.10a) orbe assembled of precast segments. Usually the deck is suspended from bearing tendons
and is prestressed by prestressing tendons. However, the function ofbearing and prestressing tendons
can be combined as well. lnitially, the segments can be hung from bearing tendons situated in troughs,
and after erection tbe deck is post-tensioned by the second group of cables situated eitber in the ducts
within the segments (Figure 12.10b) or in the troughs (see Figure 12.10c). The bearing tendons are then
protected by a cast-in-place concrete poured simultaneouslywith the joints between the segments. Since
longitudinal shrinkage cracks are likely to occur between the cast-in-place and precast concrete, it is
recommended to protect the surface with a waterproof overlay.
TI1e deck can be a lso assembled from precast segments that hang on temporary erection cables that are
removed after post-tensioning ofthe deck with the interna! tendons (see Figure 12.JOd). Another system
utilizes externa! tendons to support and prestress the dcck (Figure 12.10f}. These externa! tendons either
can be uniformly distributed along the width of segment orbe situated el ose to the edges ofthe segments.
Another arrangement consists of precast segments with a composite slab (see Figure 12.10e). The seg-
ments are suspended on bearing tendons and serve as a false-work and formwork for the composite slab
that is cast simuhaneously with the segment joints. Both the precast segments and the composite slab are
posttensioned by tendons that are situated a long the bearing tendons within the cast-in-place slab. A
continuous deck slab without any joints provides a o excelleot protec tion to the prestressing steel and
requires minimum maiotenance.
Bearing tendon
Prestressing tc1'1don
_& o ooor: 00 ~
-- --- -! --
--::J
(a)
r - - Bearing tendon
-
~! ~restressing tendon
. . . . . .
~ ~ .
(b)
--
•
(e)
Í Erectional a~ble
b Bearing and prestressing tendon
~ · a.• • • IJ
(d)
(e)
'- B,ear·ing and prestressing tendon

(()
FIGURE 12.10 Prestressed band: typical sections.
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Usually tbe bearing tendons consist of s trands that are protected by tbe posHensioned concrete of tbe
trough s or composite slab. The prestressing tendons a re formed by strands grouted in a trad itional duct.
lf a higher degree of protection is required, the bearing tendons can a lso be made from stra nd s grouted
in ducts or both bearing and prestressing tendons can be made from monostrands additionally grouted
in PE (polyethylene) ducts.
12.2.3 Structural Arrangement at Piers and Abutments

A typical section of stress-ribbon is not able to resist the bending moments that occur at the s upports
(see Figtue 12.9). The s upport bending moments can be reduced by
• Supporting the stress ribboo with a saddle from whlch the band can lift during post·tensioning and
temperatu re drop, and to which the baod can return for a temperature increase (see Figures 12.1la
and 12.12a)
• Streogthening the stress ribbon with a short support haunch (see Figures 12.11b and 12.12b)
The detailing ofthese regions depends on the local conditions and the chosen technology (see Figttre 12.13).
Figure 12.13a shows a cast in place deck supported by saddles. Figures 12.13b and 12.14 presenta solu-
tion in wl1ich precast segments are supported by sadd les. To accommodate the larger curvatttres in the
regían, the leng th of pier segments is one third of that of the typical segments. The segments are erected
befare the bearing tendons are placed and tensioued.
'TI1e segments d irectly above for pier colum ns are placed on cement mortar; the rema ining segments
are placed on neopre ne strips. The stress ribbon is con nected to thesaddles using reinforcement between
the segments situated above the pier columns.
Figu res 12.13b and 12.15 showexamples of a cast-in place haunch cast in a formwork, which was sus-
pended on the ai read)' erected segments a nd the pier. In this case the bearing tendons were supported
by steel saddles anchored in the pier columns. The friction forces between the stra nds a nd the saddle are
reduced using TeOon pi ates (see Figu re 12.13e). Until the deck itself provides a restraint, the piers can be
s tabilized usi ng temporary struts.
L L
•
Flexible material
1
(al (b)
FIGURE 12.11 Abutments: (a) support with a saddle and (b) suppon with a short haunch.
1
FlexJble material
L, L,
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.12 lntennediate piers: (a) support with a saddle and (b) support with a short haunch.
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Steel sadd le
(b)
(e)
(e)
FIGURE 12. 13 Erection of the stress ribbo n at intermediate piers: (a) cast in place deck supported by saddles, (b)
cast in place baun ch, (e) prccast dcck, (d) cast in place dcck, and (f) Tcflon platcs.
FIGURE 12.14 G rants Pass Pedestrian Bridge-intermediate pier.
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474 Bridge Engineering Handbook, Second Edition: Superstructure Design
FIGURE 12.15 Prague-Troja Bridge- intermediate pier during the erection.
Figu re J2.13c shows a solution in whicb the abutment and pier haunches were casi in place before the
erection of tbe segments. The ducts, in wbich the bearing tendons are placed, have to allow a change of
slope duril1g the construction of the deck. A closure was therefore provided between the sadd les and
the segments.
The ma in advantage ofthesolution shown in Figure 12.J 3b is that the shape ofthe saddle can beeasily
adjusted according to the geometry of the aiready erected deck that is dependen! not on ly on the value
of tbe initial stressi ng and actual weight of segments, but also on the temperature at tl1e time of casting.
Although the described measures can sig nificantly reduce the bending stresses, it is necessary to
carefully design the stress ribbon in the vicinity of the supports. For designing of the ribbon, the posi-
tive bending moments that cause tension stresscs at bottom fibers are critic.al. Since the bearing and
prestressing tendons are situated a sufficient distance away from the bottom fibers it is possible to accept
cracks there and design the ribbon as a partial post-tensioned member in which crack width and fatigue
stresses in the reinforcement are checked. If the ribbon above the saddle is assembled from precast
members, it is necessary to guarantee compression in the joi nts. This can be provided with add itional
short tendons situated in the pier segments.
12.2.4 Transferring Stress Ribbon Force into the Soil

The stress ribbon is usually fixed at anchor blocks that are integral parts oftheabutments. Theabutments
therefore need to transfer some very large horizontal forces into the soil by rock or ground anchors.
Unfortunately, only in exceptional cases souJJd rock is dose to grade and then the anchor block has the
simple shape sbown in Figure 12.16.
In most cases the competen! soil is situated ata certain distance and the abutments have an arrange-
ment as shown in Figure 12.17.ln this case it is necessaryto check thesoil pressure as well as tbe resistance
against overturning and sliding not only for the maximum loading but for all stages of construction. lt
is importan! to realize that the rock anchors or ties have to be post-tensioned. 1l1at means that they load
the footing with an eccentric inclined force N,. that has vertical and horizonta l components V.. and H,•.
During post-tension ing the capacity of the anchors is checked. By post-tension ing-or anchoring the
footings to the soil-the variation of stresses at the anchor is elim inated and rcsistance against slid ing
is guara nteed.
Copynghl d mat0nal
FIGURE 12.16 Rockanchors.
(e)
N
M
N
(a) (e)
FIGURE 12.17 lnstallation of rock anchors: (a) anchor system, (b) post-tensioning of the first half ofthe rock
anchors, (e) cree tío o of thc dcck, (d) post·lensioning of thc sccond half of the rock anchors, and (e) bridge in ser vice.
ln Figure 12.17 the footing is pwvided with a shear key. Therefore the resistance against sl iding has to
be checked at the bottom of the key. The safet y against slid ing:
s= V· tgcp+Ac
H
where Vq ís a vertica l force from the dead and líve load, Hq ís the horizontal componen! of the force in
the stress ribbon, q> is the angle of interna) fríction of the soíl, A the are a of the footing al the leve) of the
key ande is the cohesíon .
The factor of safety against sliding s0 depends o n national codes and typically varíes from 1. 5 lo 2.0.
The factor ofsafety has to be dctermincd for all s tages of1he construction. In general, it is impossiblc
to post-tension all rock a nchors befo re erection of the deck, s ince the horizontal force H•• is too large and
can cause sl iding oflhe footing in the direction of the post·tensioning. Therefore, the post-tension ing is
usually done in two stages a nd the safety againsl sliding has to be checked for !he following:
l. Post-tensíon ing of the first half of the rock anchors (see Figure J2 .J7b).
2. Erectíon ofthe deck (see Figure 12.17c).
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3. Post-tensioning of the second half of the rock anchors (see Figu re 12.17d).
4. Serviceofthe bridge, fu ll hve load and temperatu re d rop (see FigUJ·e 12.17e).
The use of rock or ground anchors requires a soil with adcquate bearing capacity to resist no t
on ly the pressure from the stress ribbon, but also t hc prcssure from thc vertical component of the
anchor force.
lf there is insufficient capacity, drilled shafts can be used to resist both the vertical and horizontal
components of the stress ribbon force. Although the drilled shafts have a relatively large capacity for
resist ing in a horizontal force, Lheir horizontal deformations are significan! a nd it is necessary to con-
sider them in tbe analysis. Elastic horizontal deforma!ions ca n be eliminated with an erectio n process in
wh ich tbe structure is pre -loaded before tbe casting of the closu re joints. Nevertheless, with time plas-
tic deformations can cause considerable horizontal displacements o f tbe abutments that consequently
cause a n increase of the sag of the stress ribbon.
An elegant solution is presented in Figure 12.18 in which the stress ribbon is supported by battered
micropiles. They transfer the load from the stress ribbon into the soil because of their tension and com-
pression capacity. TI1e maximum tension in the pites occurs in at the last row where the tension force
from to horizontal force "T1 is increased by a tension force coming from the uplift (V1) created by the
vertical force V and bending moment M.
V M
V. =- - ± -Z;
ti 1
f= I ;zt
where n is number of micropiles, and z1 is distance of tbe micropile from the center of gravity of the
micropile g roup.
v~r, v,
V i
fl¡
FIGURE 12.18 Battered micropiles.
Copynghted matenal
12.3 Erection
One of the main ad,•antages of the stress ribbon structure is that the erection of the deck can be done
independently of tbe conditions of tbe terrain under the bridge since the formwork of precast seg¡nents
ca n be suspended from the bearing tendons.
Although there are sorne differences given by the arrangement of tbe stress ribbon above s upports,
they are two basic erection possibilities that aredistinguished by the arrangement ofthe bearing tendons.
12.3.1 Construction Sequences A

When the bearing tendons are situated in the troughs, where they are protected by cast-in-place con·
crete, they can also be used as erection cables (Figme 1.3). The general arrangement of the erection of
segments can be seen in Figure 12.19. The construction process could be as follows:
a. First the bearing tendons are drawn by a winch. 1he strands are wound off from coils and are
slowed down at the abutment by a cable brake that also ensures equal lengtb for all strands. An
auxiliary ro pe can also be attached to tbe erected ten don that enables to back diawing ofthe haul·
ing rope. After drawing each tendon is tensioned to the prescribed stress.
b. The segments are erected in each s pan by means of a crane truck. The erected segment is fust
placed under the bearing tendons and lifted until the tendons are touching the bottom of the
troughs. TI1en "hangers" are placed into the position and secured; tbe segment is attacbed lo
hau ling and auxiliary ropes and by polling of the winch the segment is shifted along the bearing
tendon into the pre-determined position (see Figure 12.20a). Before the segment is attached to the
previously erected segments, the tubes for coupling the ducts of prestressing tendons are p laced.
This process is repeated until all segments are assembled.
c. When all segments are erected the formwork for the saddle is hung on neighboring segments and
piers and/or abutments. In strnctures with sadd les the formwork of the closures is s uspended.
Then the prestressing tendons and rebar are placed. After that, the joinl~, sadd les and troughs or
composite slab are all cas t together. lt is necessary to use a retarder in thc concrete m ix, which
post pones the beginning of concrete setti ng until the concrete in all members is placed. 1n order
to reduce the etfects of shr inkage, temperature drop and accidental movement of pedestrians, il
is recommended to parlially prestress the deck as early as possible. When a minimum specified
streogth is attained, the stress ribbon is then prestressed to the full desigo stress.
(a)
(b)
(e)
FIGURE 12.19 Construction sequences A.
Copynghted matenal
(a)
r B~aring lendon
t ! 1 1!
(b)
Trolley frame
rE~ear·ing tendon
Elevation Cross section
FIGURE 12.20 Erection of a segment: {a) erection A and (b) erection B.
12.3.2 Construction Sequences B

When the bearing tendons are placed in the ducts, thc process of construction has to be modified. The
general proccdurc of the ercction of segments is shown in Figure 12.2 1. Thc construction process can
be as follows:
a. First an erection cable is erected and anchored at the abutments. Then the ducts are progressively
suspended, spliced and shifted a long the erection cable into the design position (see Figure 12.20a).
When the ducts are completed, the strands are pulled or pushed through the ducts and tensioned
to the prescribed stress.
b. The segments can be also erected by a crane truck. If the span across the obstacle is relati\•ely short
and the crane has sufficíent reach it can erect all t hc segments (see Figure 12.22).111e crected scg-
ment is placed in a C frame and slípped in under the bearing tendon . Then it ís lifted up such that
it touchcs thc bcaríng tendons.l11ereafter, the "hangers" are placed into posítion and sccured .
Jf the spans are longer, it is possible to apply an erection techníque used for crection of suspcn-
sion s tructures (see Figure 12.20b). The segment is suspended o n a.n erection frame s upported
(a)
-- -- --- -~
(b)
(e)
FIGURE 12.21 Construction sequences B.
Copynghted matenal
FIGURE 12.22 Bridge across the Med,•ay River. Maidstone. Kent, UK-erection of a segment.
o n erection cables that is attached to hauling and auxiliary rapes. Usi ng a winch, the segmcnt is
shifted along the erection cables into a pre-dctermincd position where it is liftcd until it touches
the bcaring tcndons. Thc hangcrs are then placed a nd secured. This process is repeated u nti l all
segments are assembled.
c. When all segments a re assembled the forms for of the closures are hung, and the prestressing
tendons and rebars a re placed. After that, the joints, sadd les, and troughs ora composite slab a re
cast (see Figu re 12.20c) and post-tensiooed. The remainder ofthis process is similar lo previously
described erection metbod.
12.4 Static and Dynamic Analysis

The static behavior of the stress ribboo structures is dependent of their structu ral arra ngemeot and the
process of coostruction. lt is clea r that itis necessa ry to distioguish between the behavior ofthe structure
during erection and during tbe service. During erection tbe structure acts as a cable (see Figure 12.8a),
during service as a stress ribbon (see Figure 12.8b) that is stressed not only by normal forces but also by
beoding moments. TI1e shape a nd the stresses in the structure at the end of the erectioo determine the
stresses in the structure when in use. TI1e change from cable to stress ribboo occurs when tbe concrete
of joints starts to set.
All the design computations have to start from this basic stage. During t he erection analysis the
structure is progressively u nloaded down to the stage in which the bearing tendons a re stressed. This is
the way the required jacki ng force is obtained (see Figure 12.23a through 12.23c).
The designer sets the shape of the structure aftcr prestressing (sce Figure 12.23e). Since this shape
depends on the deformation of the structure due to prestress, the basic stage has to be estimatcd; then
the deformation ofthe structu re dueto prestress computed and checked aga inst the required final stage.
This computation has to be repeated until reasonable agreement is obtained.
The basic stage is also the initial st.age for the subsequent analysis ofthe structure for all service loads
(see Figures 12.23d through 12.23[}.
This section describes a simplified analysis that the author uscd in his fi rst structures. TI1is approach
ca n be used for prelim inaq• a nalysis or for checking rcsults obtained from modero analytical programs
that a re discussed in more dctails in amhor's book (Strasky 2011).
Copynghl d mat0nal
El'ection stage
(a) T
t • As-r
a,_________
Bearing tendon BT
(b) .. lH 'p ~g ..- lH •

g g
(e) 4
~
Ha Z : : .
g
__
Basic stage
.;;....__.,_;;.-..
(d) g Basic stage eo oe
(el
fftflffl
-Q- '-'t j"Presu·essing tendon PT
Setvice stage
(f)
wii~-"=...JI A,
(g)
Elevation Cross section
FIGURE 12.23 Static function.
12.4.1 Single Cable

The analysis of the single cable is described in many books. The approach used in th is chapter comes
from the author's book (Strasky 2011 ). Tn the analysis we suppose thal the cable of the area A and modu-
lus of elasticity E acts as perfectly flexible member that is able to resist the normal force only. Under th is
assu mption the cable cu rve will coincide with the fun icular cu rve of the load applied to the cable and to
chosen value oftbe horizontal force H (see Figure 12.24).
Suppose a cable that is supported at two fix hinges a, b and it is loaded by a vertica l load q(x).
1= X (b) - X(a) = x(b) (12.1)
h = Y(b )- Y( a)= y(b) ( 12.2)
h
tg~ = , (12.3)
For the given load q(x) and chosen horizontal force H the cable curve is determined by coordinate
y(x), sagf(x), by the slope of the tangent y'(x) = tgcp(x) and radius of the curvature R(x). These values are
derived from the general equilibrium conditions on the element ds.
The cable is stressed br a norma l force N(x) that has vertical and horizontal components V(x)
and H(x).
Copynghted matenal
Suess Ribbon Pedestrian Bridges 481
r-·- ·-·-·4 q(x)

.
1
1
.¡y
lllliD q(x)
N(x) V(x) Ir
l'{x}+d V{x ) N(x)+dN{x)
1 ¡
N
FIGU RE 12 .24 Bnsic characterislics oflhe single cable.
N(x)l = H(x)' - V(x)1 (12.4)
H(x)= N(x)cos«xJ (12.5)
V(x) = N(x)sin«x) (12.6)
For verlicalload H = const.
p•(x) = Q(x) (12.7)

H
h (12.8)
p(x ) = y'(x) = p0 (x)+ - = p0 (x ) +tgj3
1
e 1
j(x) = M(x) (12.9)

H
M(x) h (12.10)
y(x)= +-x= f(x)+x tgf3
H 1
where Q(x) and M(x) are shear force and bending moment on s imple beam of the span l.
For q(x) = const.
p0 (x)= ~(!.qt- qx)= ...!!....(/- 2x) (12.11)

H 2 2H
/¡
p(x)= p0 (x) +- = p0 (x) +tgj3 (12.12)
1
f(x) = M(x) = -1 ( -q/x--qx>

1 1 q
) = -x(l- x) (12.13)
H H 2 2 2H
12.4.1.1 Length of Cable
s= J , dy-, = -1-+ -
' ds= J' ..jd:t-+ cosf3
-0 (12.14)
0 0 cosf3 2H
=JQ'(x)dx =JQ(x) Q(x)dx

/ /
D (12.15)
• o
is usuall)' determined b)' a Vereshchagin rule. (TI1e arca of the Q(x) is mu ltiplied by a value ofthe value
Q,, that occurs at the center of the gravit)' of the arca.)
For example, for uniform load q(x) = const.:
(12.16)
For the cable ofthe length 1, sagf, horizontal force H and uniform load q the length ofthe cable is
1 1 q'l' q'l'
S = 1+ -2H--
, -12- = + -::"
1 24'--H,-2 (12.17)
fl
for H = !l._
8f
s=l+ -
Sf' (12.18)
31
12.4.1.2 Elastic Elongation of Cable
(12.19)
ds = t + y'
o
(1 2 (x))dx (12.20)
Copynghted matenal
For vertical load
&=!:!...( 1 +..2.. JQ(x)ds ) = 2H

EA cos' ~ H' 0 EAcos~
(s--1-:- )
2cos~
(12.21)
For the cable of the length 1, sagf, horizontal force H and uniform load q the length ofthe cable is
&= 2H(s-~)= 2H(I+ 8j1 -~)=!:!...(/+ 16jl) (12.22)

EA 2 EA 31 2 EA 31
12.4.1.3 Determining Horizontal Force H 1

For the load q(x)0 , horizontal force H0 and temperature 10 the length ofthe non-tension cable:
1 cos~ H0 1 1
ln=s0 -tls0 =--+--D- 0 - D0 (12.23)
cos~ 2H~ &leos'~ H0 EA
1
D0 = JQ1.o dx (12.24)
o
For the load q(x) 1, unknown horizontal force H 1 and the temperature t1 the length of the non-tension
cable:
ln1 =s; - lls; (12.25)
In, = ln(l +<X,6t,) (12.26)
D, = Jol_,dx (12.27)
•
where the tempera! u re change 61, = t1 - t0 and ex, is a coefficient of thermal expansion.
cos~
=- - R + - -, D,
1
S¡ (12.28)
cos'"' 2H1
H11 1
/ls.= D- + (12.29)
' EAcos ~ H.EA '
1
In ,-s, cos~
_ -• - _ 1
L),)~ - --+--
cos~D _ H 11 o, (12.30)
2H,l ' EAcos' ~ EAH,
ln,--1_[_ cos~ D -+ H 111 + D, = O (12.31)

( cos~ [ 2Hl ' EAcos' ~ EAH,
lfwe denote
a =.,..---:7
1
(12.32)
EAcos'~
Copynghted matenal
1
b= ln1 - - (12.33)
cos ~
D,
c= - (12.34)
EA
(12.35)
we geL a cubic equitation for determin ing of H1
aHf +bHf+cH, +d =O (12.36)
From this equation the unknown horizontal force H 1 can be easily solved.
12.4.1.4 Influence of Deformation of Supports and

Cable Elongation at Anchor Blocks
In actual structu res it is necessar y to include possible deformation s of supports a nd elongalions of the
cable at the anchor blocks (see Figure 12.25).
Deformations of supports for load Oand i :
ó~ =A¡or
Ll~~ = H 0fJ!' ó!f = Hl>~'
Ll~o = BoBX Llt; =B,B~
Ll~ = H0f5~ 6~ =H1 fJ~
depend on va lues of the reactions and positive un it deformations.
h¡
lo
1¡
FIGURE 12.25 l nitial and final stage.of the cable.
Copynghted matenal
For load 0:
(12.37)
(12.38)
(12.39)
For load i:
(12.40)
(12.4 1)
/t.
~,-- -1,'
t (12.42)
The elastlc deformations of the cable in the anchor blocks a and b for load 0:
A, •.0 = kH0
and load i:
L>, ... = kH,
where k= k. + k• express of the elongation of the cable at the anchor blocks a and b due to unit hori-
zontal force H = l.
5
..
k= J ••ds (12.43)
• EA
o
(12.44)
For the load q(x)0 , horizonta l force H 0 and temperature 10 the length ofthe non-tension cable:
ln=s-ru-6
0 0 0
=lo +cosf3oD-
0
Holo - l Do- kHo (12.45)
'"· cos 1-'0
<> 2Ho2
EA cos' "1-'0 H oEA
(12.46)
Copynghted matenal
For the load q(x) 1, unknowo horizontal force H, and the temperature t, the leogth of the non ·tension
cable:
In, = ln(l + a ,ót,) (12.47)
(J 2.48)
J
11
D, = QLdx (12.49)
o
_ 1, )- cos~, D+ + kH 1+ D, -_ 0
(l '
H,l, (12.50)
EAcos' p,
ll· 1
cosP, 2Hf EAH,
lfwe denote
1
a= ' +k (12.51)
EA cos'P1
(12.52)
D,
c =- (12.53)
EA
d = cos P1 D. (12.54)
2 '
we get a cubic equitation for determining of H1
aHf+ bHf +cH 1 +d =O (12.55)
Since the members a, b, e, d depend on the spanl, and ''ertic.al d ifference lt, which again depend on
horizontal force H,, it is not possiblc to determine thc unknown H, directly by solving of the equation.
1l1erefore it is necessary to determ ine H, by iteration. First, the unknown H, is detem1ined for zero
deforrnation of supports and zero elongation ofthe cable at the anchor blocks. For this force the vertical
reac.tions A, and 8,, span length 1, and vertical difference h, and rnernbers a, b, e, d and new horizontal
force H,. The computation is repeated tillthe difference between the subsequent solutions is smaller than
the required accuracy.
12.4.1.5 Bending of the C able

The bending ofthe cable is derived from the analysis ofSingle cable that is stressed by known horizontal
force H (Strasky 2011).
Figure 12.26 shows a single cable of the area A, moment of inertia 1 and modulus of elasticity E that
is fixed into the supports a and b. 1be cable is loaded by load g(x) and q(x). Corresponding horizontal
forces are H1 and H.
1t is supposed that erection of the cable is done is such a way that the load g does not cause any
bending of the cable. For g = const. the shape of the cable giveo by y(x) is the second degree parabola.
Copynghted matenal
N(x)
llllllillll q(x)
I\IU!IlltflltniHutPI,IlUtftfJI!IIfl g
X
~~
l (X) /¡
r>'f'") ·-......._,,'..)¡H..._H•- +
Í
~x)
V(x)+dV(x)
w
FIGURE 12.26 Geometry and interna] forccs at nexibly supportcd cable.
The portian ofthe cable can be s upported by Wi nkler's springs. The characteristic ofthe spring k(x} is
a "stress" that corresponds to its un it defo rmatioo.
Then the bending of the cable is g iven by
d '' w(x} d' w(x) H H

El - H +kw(x)=q(x)+ - =q(x}- - g (12.56)
~· ~ 2
Rt H•
'TI1e solution of the equation is possible to write
w(x) = w,,(x} + wp(x} (12.57}
the particular solution wp(x} corresponds to deformation of the cable without bending stiffness; the
homogenous solution can be written as
(12.58)
A= {H {12.59)
fii
Direct solution is possible only for special cases (see Figure 12.27}. For example the course of the
bending moment M(x) in the vicinity of the support of the cable that is loaded by uniform loads g and
q and corresponding horizontal forces are Hg and H is solved for infinitively long cable. 111e bending
moment is given by an expression:
(12.60)
1ne bend ing moment ata n infi.nitively long cable loaded that is loaded by point load F and by uniform
load q is given by an expression:
F
M(x)= -e-h + Elt.q (12.61)
2A
Copynghted matenal
,,,,,,,,,,J,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
"111!! 11111! "" J~ llil!l!ll ¡¡¡ 11111 q
..
ru uuuuu' ru trtrtr 1r1nr u un 1nr 1 tnr 1r 111r 1ru tr u 1r tnnr tnnnr ' " ' •· g
-X 1 X g_
<::::;:;;; • t • ~
00
¡ q,F
1
M l- ~ M llllii! " "ll~r:l!lll!l!lllll

\! 111!!!111111!1!1!tll!!!!(tp y
+
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.27 Bending moments (a) at support and (b) under pointload.
where
le= fE
fii
The author, rather than solve the equations for d ifferent loading cond itions, developed a program in
wb icb the deformation and corresponding shear forces a nd bendi ng moments were solved usingji11ite
difference method. This approach enables to express a local stilfening of the cable and s upporti og of por·
t ion of the cable by Win kler s prings.
12.4.1.6 Natural Modes and Frequencies

The natural modes and frequencies of Single cable (see Figu re 12.28) can be determined according to
the following formulas:
1 H EAj2n2 Eln2
- -+ +-- (12.62)
J.l 1' 21'1 1'1
(12.63)
where H is the horizontal force, Mis the mass of the cable per unit length,fis the sag of the cable, E is
the modulus of elas ticity, A is the area and 1 is the moment of inertia.
The member (EAJ'n 2 )/2/ 4 in equation expresses the norma l stiffness ofthe cable that has t.o elongate
when vibrate in the first rnode. This is the reason why in some cases th e first mode is bigher tha n the
secondone.
The member (El1t2n 1 )!l' expresses the bendi ng stiffness of cable that is in engineering calculations
insignificant.
Copynghted matenal
............... :._;?'
Ji,¡ -------
/(2)
FIGURE 12.28 Natural modes.
12.4.2 Analysis of Stress Ribbon as a Cable

12 .4 .2 .1 Erection Stage
During the erection a ll loads are resisted by the bearing tcndons that actas a cable. Since the tendons are
not usually connected to the saddles they can slide freclyaccording to the imposed load (see Figure 12.29a).
This is true both for s tructures in which the bearing tendons are supported by steel or concrete saddles and
for structures in which the bea ring tendons pass through ducts in the support haunches.
Hence, the cables actas a continuous cable of m spans that crosses fixed supports (see Figure l2.23a).
A change of any load causes friction io the saddles, the magnitude of wh ich depends on the vertical
reaction R and oo a coeflicient of friction ¡o. In al l supports friction forces 6H act against the direction
of the cable movement.
(12.64)
The stresses in tbe beariog tendons are a lso alfected by their elongation in tl1e anchorage blocks and
by possible displacements of the end supports. The unknown horizontal force H 1 is given by an equation
that is used for the analysis of the simple cable.
aH~+ bH~+ cH +d=O (12.65)

' ' '
Since both the length s and the elongation of the cable t.s are calculated for the whole length of con-
tinuous cable,
ns 1'11 1-1 cosf31.

s= Í:,s¡=Í:, + D¡ (12.66)
}<l J-I COS~¡ 2H¡
•• "' 2H-1 ( /1 )
65= I,t.s.=Í:,
1
s.- (12.67)
EAcos~ 2cos~¡
1
¡.1 J• l
Copynghted matenal
1f 1• 1f 1i 11 11 11 1J 1f 11 1¡ 1' 1J 1 ¡ 1¡ 1¡ 1f 11 1¡ 1¡ 1¡ J ¡ 11 J1 11111J 1tg
1m 1 m 111 m 1m ulllllllllllllllllll111111lq
t:,H 6"
e
•
(a)
*
!+ 1f 1f u 1 11 1f lf JIU 1f 1f 1i 1f 1f 1f 11 1f JJ [ 11 i 11 Ji¡¡ 1¡ if! ; 1+g
1111111 m 1* l* l* liltl ulll lllI 1llllllllllll mq
a g
e
q
t:,H b 'IL
• l
(b)
FIGURE 12.29 Sta tic function: (a) stage of ereclion and (b) stage of service.
(12 .68)
the terms a, b, e, d have to be mod ified to
~ 11
a = ,¿_, '' +k (12.69)
i=' EAcos ~¡;
1
m 1
b= ln - L, JJ (12.70)
' i=' cos~ iJ
- ~
C- ,¿_,-Di,J (12.7 1)
}=1 EA
"' cos~ .. D..

d= I 2 JJ
J.'
(12.72)
r-1
The horizontal force H¡ in spanj is ta ken as the la rgest horizontal force acting in the most loaded span
reduced by the s u m ofthe losses d ue 10 friction at lhe s upports situated between the spa n j and the most
loaded span.
Since the terms a, b, e, d depend on tbe span lengtbs ~.1 and vertical differences Ir¡,; wbkb in turn
depend on horizonta l force H1, il is not possible to determi ne the uoknown H1 directly by solving tbe
above equation. lt is therefore necessary to determine H, by iteration. First. the unknown H1 is calcu lated
Copynghted matenal
for zero deformatioo of supports aod zero elongat ion of the cable at tbe anchor blocks. For this force tbe
vertical reactions A,, B,, aod R,; spao length 1;.; and wrtical difference 11¡.; members a, b, e, d and the new
horizontal force H,. are calculated. This iteration is repeated until the djiference between s ubsequent
solutions is smaller than the required tolerance.
This analysis should be repeated for all erection stages. The goal of the analysis is not only to deter-
mine the jacking force for the bearing tendons, but also the deformations of the structure and the cor-
responding stresses that alfect the substructure.
12.4.2.2 Service Stage

Since the structure is very slender, local shear and bending stresses develop only under point loads and
at the supports. Bec.ause these stresses are relatively small, they do not alfect the global behavior of the
structu re. This makes it possible to analyze thc structure in two closely related steps.
In step 1, the stress ribbon is analyzed as a perfectly flexible cable hinge connected with supports
(scc Figure 12.29b). Thc effect of prestressing is a shortening of tl1c cable, which can be si mulated as a
temperature drop. 'TI1e etfect of creep and shrinkage can be analyzed in a similar way. However, dueto
the redistribution of stresses between the individual components of the concrete section, an iterative
approach has to be used . To facil itate this analysis, standard computer programs for continuous cables
are used.
In step 2, shea r and bending Slfesses .in single spans a re caJculated using the aoalysis of the bend ing
ofthe simple cable. The cable is aoalyzed for the load q(x), and for the horizontal force and deformations
ofthe suppoflS that were determined in step J.
Since the bending moments were felatively large, the support sections should be analyzed as partially
prestressed members and therefore a reduction of the bending stiffness ca u sed by cracks should be con-
sidere<! in the analysis.
12-4-3 Analysis of the Stress Ribbon as a Geometrically Non-Linear Structure

Modern structural programs allow us to follow the behavior of the stress ribbon structures both during
erection and during service. These programs also need to capture the large deformation and the tension
stilfening etfects. The structure can be modeled as a chain of parallel members that represen! bearing
tendons (BT), prestressing tendons (PT), precast segments (PS) and cast-in-place slab (CS) or trough
(see Figure 12.30b). Bearing and prestressing tendons can be modeled as "cable" mcmbers, for which the
initial force or strain has to be detcrmined. Precast segments and cast-in-place slab can be modeled as
30 bars oras shcll clcmcnts that havc both bcnding and mcmbrane capabilitics.
Since the programs use so caBed "frozen members" it is possible to model a change of static system
(fromthe cable into the stress ribbon) as well as the progressive erection of structure. The program sys-
tems also contain so called "contact" members that o nly resist compression forces. These members can
be used for the modeling of saddles from where the s tress ribbons ca n lift up.
In the analysis the initial s tress in the tendons has to be determ ined. The initial forces are usually
d etermined for the basic stage (see Figure 12.23c and 12.23d) where the structu re changes from cable 10
stress ribbon. The initial forces in the cable are determioed using the cable analysis.
Some programs have "cable members" that have zero stilfness (area and modulus of elasticity) in the
initial stage. 'They are stressed by iilltial forces that exactly balance the externalload. Foral! subsequent
loads these elements are part of the s truc ture- part of the global stilfness of the s tructure. This is the
way to model the prestressing tendon.
Unfortunately in some programs the initial stage is modeled with an initial strain oftendons that also
have actual stüfness (area and modulus elasticity), and therefore are part of tl1e stilfness ofthe structure.
Since a portian of the strain and corresponding stress is absorbed by their s tilfness, it is necessary to
artificially increase their initial strain such that the strain and corresponding stress in tendons exactly
balances tbe load at the basic stage. That means that the initial stage has to be determined by iteration.
Copynghted matenal
-
(a)
BT bearing tendons
lllllllll P1' prcstressing tendons
//·-es composite slab
PS prt..'OI.St scgmcn ts
F
,.+ nr"
\\'f
(b)
FTGURE 12.30 Stress ribbon structure: (a) deformationand bending moments and (b) modeling ofthe deck.
TI1e analysis that starts from the basis stage ca11 be used for both the analysis of the erection and
service stages. TI1e stresses in the structure during erection and the bearing tendons jacking forces are
determine.d by simulating a progressive u nloading of the structure. Since the superposition principie
does not apply, the analysis of the service stage should be carried out according to the following flow
chart.
Figure 12.30 shows deformed shapes and bending moment (a), a nd a calculation model (b) of a one
spa n structure loaded by dead load, prestress, and creep and shri nkage of concrete. It is evident that due
to creep and shrinkage the sag is reduced and therefore all interna! forces are higher at time t_.
Furthermore, sin ce the area ofthe bearing and prestressing tendons is higher than in traditional con-
crete structures, a sign ifican! red istribution of stresses between steel and concrete occurs with time. 1n
structures assembled from precast segments and cast-in-place slab the redistribution of stresses between
these members also has to be considered.
fo r tbe analysis of the creep and shrinkage il is necessary to perform a li.me dependen! analysis
(Strasky et al. 2011). Jt is not possible to analyze tbe st ructure in a single step for tbe initial stra in
caused by creep and shrinkage. 'lhis would cause significantly la rger deformations and higher beod-
i.ng moments at the supports.
12.4 .4 Dyn amic Analysis

Recently severa! pedestrian bridges exhibited u nacceptable performance due to vibration caused by
people walking or runn ing on them. Also wind can cause an u npleasant movement. Dynamic actions
induced by people result from rhythmical body motions of persons (Bachmann 2002; fib 2005).
Typical pacing frequencies J. of walking person is 2 Hz, of running person is J. = 2.5 Hz. To avoid
the resonaoce sorne standards specify that pedestrian bridges with fundamental frequencies below
3 Hl shou ld be avoided (AASHTO 2009). However, all stress ribbon and suspension pedestrian bridges
designed by the author have these fundamental frequencies below 2 Hl. Although they bave been buill
since 1979, no complaints on their dynamic bebavior have been reported.
Copynghted matenal
lt is obvious that rather than cbecking the natural modes and frequencies, a speed of motion or accel·
eration of the bridge deck caused by forced vibralion, which represen! S the effects of moving people,
shouJd be checked.
According lo (UKDOT 1988) the maximum vertical acceleration shou ld be calculated assuming that
the dy:namic loading applied by a pedestxian can be represented by a pulsating point load F, moving
across the ma in span of the superstructure ata constan! speed v, as follows.
F = 180·sin2nf0T (12.73)
v, = 0.9fo (12.74)
where point load F is in N, T is the time in s and speed v, is in m/s.

TI1e maximum vertical acceleration should be limited to o.sf]; mis'.
With every step, there is also a horizontal power that interacts with the bridge. While the vertical
power has a downward effect by each footstep, the horizontal power sends our force alternatively lo the
right and to the left. TI1is is why we are dealing with a case of resonance if
Vertica l vibration: fv = f,
Horizontal vibration: /H = /,12
Step frequencies J. of about 2.0 Hz will affecl bridges with vibrations of 1.0 Hz with substantial hori·
zontal deformations. Circumstances fv= 2/H should be avoided.
lt is evident that a response of lhe stress ribbon struclu res for a dynam ic load caused by people and
wind has lo be checked. Also, response 10 earthquake load ing has lo be veri fied. Typica lly, the first step
is to determine tbe natural modes and frequencies followed by the check of tbe dynamic response due
to the moving load.
For final desigo tbe dynamk analysis should be done with a calculation model that includes non-
linear analysis. lt is importan! to realize that tbe dynamic analysis is usually linear and tbat most pro ·
grams are able to describe the special behavior of the stress ribbon and cable supported structures ooly
by using the so caJJed tension stiffening effect.
When analyzing multi-span structu res it is noted that the bridge behaves as a continuous strncture
only when there is horizontal displacement of the supports. For a smallload, as caused by a group of
pedestrians, the change of stresses is very small and the individua l spans behave as isolated cables.
Therefore, when the structure is checked for motions that can cause unpleasant feeling, the dynamic
analysis should be done for the individual spans in addition to the overal l structure.
12.4.5 Designing of Structural Members

The stress ribbon structures are designed as ordinary structura l concrete. As such, it is reasonable to
check a U members as partially prestressed wbere crack width and fatigue stresses in tendons and rein·
forcing steel are checked. Also maximum compression stresses in the concrete should be verified.
Since the stress ra:nge in the prestressed band is within tbe stress range of ordinary prestressed concrete
structures, tbe stresses in the bearing aod prestressing teodons should be treated as ordinary prestressing
tendons in accordance with the appropriate national standard. Vsually for bonded tendons max.imum
service stresses should not exceed 0.7f,, for <tnbonded tendons the stresses sbould not exceed 0.6f,.
Since at increasing load tbe joiots and cracks in tbe concrete band open, the stress ribbon behaves as
a cable at ultimate loading (see Figure 12.24g). The load is resisted both by the bearing and prestressing
tendoos. Since the additionalload causes larger sag, the stresses in tbe tendons increase less than lin-
early with the load. This explains why it is possible to use relatively high allowable stresses in the tendons
for service load.
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12.4.6 Example of the Analysis

In Figures 12.31 through 12.33 calculation models and some results of the analysis of the Bridge across the
Medway River, Maidstone, Kent, UKare presented in Strasky (2003). The structure was modeled as 30 struc-
tures assembled from parallei3D elements that modeled precast segments (PS), composite slab (CS), bearing
(BT) and prestressing tendons (PT). The length of the elements corresponded to that of the segments.
81' bearing tendons
PT prestressíng cendons
es composite slab
PS precast segments
Detall 'N
(b)
FIGURE 12 .31 Bridgeacross t he Medway River, Maidstone,Kem, UK: calculation model. (a) Local model, Detail
'A' and (b) global model.
37.500 49.500
1 1 ¡
L L.~I itii Hililll iJIII ! ill! i ! l l l fiU!i!IJiiiiii i iiii i i i i !I! I ! I IIII ! III IIIIIIIIID
- 2.0 f----H------- -J+- -lLjliL--+- 1 - - - - - - - - - --HI---1
DL+P+(-A + P+LLI
DL+P
P+(+<H)
MNm LL =S kN/m1 +AT = +21' C

- AT= - 27' (
FIGURE 12.32 Bridge across t he Medway River, Maidstone, Kent, UK: bending mom.ents in the deck.
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fco=1.171 H<
FIGURE 12.33 Bridge across the Medway River, Maidstone, Kent, UK: natural modes and frequencies.
In this bridge the saddles were modeled by 30 beam elernentsof0.5 m leogth that had varyingdepth cor-
responding to that of the haunches. From the figures it is evideot that the calculatioo models can describe
the actual arrangement of the stress ribbon structures including their flexible connection to the soil.
Figure 12.32 presents the bending momeo! diagrams in the stress ribbon deck of the Maidstone
Bridge. Due to the arrangement of the prestressing tendons at the abutments and pier haunches. the
positive bending moments that usually appear at those locations were sigoificantly reduced . From the
natural modes and frequencies shown in Figure 12.33 it is evident that tllis complex structure vibrates
in compound modes. This also demonstrates the good behavior of this slender structure.
Tite forced vibration (Strasky, Necas, and Kolacek 2012) determined the maximum amplitude max
u= 3.710 mm (0.15 in.), maxinmm speed of rnotion max v = 0.031 mis (1.02 ft.ls} and maximum accel-
eration max a= 0.260 mfsl (0.85 ft.fs2). This value is smaller than limited acceleration a11m = 0.471 mJs2
(1.545 ft.fsl). Although the structure is extremely slender, and first bending frequencies are elose to 2Hz,
the users do not have an unpleasant feeling when standing or walking on the bridge.
12.5 Stress Ribbon Supported by Arch

Tite intermediate support of a multi-span stress ribbon (see Figure 12.14) can a lso have the shape of an
arch (see Figure 12.34). The arch serves as a saddle from whicb the stress ribbon can rise during post-
tensioning and dnring temperature drop, and where the band can rest dnring a temperature rise.
Copynghted matenal
L R
(o)
Hso -+1- -.::.L,_,- --11--.::.Ls,___ -ti- -"'L''---- +l Hso

(b)
HA HA
(e)
A Aal
l Lp
1
AV
LA
(d)
AV ~-.
1
AH
AV
l 1-p
1
AV
(e)
FIGURE \2.34 Stress ribbon supported by arcb: (a) stress ribbon and arcb, (b) stress ribbon, (e) arcb, (d) self-
anchored system, and (e) partially self-anchored system.
ln the initial stage the stress ribbon behaves as a two span cable supported by the saddle that is fixed
to the end abutments (see Figure 12.34b). The arch is loaded by its self-weight, the weight of the saddle
segments and the radial forces caused by the bearing tendons (see Figure 12.34c). After post tensioning
the stress ribbon with the prestressing tendons, the stress ribbon and arch behave as one structure.
The shape and initial stresses in the stress ríbbon and í11 the arch can be chosen such that the hori-
zontal forces in the stress ribbon H,. and in the arch H, are the same. lt is then possíble to connect the
stress ribbon and arch footings with compression s truts that balance the horizontal forces. The moment
created by horizontal forces H 50 ·1t is then resisted by the t.I'-L,.. In this way a self-anchored system with
only vertical reactions is created (see Figure 12.34d). This self-anchored system eliminares the anchor-
ing ofhorizonta l forces in the upper soil layers.
In some cases- dueto the slope limitations of tbe s tress ribbon- the deck has to have ver y s mall sag
and the corresponding horizontal force becomes very large. A supporting arch that would balance this
force would result extremely flat. lf the topography requires an arch of higher rise, it is then possible to
develop a partially self-anchored system.
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Tbe arch is designed for an optim um rise and its corresponding horizontal force. This horizontal
force H, is then transferred by the inclined props into the stress ribbon's anchor blocks. 1be anchor
blocks have to resist only the difference
llH = H, - H.
The moment created by horizontal forces HA·h is then resisted by the couple !lV-L ..
ll is possible tt) develop many partially self-anchored systems in which the arch helps to reduc.e the
stress ribbon's horizontal force. Figure 12.35 desc,·ibes a static function ofone possibil ity.ln the initial
stage the arch is loaded on ly by its self-weight and the weight of the saddle segments. lo th is case, the
stress ribbon forms a one spa n structure where the bearing tendons only carry the weight of the seg-
ments at either side of the saddle.
1be horizontal force H, is tben t ransferred by means of the inclined struts into tbe stress ribbon's
anchor blocks that now have to resist only the difference
TI1e moment created by horizontal forces H,·h is then resisted by a couple of vertical forces óV:Lp.
lt is also obvious that the stress ribbon be suspended from the arch. lt is then possible to develop sev-
era! of fully or partially self-anchored systems. Figure 12.36 presents so me concepts usi ng such systems.
Figure 12.36a shows an arch fixed at the a nchor blocks of the slender prestressed concrete deck. The
arch is loaded not only by its own self weight and the stress ribbon's, but also with the rad ial forces of
the prestressing tendons.
Figure 12.36b shows a structure that has a simila r static behavior as the structure presented in
Figure I2.36d. TI1e two span stress ribbon is suspended on an arch that serves as a "saddle" o n which
the prestressed band changes c urvature. In the in itial stage the stress ribbon behaves as a two span cable
supported by the sadd le (see Figure 12.34b). The arch is loaded by its self-weight, the weightofthe saddle
segments and the radial forces caused by the bearing tendons. When the stress d bbon is post-tensioned
the stress ribbon and a rch behave as one structure.
t.V 6V Lp
1 ~J> 1 1
(a)
(b)
(e)
FIGURE 12.35 Stress ribl>on supported by arch: (a) partiallyself-anchored system, (l>) stress ril>bon, and (e) are h.
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A 8
(a)
.O. V .O. V
(b)
.O. V
.O. V il.V
(e)
.!l.H .!l.H
A 8
(d)
FIGURE 12.36 Stress ribbon suspended on arch: (a) tied arch, (b) ticd arch with side spans, (e} tied arch with
Rexural sliff side spans, and (d) two span stress ribbon suspended on are h.
To reduce the tension force at the stress ribbon anchor blocks, it is possible to connecl the stress rib-
bon and arcb footings by compression struts that fully or partially balance the stress ribbon horizontal
forces.
Figure 12.36c sbows a similar structure in wlúch the slender prestressed concrete band has increased
bending stitfness in the non-suspension portion of the structure not suspended from the areh.
Figure 12. 36d presents a structure in wlúch the change of curva tu re of the prestressed band is accom-
plished in a short saddle that is suspended from the arch. Since the arch is load ed by its self-weight and
by a point load from the stress ribbon, it shou ld have the fu nicular shape corresponding to this load.
The described structures were carefu lly analyzed and statically and dynamically tested on physical
models. The first applications presented in Section 12.6-Examples proved the economy of the solution.
12.6 Examples
12.6.1 DS-L Bridges: Bridge across the Vltava River
in Prague-Troja, Czech Republic
In the course of years 1978-1985 the author, as a chief designer of the firm Dopravni stavby Olomouc,
Czechoslovakia designed seven stress ribbon bridges of the similar arrangement (Strasky 1987b and
2011). The firm marked these structures as DS-L Bridges. The bridges have one, two, or three spans of
maxi mum length of 102m (335ft.); the maximum length of the bridge is 261.20 m (857.0 ft.). Al! these
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1 85.50
1
96.00
1 67.50
1
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 12.37 Praguc:rroja Bridge: (a) elevatlon and {b) plan.
bridges are asscmbled of the same precast seg ments and have si mila r structu ral a rrangement that is
d emonstrated on the exa mples ofthe bridge built in 1984 in Prague-Troja (Strasky I987a).
The bridge of the total length of 261.20 m (857.0 ft.) crosses the Vltava River in the north suburb
Prague- Troja. Jt con nects the Prague ZOO and Troja Chateau with sports facilit ies situated on the
Emperor Jsland and with the park Stromovka (see Figure 12.37).
The bridge has th ree spans oflengths o f 85.50 + 96.00 + 67.50 m (280.51 + 314.96 + Z21.46 ft.); the
sags at mid-spans are 1. 34, 1.69, and 0.84 m (4.40, 5.55. a nd 2.76 ft.). 'The stressed ribbon is formed by
precast segments and by cast·in·place saddles (pier tables) frame connected with intermed iate piers
(see Figu re 12.38). At the bottom of the piers concrete hinges, which allow rotation in the longitud inal
direction of the bridge. were designed. lhe horizontal force from the stress ribbon is resisted by wall
d iaphragms and micropiles.
The decks of all bridges are assembled of two types of segments: waffle segments that form the pre-
vailing part of the deck a nd so/id segments designed at t he abutments. The precast segments a re 3.00 m
(9.84 ft.) long, 3.80 m (12.47 ft.) wide and bave the depth 0.30 m (9.84 ft.) (see Figure 12.39). TI1e section
of the waffle segments is formed by edge girders and a deck slab. Al joint between the segments the sec·
tion is stiffened by low diaphragms.
During the ereclion the segments were suspended on bearing tendons situated al t roughs, after the
casting of the joi nts between the segments, the deck was post-tensioned by prestressing tendons situ-
ated in tbe deck slab (see Figure 12.40) . Bearin g and prest ressing tendons are formed by 6-0.6" strands.
Erection of the deck started by placing the so lid segments on the neoprene pads situated on the front
portion of the abutments. Then the first half of the bearing tendons was pulled across the river and ten-
sioned to the design stress. The tendons were supported by steel saddles situated on the piers.
Then the segments were e rected by a mobile crane. The segments were suspended on bearing tendons
and shifted along them into the design position. At first, the segments ofthe side spans were erected , and
then the segmen ts of the main span.
After aU segments were erected the second half ofthe bearing tendons was pu Ued and tensioned to the
design stress. In this way the structure reached the design shape. 1l1e.n the steel tubcs that form the ducts
in the joi nts between the segments were placed a nd prcstressing tendons were pulled through the deck.
Copynghl d mat0nal
9.000
1
--
1
' 1!----ti ~,
!1
~ , . - Concrete
hinge
1 1
2.200
(a) J.00-::0+-+--4::.:.20=0---+--1'"'-1..000
6.200
(b)
(e)
FIGURE 12.38 Prague-Troja Bridgc-picr rabie: (a) clcvation, (b) eross section, and (e) plan.
Then the reinforciJ1gsteel oíthe troughs and saddles was placed a nd the joints, troughs and saddles were
cast. At first the side spans were cast, then the central span and saddles. The saddles were cast in formworks
that were suspended on the already erected segments aod were supported by the piers (see Figure. 12.19).
The static assumptions and quality of the workmanship were also checked by a static and dynamic
loading tes t see Figure 1.4. In 2001 when exceptional flood has occurred in Prague, the pedestrian bridge
was totally flooded. Careíu l exa mination of the bridge done after the tlood has confirmed that the struc-
turc was without any structural damages.
The DS-L bridges were wcll acccpted by the public and so far no problems with their static or dyna mic
performance have occurrcd. Thc dynamic tests have confirmed that is not possible to damagc the bridges
by an excessive vibration caused by people (a case of va ndalism) a nd that the speed and acceleration of
motion caused by people is within acceptable limits.
12.6.2 Sacramento River Trail Bridge, Redding, California

The Sacramento River trail and connecting bridge form part ofthe City ofRedding's park system. The
riverbanks have extensive rock outcropping that dramaticaUy increases the beauty of the basin. To pre·
serve this natural terrain and to m iti¡;ate adverse hydrauHc cond itions, it was importan! lo avoid found-
ing any piers in the river basin (Redfield and Strasky 1992) (see Figures 12.41 and 12.42).
The bridge is formed by a stress-ribbon of the span of 127.40 m (481 ft.). During the service of the
bridge the sag at nüd spa n varíes from 3.35 m (11 ft.) (time O with maximum temperature and fulllive
load) to 2.71 m (8.9 ft.) (time in fin ity with m.in innun temperature). Apart from a distance of 4.20 m
Copynghted matenal

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Stress Ribbon

FIGURE L2.1 Bosporus Bridge-U. Finsterwa1der 1958.

FIGURE 12.2 Bridge across the.Sacramento River in Redding, CA.

12.2 Structural Arrangement

FIGURE 12.5 Hukusai Bridge, )apan.

FIGURE 12.6 Cable stiffening.

~-1~----"-y:_L,c.=: . 9"'9-'.~"'·9-:""'------l 7 ' as

12.2.2 Structural Arrangement of the Deck

FIGURE 12.8 Static function: (a) erection and (b) sen•ice.

'- B,ear·ing and prestressing tendon

FIGURE 12.10 Prestressed band: typical sections.

12.2.3 Structural Arrangement at Piers and Abutments

FIGURE 12.14 G rants Pass Pedestrian Bridge-intermediate pier.

FIGURE 12.15 Prague-Troja Bridge- intermediate pier during the erection.

12.2.4 Transferring Stress Ribbon Force into the Soil

FIGURE 12.16 Rockanchors.

FIGURE 12.18 Battered micropiles.

12.3.1 Construction Sequences A

FIGURE 12.19 Construction sequences A.

Elevation Cross section

FIGURE 12.20 Erection of a segment: {a) erection A and (b) erection B.

12.3.2 Construction Sequences B

FIGURE 12.21 Construction sequences B.

12.4 Static and Dynamic Analysis

(b) .. lH 'p ~g ..- lH •

(d) g Basic stage eo oe

Elevation Cross section

FIGURE 12.23 Static function.

12.4.1 Single Cable

1= X (b) - X(a) = x(b) (12.1)

h = Y(b )- Y( a)= y(b) ( 12.2)

r-·- ·-·-·4 q(x)

l'{x}+d V{x ) N(x)+dN{x)

FIGU RE 12 .24 Bnsic characterislics oflhe single cable.

N(x)l = H(x)' - V(x)1 (12.4)

H(x)= N(x)cos«xJ (12.5)

V(x) = N(x)sin«x) (12.6)

For verlicalload H = const.

p•(x) = Q(x) (12.7)

j(x) = M(x) (12.9)

p0 (x)= ~(!.qt- qx)= ...!!....(/- 2x) (12.11)

f(x) = M(x) = -1 ( -q/x--qx>

12.4.1.1 Length of Cable

=JQ'(x)dx =JQ(x) Q(x)dx

12.4.1.2 Elastic Elongation of Cable

For vertical load

&=!:!...( 1 +..2.. JQ(x)ds ) = 2H

&= 2H(s-~)= 2H(I+ 8j1 -~)=!:!...(/+ 16jl) (12.22)

12.4.1.3 Determining Horizontal Force H 1

ln1 =s; - lls; (12.25)

In, = ln(l +<X,6t,) (12.26)

ln,--1_[_ cos~ D -+ H 111 + D, = O (12.31)

we geL a cubic equitation for determin ing of H1

aHf +bHf+cH, +d =O (12.36)

12.4.1.4 Influence of Deformation of Supports and

FIGURE 12.25 l nitial and final stage.of the cable.

L>, ... = kH,

In, = ln(l + a ,ót,) (12.47)