𝕮𝖍𝖆𝖕𝖙𝖊𝖗 2: 𝕾𝖙𝖗𝖚𝖈𝖙𝖚𝖗𝖊 𝖔𝖋 𝕮𝖊𝖑𝖑𝖘 𝖆𝖓𝖉 𝕺𝖗𝖌𝖆𝖓𝖊𝖑𝖑𝖊𝖘

2.1 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

CELL THEORY
▪ Introduced by German botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann
▪ States that all living things are composed of cells
▪ The cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all living organisms.
▪ All cells arise from pre-existing cells
▪ Tissue is formed from a group of closely associated, similar cells that carry out a specific function.
▪ Organ is formed from a group of associated tissues.
▪ System is formed from a group of organs to perform specialised functions The nucleoid is
▪ A cell is made up of protoplasm surrounded by a selectively permeable lipoprotein membrane. an irregularly
shaped region
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS within the
❖ Prokaryotes: prokaryotic cell
⸙ Unicellular organisms without cell nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelles that contains all
⸙ Primitive cells or most of the
⸙ Not true cells genetic
⸙ Do not have nucleus and are found in bacteria and cyanobacteria material.
⸙ “prokaryotic” means “before the nucleus”
⸙ DNA is not enclosed in the nucleus, but located in nucleoid which is not enclosed by a membrane
⸙ Have plasma membrane, but in some prokaryotic cells, plasma membrane maybe folded inward to
form a complex of membrane where many of the cell metabolic reaction takes place
⸙ Have incredibly compact genomes as genes lack introns and large non-coding regions between each
gene.
⸙ Genes also expressed in groups (operons)

Prokaryotic cell

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 Eukaryotic cell

Polysome
(polyribosome/ergas
ome) a complex of an
mRNA molecule and
two or more
ribosomes that act to
translate mRNA
instructions into
polypeptides.

❖ Eukaryotes:
⸙ Organisms whose cells are organised into complex structures by internal membranes and a
cytoskeleton
⸙ “eukaryotic” means “true nucleus”
⸙ DNA is found in the nucleus and associated with protein to form chromosome
⸙ Characterised by highly organised membrane-bound organelles

Characteristic Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Cell Type Multicellular Unicellular
Cell Size Smaller (0.5-10 μm) Bigger (10-100 μm)
Large surface area to volume ratio Small surface area to volume ratio
Organelles Few, without envelope Abundant, 3 with envelopes
Nucleus Absent Present
DNA/Chromosomes Circular double strand DNA (plasmid) DNA are wrapped around histones to form
No histone chromosomes
Not surrounded by double-membrane Chromosomes are surrounded by a double-
nuclear envelope membrane nuclear envelope
Can be found in nucleoid region Circular DNA are present in mitochondria
Transcription and translation occur and chloroplasts
simultaneously Transcription occurs in nucleus, translation
occurs in cytoplasm
Cell wall Rigid cell walls containing murein Present in plants and algae which contains
(peptidoglycan -polymer of sugar and cellulose
amino acids) Chitinised in fungi
Absent in animal cells
Flagella Only consist of one microtubule Membrane bound
Contain flagellin Arranged as “9+2” arrangement of
microtubule
Capsule May be present Absent
Made of glycoprotein
Pillus May be present for attachment Absent

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 Ribosomes Smaller Larger
70S occur as free particles in cytoplasm 80S occur as free particles in cytoplasm or
Formed in cytoplasm bound to endoplasmic reticulum
Formed in nucleolus
Polysome Present Present
Endoplasmic Absent Present (smooth and rough endoplasmic
reticulum reticulum)
Golgi apparatus Absent Present
Vesicles Present Present
Microtubules Absent or rare Present
Cytoskeleton May be absent Present
Mitochondria or Mitochondria are absent Mitochondria present as sites for cellular
mesosome Mesosome in bacteria and plasma respiration to produce ATP
membrane of cyanobacteria contain
respiratory enzymes
Chloroplasts Absent Present in plants
Chlorophyll are scattered in cytoplasm
Vacuoles Present Present
Spindle Absent Present during cell division
Cell No mitosis or meiosis Mitosis, meiosis or both
duplication/division

PLANT CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS

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Plasmodesmata are microscopic
channels which traverse the cell
walls of plant cells.

The middle lamella is a layer

which cements the cell walls of
two adjoining plant cells
together.

Characteristics Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell wall and middle Absent Surrounding the cell
lamella
Plasma membrane Present Present
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 Shape Not restricted, can be altered Restricted by cell wall
Plasmodesmata Absent Present
Cytoplasm Throughout the cell At the periphery
Intermediate filaments Present Usually absent
Nucleus position Centrally located At one side
Mitosis In all cells In meristems only
Centrioles Present, to organise spindle fibre formation Absent, form spindle fibre without it
Microvillus, cilium, Present in certain specialised cells Absent except sperm of fern has flagellum
flagellum
Chloroplast and other Absent Present for photosynthesis and storage
plastids
Carbohydrate food Glycogen Starch
reserves
Lysosome Usually present Usually absent
Sap vacuole and Small vesicles may be found instead Big, centrally located
tonoplast
Secretory vesicles May be present Usually absent
Mitochondria, Present Present
endoplasmic reticulum

MICROSCOPY
➢ Resolution is the measure of clarity of images, which is the ability to distinguish between two separate
points.
➢ Limit of resolution of a microscope is the minimum distance between points at which they are
distinguishable at two separate points.
➢ If two points cannot be resolved, they will be seen as one point.
➢ Light/optical microscope:
o Use light to form an image
o Compound microscope:
 Light rays passing through a specimen are brought focus by a set of glass lenses
 Visible light used has a wavelength of 400-700nm, maximum resolution is 200nm
 Gives a maximum magnification of about 1500 times
 Organelles such as chloroplast are large enough to interfere with the light waves and can be
seen.
 Limitation:
• Specimen have to be sectioned into thin slices, fixed and stained before they can be
observed.
• Resolution limit is 200nm, object smaller than that cannot be seen clearly (e.g.
ribosome)
Example image
under microscope

o Phase contrast microscope:

 Many cell details have similar transparency and are not coloured
 Special phase contrast condensers and objective lens are added to the optical microscope:

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 • Microscope are fitted with an annular diaphragm to form a cone of light passing
through the object.
• A phase plate is used to change the phase of the object relative to the background
before final image is formed.
• By using a phase plate of suitable thickness, the background light can be darkened or
lightened, due to the refractive indices of the object and its surrounding that causes
the light passing through them to differ in phases, which can be enhanced
(lightened) or cancelled (darkened)
 Light rays travelling through material of different densities are bent and altered giving a
better contrast
 Enable living, non-pigmented specimen to be studied without fixing or staining
 Activities such as mitosis, meiosis, phagocytosis and movement can be observed
 Give better contrast but do not improve resolution
 Resolution is similar to the optical microscope (200nm)

Example image
under microscope

➢ Electron microscope:
o Uses electron beam instead of light rays
o Average wavelength of electron beam is 0.005nm which gives a high resolving power to the electron
microscope which can resolve two objects that are only 1nm apart
o Electrons are negatively charged and can be focused by the use of electromagnets in the electron
microscope.
o Transmission electron microscope (TEM):
 Has a resolving power of about 1 nm
 Used to study to ultrastructure of a cell (e.g. organelles)
 The filaments of cathode (electron gun) is heated causing it to emit electrons
 Electron beam passes through ultra-thin dehydrated sections of dead specimen
 Placed in a vacuum to minimise electron scattering due to collision between electrons and
molecules in the air
 Sections are treated with heavy metals (uranyl, lead acetate, osmium tetroxide)
 Electrons are absorbed by the heavily stained parts but passed through the lightly stained
parts.
 Provides contrast between different parts of specimen.
 Electromagnets are used to bend and focus the electrons, producing an image on a
fluorescent screen/photographic film

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 Example image
under microscope

o Scanning electron microscope (SEM):

 Used to produce a three-dimensional view of objects
 A narrow electron beam passes rapidly back and forth to scan the surface of a dead
specimen which has been coated with a thin layer of metal
 A large portion of the electrons are reflected
 Some of the absorbed electrons excite other electrons at the surface to give off secondary
electrons
 Limitations:
• Images are easily distorted

Example image
under microscope

➢ Magnification:
o Ratio of an object’s image size to its real size
Size of image
o Magnification=Size of specimen
ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
• States that some of the organelles in eukaryotic cells were once
prokaryotic microbes
• Mitochondria has the same size as prokaryotic cells and divide by
binary fission
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA which is circular,
not linear
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts are likely evolved from engulfed
prokaryotes that once lived as independent organisms
• At some point, a eukaryotic cell engulfed an aerobic prokaryote,
which then form a endosymbiotic relationship, with the host
eukaryote, gradually developing into a mitochondrion
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2.2 Cellular Components

NON-ORGANELLES
PLASMA MEMBRANE
⸙ Semi-permeable lipoprotein layer that surrounds the cell and organelles
⸙ Singer and Nicolson’s fluid mosaic model:

⸙ Consist of a bimolecular phospholipid fluid layer with globular protein units floating in it, forming a mosaic
pattern:
⁂ Heads of phospholipids are hydrophilic, pointing outwards into the aqueous medium on both sides
of the membrane
⁂ Tails of phospholipids are hydrophobic, facing each other forming a non-polar interior in the middle
of the membrane
⸙ The structure is dynamic where each lipid molecule can move within its own monolayer and so is each of the
protein unit
⸙ The fluidity of the membrane depends on the length of the fatty acid chains, their saturation and the
amount of cholesterol in them:
⁂ Cholesterol with its hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail fits neatly within the phospholipid bilayer

⸙ Proteins:
⁂ Integral/intrinsic proteins are fitted neatly because of their corresponding non-polar properties of
their surfaces
⁂ Peripheral/extrinsic proteins are attached on the outer polar layers of phospholipid
⁂ Function as
 carriers/channels for polar molecules to cross the membrane
 structural components, enzyme receptors and electron carriers for respiratory and
photosynthetic phosphorylation
⸙ Carbohydrates exist as short branched chain of sugars attached to proteins (glycoproteins)/ lipids
(glycolipids) on the outer surface of the membrane
⁂ Function as receptors for chemicals, e.g. hormones, adhesion to neighbouring cells and for immune
responses.
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 ⸙ Function:
⁂ Act as a protective barrier between cell contents from the extracellular environment
⁂ Boundary between the cell and its environment
⁂ Regulates/control passage of substances entering/leaving the cell
⁂ Receptor sites in recognising external stimuli
⁂ Enables cells to recognise other cells to behave in an organised manner during formation of tissues
in embryo
⁂ Allows compartmentalisation and division of labour especially within membrane-bound organelles
⁂ Helps in cell mobility, e.g. white blood cells where the membrane carries out amoeboid movement
CELL WALL Apoplast is formed by the continuum of
⸙ Extracellular structure of plants cell walls of adjacent cells as well as the
⸙ Rigid cellulose cell walls surrounding the plasma membrane extracellular spaces, forming a tissue
⸙ Thicker than plasma membrane level compartment comparable to the
⸙ Perforated by channels between adjacent cells called plasmodesmata symplast.
⸙ Primary cell wall:

⁂ Laid down during cell division

⁂ Found in young cells and cells that are not highly differentiated (e.g. meristem, parenchyma,
collenchyma)
⁂ Thin and flexible
⁂ Consist of randomly arranged microfibrils of cellulose in an amorphous matrix of hemicellulose,
calcium and magnesium pectate
 Produce spaces between microfibrils, allowing cell wall to be permeable to water and
solutes
⁂ Between primary walls of adjacent cells is the middle lamella, a thin layer rich in sticky
polysaccharides called pectin:
 Glues adjacent cells together
 When the cell matures and stops growing, it strengthens its wall.
 Cement layer

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 ⁂ Porous, allows water to be transported through an apoplastic route along it
⁂ Elastic and strong, enables parenchyma to be turgid and support the whole plant
⸙ Secondary cell wall:

⁂ Harder and usually thicker

⁂ Formed between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall
⁂ Made up of more compact and regularly arranged microfibrils which are arranged in layers of
parallel rows, perpendicular to those of upper and lower layers
⁂ Matrix is impregnated with lignin, forming a hard and impervious layer which gives mechanical
strength
 Deposition of lignin in xylem vessels is not uniform but in patterns like rings helices or
network
⸙ Cellulose fibrils have high tensile strength, prevent plant cells from bursting when water enters by osmosis
⸙ Cell walls of bacteria contain murein, fungal cell walls contain chitin
⸙ Functions:
⁂ Protects the cell from physical injuries, pathogens and haemolysis
⁂ Provides mechanical support to the plant through cell turgidity
⁂ Controls growth, limits individual cell size and shape through orientation of fibrils
⁂ Forms a system of transport pathways for water and mineral ions, water can be transported in
apoplast way and through plasmodesmata of cells in symplast way
⁂ Controls excessive loss of water from epidermal cells of leaves and stems by having a waxy cuticle
layer on the surface, cork cells have suberised cell wall
⁂ Form empty tubes for water transport in xylem vessels
 Tracheids forms a water transport system with a lot of pits
⁂ Provides food storage in the from of hemicellulose in some seeds
CYTOPLASM

⸙ Protoplasmic part of the cell which is outside the nucleus and is surrounded by the plasma membrane
⸙ Jelly like fluid
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 ⸙ pH 6.8±0.2
⸙ Has considerably high density with a variety of solutes
⸙ Divided into cytosol (groundplasm) and cytoskeleton (cell inclusion)
⸙ Cytosol (GROUNDPLASM/ INTRACELLULAR FLUID)
⁂ Soluble part of the cell
⁂ 90% of water
⁂ True solutes/crystalloids
 Micromolecules such as gases (O2, CO2, N2), mineral ions including Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+,
Mg2+, Mn2+, Fe2/3+
 Mesomolecules such as monosaccharides (glucose and fructose), disaccharides (maltose and
sucrose), amino acids, organic acids, nucleotides and vitamins
⁂ Colloids
 Macromolecules such as proteins (enzymes, hormones and structural proteins), glycogen in
liver cells and muscle tissues
⁂ Particles, droplets and vesicles
 Glycogen granules in liver cells and muscle tissues, starch granules in plant cells, fine fat
droplets and minute vesicles, which contain fluid
⁂ Functions
 Stores vital chemicals including fats
 Site for certain metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, synthesis of fatty acids, amino acids
and proteins
RIBOSOME

 Small granules where synthesis of proteins occur

 Found in all cells, particularly cells that produce a lot of proteins such as glandular cells
 Found in nucleus, free ribosomes suspended in cytosol, bound ribosomes in cytoplasm attached to ER,
mitochondria and chloroplast
Most proteins made on free ribosomes function within the cytosol
Bound ribosomes make proteins for insertion into membranes, for packaging within certain
organelles such as lysosomes, or for the export from the cell
 Found in large numbers
 Spheroid in shape, consisting of two subunits in which one is larger than the other
 Very small, about 22 nm in diameter for eukaryotic 80S types and 18 nm diameter for prokaryotic 70S types
 Subunits can be attached to form bigger functional units in the presence of magnesium ion
Eukaryote: 60S+40S ⇌ 80S
Prokaryote: 50S+30S ⇌ 70S
 Made of RNA and protein synthesised in the nucleolus
60S subunits contain about 3 types of RNA and 3 types of proteins
40S subunits contain 1 type of RNA and protein
50S subunits contain 3 types each of different RNA and proteins

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 30S subunits contain only a single type each od RNA and protein
 Has three sites for binding: Svedberg unit (S) is the sedimentation coefficient
Peptidyl or Donor site (P site) of a particle of a macromolecule, it measures
Aminoacyl or Acceptor site (A site) how rapidly the particle sediments in an
Exit site (E site) ultracentrifuge
 Functions:
Provide site for the formation of peptide bonds in which amino acids are joined to form poly
peptide/protein
 Subunits form a complex with mRNA
 Two sites are found on the surface where two tRNAs will bring an amino acid to the
corresponding site, matching the codons of mRNA and the anti-codon of tRNA
 Ribosomes can read the codons on mRNA and join specific sequence of amino acids to form
specific proteins

ORGANELLES
❖ Discrete structures within a cell that has a characteristic structure and specialised functions

NUCLEUS

 Largest organelle in the eukaryotic cell and function

 Found in all cells, except in the red blood cells of mammals and sieve tubes of phloem in flowering plants
 Found in the centre of cells, but in matured plant cells, it is pushed to one side of the protoplast by big sap
vacuole
 Spherical or oval in shape, can be cylindrical or lobed
 Diameter of 10-20 𝜇m and it occupies 75% of the cell
 Functions:
Chromosomes contain genetic material
Centre to control all cell activities and cell division
Site of synthesis of mRNA, tRNA and rRNA, and enzyme
 Nuclear envelope:
Double lipoprotein membrane that surrounds the nucleus
Outer membrane may have ribosomes attached to it
Possibly continuous with the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum
Sometimes may be continuous right to the plasma membrane
Inner membrane
 Smooth
 No ribosomes
 Not folded

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 Disappears at prophase of cell division, reappears at the end of telophase
Perforated by nuclear pores
 Aqueous protein channels
 Relatively big (40-150 nm)
 Cover a surface of 8% of the envelope
 Passage of substances is well controlled, bigger pores are specifically for the transport of
RNA and ribosome subunits from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
 Steroid hormones may enter through phospholipid layer by diffusion
Perinuclear space about 10-40 nm wide is present in between inner and outer membrane
Functions:
 Protects the inner structure of the nucleus
 Separates the nucleus from cytoplasm
 Controls the shape of the nucleus
 Controls the passage of substances
 Nucleoplasm / nuclear sap / karyoplasm:
Part of protoplasm inside the nucleus, separated by the nuclear membrane
Composition is the same as cytoplasm:
 Consisting mainly of water with crystalloids and dissolved colloids
 But has DNA, histones and pentoses which are absent in cytoplasm
 Crystalloid (monosaccharides: glucose, deoxyribose, deoxyribose)
 Colloids (DNA, RNA, histones)
Chromatin
 Made of DNA and histone
 8 molecules of histone, wound by a DNA strand, form a nucleosome unit
 Euchromatin composes of more DNA that is less wound on histones. Genes in it are active
and is found in the centre of the nucleus
 Heterochromatin found in the periphery of nucleus composes of DNA that is more wound
with histone forming more nucleosomes. Genes in it are not active
 During interphase, some chromatin are tightly coiled into heterochromatin

 Easily stained with acidic eosin to form a purple colour

 Common to find foreign substances that doesn’t belong there such as mitochondria and
parts of endoplasmic reticulum
 Contains various enzymes for metabolism (glycolysis, Krebs cycle, phosphorylation and
synthesis of NAD, replication and transcription of DNA)
 Nucleolus:
Spherical structure, can be oval, and can change its shape
Site of ribosome synthesis during interphase
Location is not fixed, either at the centre of nucleus or at one side
Sometimes there are two or more nucleoli, its number depends on the species
Has a region of chromosomes where one or two chromosomes or DNA are found
 The genes in DNA will start the process of nucleolus formation
 Genes code the rRNA and protein of ribosome
 Structure involved in the process of ribosome synthesis
Has another region of fibrils where transcription of genes forms rRNA

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  Some RNA act like mRNA, move out into cytoplasm and are translated into proteins by
ribosomes
 Others are rRNA and combined with the proteins moved in from cytoplasm to form coarser
fibrils before they coil to form the ribosome subunits
Third region of granules
 Where rRNA and protein interact, coil and fold to form two types of ribosome subunits
 One type is larger than the other
 Larger is the 60S type and the smaller is the 40S type
 These granular ribosome subunits move away from nucleus through nuclear pores into the
cytoplasm
Cyclic change occurs by disappearing during prophase and reappears at telophase as RNA and
protein can be hydrated at prophase
Cells have to form ribosomes after cell division
 Chromosomes:
Structures formed from DNA and histone during metaphase
Have no shape and not organised during interphase
 Exist as chromatin, long DNA molecules with certain parts attached to histones
 Part of DNA that is not coiled around histones contains active genes which can be
transcribed to form proteins
In diploid organisms, exist in pairs (human somatic cells: 46 in 23 pairs)
Homologous chromosomes are identical in structure
Maternal chromosomes are the set of chromosomes which originates from the mother through
ovum
Paternal chromosomes are the set of chromosomes which originates from the father through
spermatozoon
Sex chromosomes determines the sex of an organism
 Females have a pair of homologous X chromosomes
 Males have an X chromosome paired with a non-homologous and much smaller Y
chromosome
 A gene called the t factor in the Y chromosome determines the formation of testes during
the formation of a sex organ in the foetus
Autosomes, chromosomes other than sex chromosomes
 Usually in larger numbers
Size varies between species, average size is 6 𝜇m
 Largest is labelled as chromosome 1
 Smallest is labelled as chromosome 22
 Plants usually have larger chromosomes than animals
 Birds and fungi have the smallest chromosomes
Shapes vary during the cell cycle
 Chromosomes consist of two strands of cylindrical sister chromatids, which are attached
together by centromere
 Shapes of chromosomes are determined by the position of centromere which can be
metacentric, telocentric or acrocentric

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  Centromere is the primary constriction of chromosome
 Some chromosome may have secondary constriction
 Shape of chromosomes are also determined by their length
Structural organisation
 During prophase, each DNA molecule winds around a group of 8 histone molecules, forming
a nucleosome
 During interphase a certain amount of DNA forms nucleosomes, and the genes are
inactivated
 6 nucleosomes coil regularly to form a secondary structure, which may be folded or coiled to
form chromatid
 Centromere is a constricted portion of chromatid where protein keeps the two chromatids
together

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 A network of flattened and membranous sacs and tubules (cisterna; plural: cisternae)
 Endoplasmic means “within the cytoplasm”, reticulum means “little net”
 Interconnect to form complex structure in cytoplasm for internal transport of substances
 Has a lipoprotein membrane, not folded, proteins on both sides are different
May connect to the outer membrane of nucleus, which may continue to expand to form more ER
membrane
The ER membrane separates the internal compartment of the ER, called the ER lumen (cavity) or
cisternal space, from the cytosol.
 Content of cisternae: sol (matrix), contains a mixture of proteins
 Outside of cisternae form a complex network of intercisternal space, components same as cytoplasm but
with microfilaments attached to its outer membrane to maintain its shape
 Will bud off to form Golgi apparatus
 Certain parts of ER may connect to plasma membrane through the tubules
 Size of ER depends on the type of cell

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  Rough ER:
Has lots of ribosomes attached to its outer surface
Found in glandular cells that produce a lot of protein for secretion (glandular/goblet cells of digestive
systems)
Ribosomes produce proteins for export in the cytoplasm, have signal sequence to attach to the
surface of the ER
Protein produced enters matrix of cisterna through special pores, then is moved to Golgi apparatus
where it is packed into vesicles and exported via exocytosis
Function:
 Produces secretory proteins such as digestive enzymes, hormones
• As a polypeptide chain is threaded grows from a bound ribosome, the chain is
threaded into the ER lumen through a pore formed by a protein complex in the ER
membrane
• The new polypeptide folds into its functional shapes as it enters the lumen
• Most of the proteins are glycoproteins where carbohydrates are attached to the
protein in the ER lumen by enzymes built into the ER membrane
 Transport proteins to smooth ER or to the Golgi apparatus through sacs pinched off from its
surface membrane (vesicles)
• Separates proteins from cytosol
 Smooth ER:
Has little or no ribosomes on its surface
A lot of enzymes catalysing the synthesis pf carbohydrates and lipids are embedded on its inner
surface of the membrane
Vesicles and larger sacs bud off to fuse with the cisternae of Golgi apparatus
Functions:
 In animal cells, produces and transports lipids (oils, steroids, steroid hormones) in testes,
ovaries and brain cells
 in liver cells, enzymes in smooth ER detoxifies drugs and toxins with the help of enzymes
• adding hydroxyl groups to drug molecules, making them more soluble and easier to
Proliferation: rapid reproduction flush from the body
of a cell, part or organism • barbiturates, alcohol, and many other drugs induce the proliferation of smooth ER
and its associated detoxification enzymes, thus increasing the rate of detoxification
• increases tolerance to the drugs, meaning that higher doses are required to achieve
a particular effect
 In striated muscles, modified to form sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounding the muscle fibril
for storage and transport of calcium ions for muscle contractions
 In meristem cells, forms cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin, transports them to the central
plate to be used to form new cross walls after mitosis

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  Forms lysosomes (vesicles) used for internal transport and reactions

GOLGI APPARATUS

 Dictyosome in plant cell

 Consists of a stack of flattened sacs (Cisternae)of different enzymes, which produces vesicles full of secretion
for internal/external uses
 Has lipoprotein membrane
Separates its internal space from the cytosol
Can be added on to form cisterna at one side, budded off completely of the other side
 Found in large numbers in glandular cells, neurones, muscle tissues, root cap cells and meristems of plants
 Formed from the ER
 Number increases as secretory activities increases Zymogen: inactive enzymes
 Cisternae are rough and circular with a network of tubules around their periphery that become active when part
Different sizes of 1-3 𝜇m in diameter, 0.05 𝜇m in thickness of its structure is removed by
Not physically connected another enzyme or some
Channels are present connecting cisternae to one another other process
Whole stack is curved with convex cis face (receiving side) facing the nucleus, and trans face
(shipping side)
Sacs are added onto the convex surface from ER for the transport of protein, lipid or carbohydrate
 Vesicle that buds off from the ER migrate along microtubules through a special trafficking compartment
(vesicle-tubular cluster) to the Golgi apparatus. It can add its membrane and the contents of its lumen to the
cis face by fusing with a Golgi membrane
 Products of ER are usually modified during their transit from cis region to trans region
 Whole cisterna of outermost trans face can be completely budded off as vesicles
 Microfilaments that bind the cisternae to keep them in stack
 Molecular identification tags such as phosphate groups are added to the Golgi products, aid in sorting by
acting like zip codes on mailing labels
 Transport vesicles budded from Golgi may have external molecules on their membranes that recognize
“docking sites” on the surface of specific organelles/plasma membrane, thus targeting vesicles appropriately
 Functions:
Exocytosis: is a Manufacture macromolecules (polysaccharides)
form of active Produces secretory vesicles containing zymogens, mucin, hormones and neurotransmitters
transport and Forms lysosomes through budding of larger vesicles or fusion of several smaller ones
bulk transport Processes proteins from ER to form glycoprotein through glycosylation before it is packaged into
in which a cell vesicles
transports Packs digestive enzymes and export them
molecule out
of the cell
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 Produces cell wall materials in vesicles, which are directed to the cell plate where new cell wall is
formed after mitosis
Process lipids to form glycolipids, package, transport and store them within the cell
Control internal transport of vesicles from one part of cytoplasm to another part
Control over the turnover of plasma membrane
 As each time exocytosis takes place, a certain amount of plasma membrane is added
Forms peroxisomes

LYSOSOME

 Spherical vesicles bound by a layer of lipoprotein membrane containing hydrolytic enzymes that many
eukaryotic cells use to hydrolyse macromolecules
 Found in cells that carry out endocytosis, found in most animal cells Endocytosis is a cellular
 Usually absent in plant cells except in immature xylem cells and sieve tubes process in which substances
 May be only one per cell are brought into the cell.
 Size varies from 0.1-0.5 𝜇m
 Enzyme inside cannot digest its membrane
3D shapes of proteins protect vulnerable bonds from enzymatic attack
The proteins are highly glycosylated
 Some arises by budding off from the trans face of Golgi apparatus
 Content is acidic, homogenous in nature and contain many types of hydrolases (proteinase, lipase,
carbohydratase, acid nuclease: DNase and RNase, acid phosphatase)
Acidic environment is maintained by the ATP-dependent proton pump
 Functions:
Digest foreign substances / cells (food) ingested by endocytosis (Intracellular digestion)

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  Primary lysosome fuses with food vacuole to form secondary lysosome, hydrolytic enzymes
are released to break down food into smaller substances
 In cells that carry out phagocytosis, lysosome fuses with phagocytic vacuoles to break down
pathogens
Clips certain bond such as bond off thyroglobulin
 Formed within the follicle of a thyroid gland
Can carry out autophagy
 Old or worn out organelles are digested by their digestive enzymes
 Red blood cells have their nuclei digested during their course of development in bone
marrow
 Worn-out organelle is surrounded by smooth ER to form an autophagosome
 Lysosome fuses with the autophagosome and releases the enzymes into the organelle to
digest it
Exports their enzymes via exocytosis
Carry out autolysis
 Whole cells are digested for rebuilding of new tissues during metamorphosis
Metamorphosis

MITOCHONDRION

 ‘power houses’ of the cell, where energy is formed in the form of ATP (formed from the bonding of
phosphate to ADP)
 Found in every eukaryotic cell
 Number increases when a cell becomes more active and needs more energy
 DNA in the mitochondria allows it to divide to form 2 mitochondria when the cell is active or before cell
division, can only occur inside the cells
 Spherical, oval or sausage-shaped, shape is changeable
 diameter of 0.25𝜇m and length of 10𝜇m
 65-75% protein, 25-35% lipid, about 0.5% nucleic acids
 Have an envelope made up of two lipoprotein membranes
Encloses fluid-filled matrix (mitochondrial matrix) and inter-membrane space
In the matrix, contains circular strands of DNA, 70S ribosomes and enzymes
Outer membrane is smooth with no granules
 Has a lot of pores with diameters between 2.5-3.0 nm
 Pores are part of the channel proteins/translocase for the passage of ADP or ADP and NAD+
or NADH
Inner membrane is folded to form cristae, tube-like in plant cell, folding in animal cell
 Cristae increases as respiration rate increases
 A lot of stalked granules embedded on the inner membrane
 Size of granules vary, the granules are the ATP synthase enzyme that performs oxidative
phosphorylation to produce ATP from ADP and phosphate, in the presence of oxygen
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  Highly folded surfaces give the inner membrane a large surface area
Colloidal interior contains ribosomes, DNA, RNA and a lot of enzymes
 Functions:
Carry out Krebs cycle, part of cellular aerobic respiration within matrix
Carry out oxidation and complete breakdown of fatty acids into carbon dioxide and water to
produce ATP
Carry out oxidation and complete breakdown of amino acids
Carry out phosphorylation, which produces ATP from ADP and phosphate
Produce their own proteins from DNA with the help of RNA
 Required for oxidative process

PLASTIDS
 Organelles found in plant cells
 Types: Chloroplast, leucoplast, gerontoplast, chromoplast
 Leucoplasts are colourless plastids that do not contain coloured pigment
Amyloplast stores starch
Aleuroplast stores protein
Elaioplast (lipidoplast) stores oils
 Chromoplast contain carotenoid pigments which are usually yellow, orange or red
Two types: carotenes and xanthphylls
Coloured pigments in petals and fruits
 Chloroplast contain chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis

CHLOROPLAST

 Large plastids containing chlorophyll found in the photosynthetic tissues of plants

 Found in parts of plants which are green in colour
 Locations are not fixed, can move and orientate with larger surface towards the sunlight, which enables
them to obtain maximum amount of sunlight
 Number can be increased when light intensity increases and decreased when light intensity decreases
 Have biconvex circular shapes
 3-10 𝜇m in diameter and 2-3 𝜇m thick
 Envelope consists of two layers of lipoprotein membrane that are smooth, with no folding or granule
 Internal membrane system (thylakoid system) within stroma
Thylakoid membrane forms circular discs that are stacked like shillings (granum)
Each granum is made up of 10-100 thylakoids stacked together
40-60 grana per chloroplast
Inter-granal lamellae (singular: lamella; plural: lamellae) are channels connecting one thylakoid of a
granum to another granum
 Form a network between grana
Photosynthetic pigments forming photostems that are studded in the membrane of both lamellae
and grana

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  Consist of a mixture of 300 various chlorophyll, carotenoid and protein molecules to form a
complex
 Stroma (semi-fluid) contains a colloidal sol where enzymatic reactions that require no light to occur
Enzymes involved in Calvin cycle where reactions forming carbohydrates and other organic
compounds take place
End products of photosynthesis (sucrose, starch and fat droplets) which are usually attached to the
lamellae
Intermediate compounds (organic acids, phosphorylated monosaccharides and their acids)
70S ribosomes
Circular ring of DNA and RNA
 Functions:
Carry out photosynthesis producing organic compounds
 Uses thylakoid lamellae to trap light and convert them into chemical energy mainly in the
form of ATP
 Carry out photoactivation and photophosphorylation through Calvin cycle
 ATP is used to perform fixation of carbon dioxide to become organic compounds in stroma
DNA and protein synthetic system produces some of the specific proteins used in photosynthesis
 Chloroplast still depend on nucleus to obtain most proteins
Can divide especially in their premature protoplastid stage in the meristems, mature chloroplasts do
divide

CENTRIOLES

 Known as centrosome
 Found in animal cells, not plant cells
 One pair is usually located beside the nucleus
 Cylindrical in shape, two centrioles are arranged perpendicularly to one another
 Small and can be observed as a dot under light microscope
 0.3-0.4 𝜇m in length 0.2 𝜇m in diameter
 Made up of 9 triplets of microtubules (attached lengthwise together in a ‘9+0’ arrangement)
 Divide during prophase of mitosis and each pair can move to opposite poles
 Functions:
Organise formation of spindle fibres, which are attached to the centromere of chromosomes during
metaphase

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FLAGELLUM AND CILIUM

Motile cilium
 Organelles with one end projecting out of the cell and other end connected to a basal body below the
plasma membrane
 Have ‘9+2’ arrangement of microtubules (9 doublets of microtubules are arranged in the ring with two single
microtubules in its centre)
 Nonmotile primary cilia have a ‘9+0’ pattern, lacking the central pair of microtubules
 Flagella are longer and occur singly or in small numbers
Undulating motion like the tail of a fish
Snakelike motion driving a cell in the same direction as the axis of the flagellum
 Cilia are shorter and occur in large numbers
Have alternating power and recovery strokes
Have a back-and-forth motion, rapid power stroke move the cell in a direction perpendicular to the
axis of the cilium
During the slow recovery stroke, the cilium bends and sweeps sideways, closer to the cell surface
 Bending movements involves large motor proteins (dynein) that are attached
along each outer microtubule doublet
Dynein has two “feet” that “walk” along microtubule of the adjacent
doublet, using ATP for energy
One foot maintains contact, while the other releases and reattaches one
step farther along the microtubule
Outer doublets and two central microtubules are held together by
flexible cross-linking proteins
Walking movement is coordinated so that it happens on one side of the circle at a time
The movements of dynein feet cause microtubules, and the organelle to move as a whole, to bend.
 Functions:
Cell motility
Acquire food (e.g. feeding current)
Propel fluids
Nonmotile cilia may act as signal receptors
 Membrane proteins transmit molecular signals from cell’s environment to its interior,
triggering signal pathways that may lead changes in cell’s activities

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CYTOSKELETON

cell motility
includes both
changes in cell
location and
movements of
 a network of fibres extending throughout the cytoplasm cell parts.
 Functions:
Determines the 3D shape of the animal cells (lack of walls) and gives certain firmness in plant cells
Provides anchorage (a need for contact to a stable surface for cell growth function and division) for
many organelles and even cytosolic enzyme molecules
Cell motility
 Can be quickly dismantled in one part of the cell and reassembled in a new location, changing the shape of
the cell.
 Microtubules:

hollow rods constructed from globular proteins called tubulins.

Fine, unbranched tubules with diameter of 25nm, wall of 5nm and vary in length
Wall is composed of 13 rows of globular protein (tubulin), arranged helically’
 Each tubulin is a dimer, a molecule made up two subunits (Alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin)
Tubulin can grow from a certain organisation centre (made of dense protein)
Continually depolymerising and polymerising:
 Tubulin dimers can be added at the base/ one end of the microtubule, causing it to increase
in length
 Tubulin dimers can also be removed, causing the microtubule to decrease in length
Usually stable (some maybe unstable as they can change their length suddenly)
Other tubulin subunits are able to attach to the base of cilia and flagella, participating in their
growth and movement.
Spindle fibres during cell division (formation can be inhibited by colchicine, causing non-disjunctions
and mutation in the number of chromosomes)
Functions:
 Forms cytoskeleton
 Give shape and mechanical support to the cell
 Divide cytoplasm into compartments to isolate specialised enzymes
 Contract for the movement of cilia and flagella
 Pull chromosomes/chromatids during mitosis/meiosis
 Serves as tracks for intracellular movement of organelles or vesicles

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  Microtubule attached to motor molecules is moved by the molecules to slide it past another,
the sliding of microtubules moves flagella and cilia
 Microfilaments/actin filaments:

Protein with a diameter of 7nm and lengths of several micrometre

Composed of 1-2 types of proteins including (thin filaments) actin and (thick filaments) myosin
Dynamic
Each type of protein forms subunits that are arranged helically
Subunits slide over one another causing microfilaments to contract
Exist in bundles, found in layers in cytoplasm
Can be polymerised or depolymerised
Function:
 A three-dimensional network formed by microfilaments just inside the plasma membrane
(cortical microfilaments) helps support the cell’s shape
 Cause membrane invagination and evagination during endocytosis and exocytosis
 Assist in cleavage process during cytokinesis of animal cells after nuclear division
 interact to cause contraction of muscle cells
 in plant cells, actin-protein interactions contribute to cytoplasmic streaming, a circular flow
of cytoplasm within cells. This movement, which is especially common in large plant cells,
speeds the movement of organelles and the distribution of materials within the cell.
involved in the amoeboid (crawling) movement of the cells.
 Intermediate filaments:

larger than the diameter of microfilaments but smaller than that of microtubules
diameter between 8-12nm
more permanent fixtures of cells than are microfilaments and microtubules
Even after cells die, intermediate filament networks often persist
made up of 4 long strands of alpha-helix coiled fibrous proteins
stable and branched, least soluble constituents of cytoskeleton
each type of cell has its own arrangement and types of proteins
function:
 maintain the shape of the cell, provide structural support and rigidity as it can withstand
tension and compression
 distribute the organelles, supporting them in the cytoplasm (anchorage)
 help specialised cells to perform their function
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  forms nuclear lamina with some membrane proteins
• forms a dense fibrillar network near inner nuclear membrane
• provides mechanical support and helps to regulate cell division and DNA replication
VACUOLE

 Sacs with lipoprotein membrane, usually spherical in shape

 Formed either by the enlargement of a vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus or by unfolding and pinching-off
part of plasma membrane during endocytosis
 Sap or central vacuole:
Contains cell sap and is surrounded by a single membrane called tonoplast
Found in plant cells
Small and numerous in young plant cells
Big and can occupy 90% of volume of matured plant cells
Contains water, sucrose, amino acids and some mineral ions
Stores water and mineral ions
 Balance water potential when required
 Act as a store for waste products in leaves, removed when leaves fall
In mesophyll cells, push chloroplasts to the edges so that chloroplasts can receive maximum amount
of light
Concentrated cell sap causes water to enter by osmosis and the cell becomes turgid
 Turgidity helps to control cell shape and volume
 Give support to herbaceous plants
 Plays a role in the enlargement and growth of young plant cells
May help to protect plants by storing compounds that are poisonous or unpalatable to animals
Some contain pigments
 Food vacuole:
Found in cells that perform endocytosis
Known as phagosomes in phagocytes
Small and temporary, formed by phagocytosis or pinocytosis
Contain bacteria, organic particles and dissolved proteins
Place for food digestion, undigested food is egested through plasma membrane
 Contractile vacuole:
Found in freshwater protozoans
Spherical in shape
Able to absorb water and contract, forcing water out through the membrane
Osmoregulatory mechanism to get rid of excess water, to prevent cell from bursting due to excessive
water absorbed through osmosis

MICROBODIES
 Small spherical membrane-bounded bodies 0.5-1.5 𝜇m in diameter
 Peroxisomes:
Contain oxidative enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various substrates and transfer them
to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide as a by-product

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 Use oxygen to break fatty acids down into smaller molecules that are transported to mitochondria
and used as fuel for cellular respiration
In liver, detoxify alcohol and other harmful substances by transferring hydrogen from the
compounds to oxygen
Hydrogen peroxide is formed is also toxic, but the organelles also contains enzyme that converts it
into water
Grow larger by incorporating proteins made in cytosol and ER, as well as lipids made in the ER and
within the peroxisome itself
May increase in number by splitting in two when they reached a certain size
 Glyoxysomes:
Found in fat storage tissue of germinating seedlings
Contain enzymes that catalyses the conversion of fat and oils into sugar until germinating seedlings
can produce their own sugars through photosynthesis

DIFFERENTIAL CENTRIFUGATION

Technique of separating cell components including macromolecules using a centrifuge, based on differences in
size and density
Centrifuge uses centrifuging force equivalent to many times that of gravitational force to spin down cell
components of different S values (sedimentation unit) step by step
Procedure:
1. Tissue is chilled and cut in cold, isotonic buffer solution.
Temperature must be kept low to deactivate the enzymes, slow down metabolism and prevent digestion
of organelles and autolysis.
Isotonic solution prevents changes in shape and volume of organelles due to sudden movement of water
by osmosis.
Solution is buffered to maintain pH and to prevent denaturation of enzymes.
2. Tissue is homogenised with a homogeniser, using ultrasound to break up cells to the level required.
3. Suspension is filtered through layers of muslins to remove cell debris
4. Homogenate is centrifuged at 600 times gravity for 10 minutes (for animal tissues), nuclei and unbroken
cells are spun down
5. The supernatant is centrifuged at 10,000 times gravity for 20 minutes, mitochondria, cisternae of ER and
Golgi apparatus are spun down
6. Further centrifuge at 100,000 times gravity for 60 minutes will spin down ribosomes, microtubules and
microfilaments, supernatant will then contain macromolecules
At lower speeds, larger organelles sediment out to form a pellet
Other less dense organelles remain in suspension (supernatant)
Further differential centrifuge is ultra-centrifugation using force with more than 100,000 times gravity
 To separate mixture of macromolecules of different molecular weights or S values
S value is a scale of sedimentation units for molecule to move down in gel used in ultra-centrifugation
Higher S values are heavier and more stream-lined
Precautions:
 Space within the ultracentrifuge should be vacuumed to avoid any friction between the tubes and air
 Temperature has to be lowered
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 Gel is added to stop molecule at certain levels of the tube
 Dye is added to the mixture to detect separation

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2.3 Specialised Cells

PLANT TISSUES
Plant Tissue

Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue

Ground Tissue Vascular

Apical Meristem Tissue

Parenchyma
Lateral Meristem Xylem

Intercalary Meristem Collenchyma

Phloem

Sclerenchyma

• Dermal tissue: Epidermis

o Consists of one-cell thick layer that covers the whole of the plant body
o Protects the plant from desiccation and infection
o Controls interactions with the plants' surroundings
• Ground tissue: Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma
o Neither dermal nor vascular
o Fills the space between epidermis and vascular tissues
o Internal to vascular tissue: pith, external to vascular tissue: cortex
o Carries out photosynthesis in some cells, short-distance transport, support and storage
• Vascular tissue: Xylem, Phloem
o An arrangement of multiple cell types in vascular plants which allows for the transport of water,
minerals, and products of photosynthesis to be transported throughout the plant
o Known as stele, consists of solid central vascular cylinder in roots, and consists of vascular bundles in
stems and leaves

MERISTEMS
⸙ A group of cells found in the meristem tissue which retain the ability to divide by mitosis
⸙ Divide frequently during growing season, generating additional cells
★ Some of the new cells remain in meristem to produce more cells
★ Others differentiate and are incorporated into tissues and organs

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 Differentiation: the changes from
simple to more complex forms or
structures undergone by developing
tissues and organs so they become
specialised for a specific function

⸙ Apical meristems:
★ Located at the growing shoot and root apex
★ Responsible for primary growth, growth in length
⸙ Lateral meristem (Cambium):
★ Occur as cylinders in the older parts of the plant
★ responsible for the secondary growth, growth in thickness
★ Vascular cambium:
▪ Adds vascular tissues (secondary xylem and phloem)
★ Cork cambium:
▪ Replaces epidermis with thicker, tougher periderm
⸙ Intercalary meristem:
★ Occur at the nodes of a plant
⸙ Structure:
★ Young and have not undergone differentiation
★ Look the same and have the same size
★ Small
★ Thin-walled, only made up of primary cell wall (cell can be easily damaged, nutrients can diffuse
easily into them)
★ Have a central large nucleus
★ Dense cytoplasm with small vacuoles, and few young organelles which are small (If chloroplast is
present, it is in the proto-plastid stage)
★ Rectangular and closely packed with no intercellular air space
⸙ Functions:
★ Divide by mitosis to produce new cells
▪ Cells elongate and differentiate to form specialised cells to carry out specific functions
▪ Apical meristem, found in shoots and root tips, produces primary tissues for growth of
shoots and roots
▪ Vascular cambium, found in woody stems and roots, produces secondary xylem and phloem
to increase the diameter of stems and roots during secondary growth
▪ Cork cambium (phellogen), found on the outer layer of dicotyledonous woody stems and
roots, produces cork cells (phellem) which consist of suberised cells on the outside and
secondary cortex (phelloderm) on the inside to reduce evaporation of water and protects
against entry of pathogens
▪ Intercalary cambium (thin layer of cells above the node of the stem), only found in
monocotyledonous plants, produces more cells for the internode and disappears later, to
allow growth and increase in length in regions other than the tip.

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PARENCHYMA
T.S.: Transverse section
L.S.: Longitudinal section

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is a

T.S. of Parenchyma
photosynthetic adaptation to periodic water
supply, occurring in plants in arid regions
CAM plants close their stomata during the
day and take up CO2 at night, when the air
temperature is lower

L.S. of Parenchyma

⸙ Tissues with the least differentiation with a thin wall and contains living protoplast and nucleus
⸙ Metabolically active although their cells are unspecialised
⸙ Some with chloroplasts are called chlorenchyma
⸙ Structure:
★ Spherical, isodiametric and may be oval in shape, but their shapes may be distorted by adjacent cells
★ Has protoplast, and nucleus, enzymes within it are active
★ Only has thin primary cell wall that are flexible, secondary cell wall is absent
★ Has big sap vacuole which is centrally located, used to store water and soluble mineral ions
★ Has a thin cytoplasm pushed to the periphery
★ Cells are loosely packed and have large amounts of intercellular space which allow easy exchange of
gases
⸙ Can divide if stimulated by hormones e.g. auxin
⸙ Locations:
★ Cortex (singular cortex, layer beneath epidermis) of stems and roots
★ Pith (centre of roots or stems) of dicotyledonous stem and monocotyledonous root
★ Mesophyll of leaves
★ Medullary rays of secondary xylem and phloem
★ Around vascular bundles in stem and leaf stalk
★ Epidermis with thickened wall and cuticle
⸙ Functions:
★ Form major components of ground tissue of stems and roots especially in herbaceous plants
★ Provide support for herbaceous plants when they are turgid and tightly packed
★ Mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts aid in photosynthesis
★ Store food substances (starch, protein, lipids)
▪ E.g. potato tuber cells have many amyloplasts which contain starch and malic acid that are
stored temporarily in vacuoles of CAM parenchyma cells
★ Potentially meristematic, can form secondary meristematic tissue (vascular cambium and cork
cambium)
★ In flowers, contain chromoplasts to attract pollinating agents and help in dispersal of fruits and
seeds
★ Can be specialised to carry out specific functions
Specialised Parenchyma Description
Epidermis ⁑ One-cell thick layer of elongated flattened cells
⁑ Covers the whole primary plant body
⁑ Secrete cutin which forms a layer of waxy cuticle on the outer surface of
epidermis
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 ⁑ Have specialised pairs of guard cells (the only epidermal cells that contain
chloroplasts) with each pair enclosing a stomatal pore
⁑ Some have unicellular or multicellular hairs
⁑ Functions:
1. Protective layer to protect inner tissues
2. Waxy cuticle layer reduces water loss by evaporation from plants and
prevents entry of pathogens
3. Transparent, allows light to reach mesophyll layers of leaves for
photosynthesis
4. Stomatal pores allow gaseous exchange
Palisade mesophyll ⁑ Column-shaped cells found under the upper epidermis
⁑ Functions:
1. Contain many chloroplasts for photosynthesis
Spongy mesophyll ⁑ Isodiametric and irregular shaped cells
⁑ Loosely packed with many large intercellular spaces for gaseous exchange
⁑ Have fewer chloroplast compared to palisade cells
⁑ Functions:
1. Carry out photosynthesis
Endodermis ⁑ Consists of single-celled ring which forms a selective barrier between the outer
cortex and the inner pericycle tissue
⁑ Functions
1. In roots, it is impregnated with suberin to form a distinctive Casparian strip
and prevent movement of water via apoplast pathway
2. Non-suberised passage cells in endodermis permit lateral movement of water
and mineral salts
3. Contain starch granules as energy storage
4. Mineral ions are actively secreted into xylem vessels to maintain root
pressure
Pericycle ⁑ One to several layers of parenchyma cells
⁑ Found between endodermis and central vascular tissues
⁑ Can divide to produce lateral roots
⁑ Involved in secondary growth of roots
Aerenchyma ⁑ Parenchyma tissues surrounding large air spaces
⁑ Form a reservoir of oxygen
⁑ Permit gaseous exchange in submerged parts
⁑ Large air spaces provide buoyancy to hydrophytes
Secretory tissues ⁑ E.g. nectary glands, hydathodes and resin ducts

COLLENCHYMA

T.S. of Collenchyma

⸙ Consists of living cells

⸙ Structure:
★ Polygonal-shaped and elongated
★ Closely-packed together with very small or no intercellular air spaces
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 ★ Primary cell walls (not lignified) are unevenly thickened with deposits of cellulose, pectin and
hemicellulose
▪ Angular collenchyma: thickening occurs at the corners of the cell wall
▪ Lamella collenchyma: thickening occurs at tangential wall
⸙ Locations: Acidified phloroglucinol
★ Below the epidermis of dicotyledonous stem can be used for staining
★ Beneath the epidermis of the main vein of dicotyledonous stem lignin, lignified tissue is
★ Below midrib of leaves and leaf petioles stained red
⸙ Functions:
★ Provides mechanical support and flexibility in stem or leaves in dicotyledonous plants, allow cells to
expand and be stretched as young stem grows
★ Becomes meristematic and produces cork cambium in dicotyledonous stem that undergo secondary
thickening
★ Some contain chloroplasts which can carry out photosynthesis

SCLERENCHYMA
⸙ Consists of fibre cells or stone cells (sclereids)
⸙ Sclerenchyma fibres:

T.S. of sclerenchyma
fibres

L.S. of sclerenchyma
fibres

★ Structure:
▪ Elongated, polygonal-shaped with tapering ends
▪ Average length about 1-3 nm
▪ Have thick walls impregnated with lignin
▪ Matured ones consist of dead cells tightly packed together with no intercellular spaces
▪ Thick, lignified secondary cell walls impermeable to water, solutes and gases
▪ Have no protoplasm with narrow empty lumen
▪ Pits are present in cell walls
★ Found below epidermis of stems and roots, in or around vascular bundles and in the midrib of leaves
★ Functions:
▪ Acts as supporting tissue, tightly packed sclerenchyma fibres with thick lignified walls
provide plant with mechanical strength and rigidity
▪ Tapered ends overlap and interlock with one another, further increasing their combined
strength
⸙ Sclereids (stone cells):
Pit is formed in an are where
lignin is not deposited on the
primary cell wall
A border is formed when lignin
arches over samstudynotes
the area
 ★ Structure:
▪ Irregularly shaped
▪ Shorter than sclerenchyma fibres
▪ Consist of dead cells with thicker lignified walls
▪ Simple branching pits are present in cell walls
★ Found singly or in groups in cortices, pith, phloem
★ Common in stems, leaves, fruits, seeds
★ Give fruits such as pear and ciku their ‘gritty’ textures
★ Functions:
▪ Protective tissue which gives strength and support to plant structures or organs
▪ Protects seeds and prevent germination so that seeds can be dispersed further

XYLEM
⸙ Complex vascular tissue used to transport water and mineral salts from roots to aerial parts of the plant, and
support the plant to resist compression and tension
⸙ Xylem vessels:

Protoxylem Metaxylem
★ Only found in xylem tissues of flowering plants
★ Largest cells shaped like vessels
★ Formed from a column of tubular cells
★ End cross-walls breakdown by dissolving, or have large perforations so that cells combine to form a
continuous long tube
★ Narrow, capillary increases adhesion between water molecules and walls
★ Have secondary cell walls that are strengthened by deposition of lignin
▪ Lignified walls are impermeable to water, solutes and gases
▪ Vessels do not collapse under tension and water do not seep out
★ Composed of dead cells
★ No protoplasm, hence more water can flow through with less friction
★ Primary xylem:
▪ First xylem tissue formed in growing plants
▪ Vessels in primary xylem: protoxylem, metaxylem
▪ Protoxylem:
First xylem vessel to develop
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 Behind the apical meristem in shoots and roots
Incomplete lignification of cell walls causes deposition of lignin to form annular
vessels or in spirals to form spiral vessels
Annular and spiral vessels can be stretched to provide support for vessels during
elongation and growth of young stems and roots
▪ Metaxylem:
New vessels formed with more extensive lignification as growth proceeds
Cannot be stretched
Lignified walls have high tensile strength, prevent vessels from collapsing when
water flows through it under tension
Have bigger lumen, able to transport more water and mineral ions to older plant
Pits are present which allow lateral movement of water and mineral ions to
surrounding living cells
★ Secondary xylem: formed from the activity of vascular cambium of woody plants during secondary
thickening
⸙ Tracheids:
★ Longer but narrower than vessel elements
★ Elongated-spindle shaped cells with tapering end walls
★ Tapered ends of tracheid overlap and interlock with one another, further increasing
their combined strength
★ Cell walls are lignified
★ Matured tracheids are dead cells with empty lumens
★ Pits are present in walls to allow water to move from one tracheid to another and also
to surrounding living cells
★ Transport water and mineral ions but are less efficient than xylem vessels as they do
not have large perforated or open ends between cells and water has to move through
smaller pits
⸙ Xylem parenchyma:
★ Living cells
★ Act as packaging tissue in primary xylem
★ In secondary xylem, form medullary rays which function in radial transport of food,
water, gases and food storage

PHLOEM

⸙ Complex vascular tissue that translocates organic food substances formed after photosynthesis
⸙ Sieve tubes:
★ Consist of sieve elements (sieve cells) joined together to form a long tube
★ End walls are perforated forming sieve plates with sieve pores, which allows cytoplasmic
connections between sieve elements and flow of liquid from one sieve element to the next
▪ Prevent breakage of thin-walled tubes under pressure
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 ★ Young sieve cells are alive with thin cellulose cell walls and protoplasm
★ In matured sieve tubes, organelles such as nucleus, ribosomes and Golgi apparatus degenerates,
leaving a narrow layer of cytoplasm containing a few small mitochondria and ER at periphery to
facilitate smooth flow of soluble food
★ In some plant, sieve tube elements contain fibrous phloem proteins
★ Translocate organic food substances
⸙ Companion cells:
★ Found only in angiosperms
★ Adjacent and closely associated with sieve tube elements
★ Have a large nucleus and dense cytoplasm with small vacuoles
★ Metabolically active and have numerous mitochondria and ribosomes
★ Linked to sieve elements by numerous plasmodesmata
★ Move sugars such as sucrose and amino acids into sieve elements
★ Provide energy in the form of ATP and their membranes have proton pumping-system for the
loading of sucrose into sieve tubes from neighbouring mesophyll cells
⸙ Phloem parenchyma:
★ Exist as undifferentiated phloem or medullary rays extended from xylem
★ Act as packaging tissue in primary phloem
★ In secondary phloem, form radial medullary rays
★ Structures are same as ordinary parenchyma but smaller in size
★ Have thin primary wall
★ Usually are elongated prisms
★ Living cells with protoplasts and nuclei
★ Store starch
⸙ Phloem fibres and sclereids:
★ Occur occasionally in primary phloem, but more common in secondary phloem of dicotyledonous
plants
★ Support other phloem cells when plant is growing
★ Structures are same as ordinary sclerenchyma

PRIMARY GROWTH
☆ Dicotyledonous shoot (apical meristem)

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 ☆ Dicotyledonous root (apical meristem)

SECONDARY GROWTH
☆ Dicotyledonous stem

Primary structure of young dicot. stem A complete cylinder of vascular cambium is formed

Cells of vascular cambium divide, producing new

cells inside and outside of the ring. Inner cells
differentiate into secondary xylem and outer cells
into secondary phloem

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 ☆ Typical woody dicotyledonous stem

ANIMAL TISSUES

Animal Tissue

Epithelial Tissue Nervous Tissue Muscular Tissue Connective

Tissue
Simple Epithelia Central nervous Smooth
system
Stratified Striated
Epithelia
Peripheral
nervous system Cardiac
Glandular
Epithelia

EPITHELIUM

☆ Consists of closely packed (covering/glandular) cells arranged in single or multilayer sheets

☆ Form the external surfaces of the body

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☆ Cover the outer and inner surfaces of organs
☆ Some are specialised to form glandular tissue
☆ Apical surface of epithelial cells is exposed to the external environment
☆ Basolateral surface of epithelial cells is exposed to the internal environment
→ Attached to the basement ‘membrane’

▪ The basement ‘membrane’ is not the cell membrane

▪ Composed of a mesh work of collagen fibres and glycoprotein
▪ Helps to attach epithelial cells to other tissues
☆ Held together by membrane proteins which form adhesion junctions, tight junctions and gap junctions
☆ Avascular (not supplied with blood vessels) as cell layers are too thin for capillary to enter
→ Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from connective tissues
→ Some cells are connected to nerve endings
☆ Functions:
→ Forms protective layer
▪ (e.g. skin) protects body from mechanical damage, entry of pathogens, from UV rays and
dehydration
▪ Epithelium lining in respiratory air passages secretes mucus which trap inhaled dust particles
and microbes
(e.g. ciliated epithelial cells have cilia that proper mucus and trapped microbes to the throat)
→ Modified to form glandular tissues which function to secrete digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus,
sweat and sebum
→ Act as a barrier and regulates movement of substances across it
(e.g. selective absorption of substances across kidney tubules)
→ Some can divide mitotically producing new cells to replace damaged/dead cells
→ Some are specialised to form sensory receptors
(e.g. taste buds, retina cells)
☆ Arrangement of cells:
→ Simple epithelium: cells are arranged in one layer
→ Stratified epithelium: cells are arranged in more than one layer
→ Pseudo-stratified epithelium: cells seemed to be arranged in layers but each is attached to the
basement membrane
☆ Shape of cells:
→ Squamous epithelium: cells are flattened like scales
→ Cuboidal epithelium: cells are shaped like cubes
→ Columnar epithelium: cells look like pillars, height is longer than base width
→ Transitional epithelium: cells can change shape when stretched

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 ☆ Covering epithelia:
1. Simple Squamous Epithelium
Structure:
- Single layer of cells attached to the basement membrane
- Cells are thin and flattened with disc-shaped central nuclei
- When viewed from surface, cells are polygonal-shaped with tessellated or
non-tessellated margins
- Protein bridges join adjacent cells together

Functions:
~Allow passage of materials through diffusion
- Act as a barrier for regulation of substances across it
- Thin wall which allow diffusion of respiratory gases across the alveolus
~Filtration in sites where protection is not important
-Bowman capsule channels filtrate into proximal convoluted tubule
~Protection towards underlying tissues
- Smooth linings in blood vessels reduce friction of blood flowing through it Viscera: organs located
- Forms mesenteries to support viscera within the three central
cavities of the body (chest,
Location: abdomen and pelvis)
- Lining of alveoli, Bowman’s capsule, Henle loop of kidney
- Inner lining of blood vessels (endothelium)

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 2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Structure:
- Single layer of cuboidal-shaped cells
- Possesses a central spherical nucleus

Function:
-Secretion
-Absorption
-Protection

Location:
-Lining of ducts (salivary, pancreatic ducts, proximal and distal
convoluted tubules, salivary and thyroid glands)

3. Simple Columnar Epithelium

Structure:
- Single layer of tall cells
- Has round/oval nucleus
- Apical surface may have cilia/microvilli
- Cells are usually associated with goblet cells

Functions:
- Secretion
- Absorption
- Mechanical support and protection

Location:
~Non-ciliated types
- Lines of digestive tract, gall bladder, excretory ducts of some
glands
~Ciliated types
- Lines of uterus, oviducts, digestive tracts

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 4. Pseudo-stratified Epithelium
Structure:
- Single layer of cells with one end attached to the basement membrane
- Not all cells reach the free surface
- Nuclei are found at different levels, giving a ‘multi-layered’ appearance
- Apical surface may have cilia

Functions:
- Goblet cells secrete mucus as lubricant and trap dust particles and
microbes
- Cilia move fluids to pharynx for swallowing
- Propulsion of mucus by ciliary action

Location:
~Non-ciliated types
- Sperm duct
- Ducts of large glands
~Ciliated types
- Lining of trachea, bronchus

5. Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Structure:
- Consists of several layers of cells
- Cells are attached to the basement membrane
- Basal cells are cuboidal or columnar in shape, mitotically active and
produce cells to form more superficial layers
- Surface cells are flattened, in keratinized types, surface cells are full of
keratin and are dead

Functions:
- Protective layer in areas subjected to abrasion/high friction

Location:
- Moist lining in oesophagus, mouth, vagina (non-keratinised)
- Skin subjected to abrasion or friction (epithelium becomes thick and
keratinised)
- Outer layer (dead cells)

6. Compound Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure:
- Consists of 2-3 layers of cuboidal cells

Functions:
- Transport
- Protection

Location:
- Large ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, salivary glands

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 7. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Structure:
- Consists of several layers of columnar cells

Functions:
- Transport

Locations: (Rare in the body)

- Small amounts in male urethra
- Large ducts of some glands (e.g. salivary glands)

8. Transitional Epithelium
Structure:
- Consists of 3-4 layers of cells
- Resembles stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal
- Basal cells are columnar/cuboidal
- Superficial cells are dome-like/squamous, depending the degree of
stretching
- Cells are able to modify their shapes under different conditions

Functions:
- Allow stretching and distension of urinary bladder
- Barrier against urine flowing out into surrounding tissues

Locations:
- Ureters
- Bladders

☆ Glandular Epithelia:
→ Gland cells (secretory cells) derived from epithelia
→ Can secrete liquid containing mucus, hormones or enzymes

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 → Exocrine glands:
▪ Have ducts
▪ Certain surface epithelial cells become active and divide mitotically
▪ A cord of ingrowing epithelial cells is formed which grows inward to form a duct/tubule
▪ Cells at the lower end of the duct become specialised as secretory cells
▪ Exocrine glands remain connected to the surface epithelium by a duct
▪ The duct transports secretion to the surface
▪ E.g. salivary glands, digestive glands, sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands, mammary glands,
ceruminous glands, lacrimal glands, prostate glands and mucous glands
→ Endocrine glands (ductless glands):
▪ A cord of cells is formed from the surface epithelium and invagination
▪ The cord cells at the end divide to form a clump of cells which specialise to form secretory
cells
▪ Cord connecting to the epithelium dissolves during development
▪ No duct, highly vascular
▪ Secretes hormones which diffuse into surrounding capillaries
▪ Bloodstream carries hormones to targeted cells/organs
▪ E.g. pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Protect, connect and support the body and internal organs made up of a variety of cells embedded in a large
amount of intracellular substance called matrix and fibres (non-living products of the cells)
 Form surrounding sheaths to separate various organs
 Consist mainly of collagen, elastic fibres, fatty tissues, cartilage and bones
 Originate from the mesoderm layer of the embryo, becoming mesenchyme and later form bones, cartilage,
blood cells and fibroblasts, which produces matrices Fibroblasts produce tropocollagen,
 Matrices include bones, cartilage and fine fibres produced by fibroblasts which is the forerunner of
collagen, and ground substance,
an amorphoussamstudynotes
gel-like matrix that
fills the spaces between cells and
fibres in connective tissue.
 Connective tissue proper:
֎ Fills interstitial fluids as oppose to specialised connective tissue
֎ Loose connective tissues: Areolar, adipose, reticular
֎ Dense connective tissues: Dense regular, dense irregular, elastic
 Specialised connective tissue: Bones, cartilage, blood
 Cartilage:
֎ Contains cells embedded in a matrix of chondrin
֎ Avascular
֎ Hyaline cartilage:

 Most abundant in the body

 Provides support and flexibility
 Known as costal cartilage when it covers the ends of the ribs
 Bluish white in colour, has glossy appearance
 Amorphous but firm matrix: chondrin, consists of mucopolysaccharides and chondroitin
sulphate secreted by cells called chondroblasts
 Fine fibres (transparent) in matrix are mainly collagen and elastic fibres
 Chondroblasts later become chondrocytes (mature) enclosed in lacunae (spaces) surrounded
by a capsule
 Protected by an outer perichondrion layer which produces new chondroblasts
 No blood vessels
 Exchange of materials occur by diffusion with surrounding tissues
 Function:
 Elastic, compressible tissue which supports (e.g.) trachea, larynx and bronchi
 Covers the end of bones (articular cartilage) to reduce friction between joints during
movement
 Forms embryonic skeleton in many body vertebrates, which will then be replaced by
bony tissue
 Forms skeleton of cartilaginous fish (e.g. sharks, rays)

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֎ Yellow elastic cartilage:

 Yellow in appearance
 Similar as hyaline cartilage but contains more threadlike elastic fibres
 Pliable as it contains elastic fibres in addition to collagen
 Located in pinna (auricle) and epiglottis
 Functions:
 Provides support, but tolerates distortion without damage, and returns to original
shape
֎ White fibrous cartilage:

 Matrix is similar but less firm compared to hyaline cartilage, thick collagen fibres
predominates
 Strong and rigid
 Chondrocytes scattered throughout collagen fibres
 Found in ligamentous capsules surrounding joints, the intervertebral discs and symphysis
pubis
 Functions:
 Resists compression
 Prevents bone-to-bone contact
 Limits relative movement

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 Bones:

֎ Highly vascular
֎ Osteoblast (immature bone cell) is the bone forming cell
 Bone lining cells = Resting (old) osteoblast
֎ Osteoprogenitor cells are derived from mesenchymal cells and have to ability to differentiate into
osteoblast
֎ Osteocyte (matured bone cell) rests in lacuna
 Less active
 Can be reactivate to form osteoblasts if secretion of new bone matrix is required
 Secrete matrix of calcium phosphate, carbonate and proteins
 Form bones
֎ Osteoclast is a multinucleated cell involved in the degradation of a bone
 Bone resorbing cell
 Howship’s lacuna is a space found underneath the osteoclast (tiny depressions, pits, or
irregular grooves in bone that are being resorbed by osteoclasts)
֎ Functions:
 Give body shape and provide framework for support
 Protect internal organs
 Provide surfaces for attachment of skeletal muscles to enable movement
 Reservoir for calcium and phosphorus
 Site for blood cell production in bone marrow
֎ Deficiency:
 Lacking of vitamin D prevents calcium absorption from intestines, causing rickets on children
with poorly calcified deformed bones; and osteomalacia in adults due to prolonged
deficiency of vitamin D
 Osteoporosis: decreasing bone mass

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֎ Spongy bone (cancellous bone):

 Lighter and less dense than compact bone

 Consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bones adjacent to small, irregular cavities that
contain red bone marrow
 Canaliculi connect to adjacent cavities instead of central haversian canals, to receive their
blood supply
֎ Compact bone:

 Consists of living cells, about 30% collagen and glycoprotein fibres, and about 70% inorganic
substances.
 Main mineral deposits: calcium hydroxyapatite crystals, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 (a form of calcium
phosphate) and varying quantities of magnesium, sodium, hydrogen carbonate and chloride
ions.
 Made up of numerous cylinders: Haversian system (osteon)
 Made up of concentric circles (lamellae) around a Haversian canal containing an
artery, a vein, lymph vessels and nerve fibres
 Osteoblasts are found in spaces between lamellae (lacunae)
 Fine channels (canaliculi) containing cytoplasmic strands connect lacunae to each
other
 Volkmann canals connect Haversian canals of adjacent osteons to each other,
forming an inter-connecting system for blood circulation
 Sharpey Shafer fibre connects outer periosteum layer to underlying bone

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  Blood vessels allows exchange of materials with bone cells
 Blood:
֎ Average adult has about 5dm3 of blood
֎ Contains 45% blood cells suspended in a fluid matrix (plasma) (55%)
֎ Plasma:
Hematocrit:  Liquid component of the blood
Percentage of  Serum: plasma from which protein fibrinogen and other
volume of red clotting factors have been removed
blood cells in blood  Components of plasma:

Component Percentage Function

Water ~ 90% As solvent and transport medium
Plasma proteins 6-8% • Act as buffer (maintain blood pH)
• Fibrinogen, prothrombin (blood clotting)
• Serum albumin (maintain osmotic pressure)
• Albumin binds to certain molecules (transport through blood)
• Serum β-globulins bind and transport lipids, fat-soluble vitamins and
hormone thyroxine
• Β-globulins transport cholesterol, fat-soluble vitamins
• Transferrin transport iron through blood
• Most antibodies produced by lymphocytes are gamma proteins
Food substances ~ 1% Glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, other lipids
Enzymes Varies Takes part in metabolism
Hormones Varies Coordinates activities of body
Mineral salts 0.8-1% • Regulate solute potential and pH level (e.g. Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-, PO43-)
• Ca2+ needed for blood clotting
Excretory wastes Varies Urea, creatinine, uric acid, a little NH4+
֎ Blood cells:
 Formed from a process called haemopoiesis, blood cells arise from pluripotent stem cells in
Cytokines: small bone marrow
proteins that are  These cells divide to form myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells
crucial in  Myeloid stem cells divide to form erythrocytes, platelets, granulocytes (neutrophils,
controlling the eosinophils, basophils) and monocytes
growth and activity  Lymphoid stem cells divide to form lymphocytes
of other immune  Mitotic division and cell differentiation are determined by production of cytokines
system cells and and/or hormones
blood cells (e.g.) When the concentration of oxygen level decreases, kidney converts a plasma protein
into hormone erythropoietin which stimulates the production of erythrocytes

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 Erythrocytes (red blood cells):
 Biconcave discs with a diameter of about 7-8μm and 2 μm thick
 Have no nucleus, DNA and organelles, in order to accommodate more haemoglobin
for maximum efficiency of oxygen transport
 Contain pigment haemoglobin (occupied 90% of space), enzymes, inorganic ions
 Surrounded by a flexible plasma membrane
 Immature mammalian erythrocyte contain nucleus which will be extruded before it
is released from the bone marrow
 5 000 000 cells in adult blood
 Lifespan is about 120 days, cells are then destroyed by macrophages in liver and
spleen
 Functions:
1. Transport oxygen used in aerobic respiration and some carbon dioxide
2. Act as buffers to maintain pH of blood
 Leucocytes (white blood cells):
 Contains nucleus and organelles
 Pigment haemoglobin is absent
 Larger than erythrocytes
 Spherical/irregular in shape
 6000-11000 cells per mm3 of blood (leucocyte : erythrocyte = 1 : 700)
 Granulocyte:
1. Have granular cytoplasm and lobed nuclei
2. Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils
 Agranulocyte:
1. Have relatively clear cytoplasm and nuclei are not lobed
2. Lymphocyte, Monocyte
 Neutrophil (Granulocyte):
 Phagocytes
 70% of leucocytes
 4000-6000 cells per mm3 of blood
 Has very short lifespan of 6 hours to a few days
 Has a diameter of 10-15 μm
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  Nucleus contains 3,4 or 5 lobes
 Cytoplasm contains fine, non-staining granules
 Migrate by amoeboid movement through cells between capillary walls to the
infected area of body
 Functions:
1. Engulf microorganisms by phagocytosis and destroy them
 Eosinophil (Granulocyte):
 1.5% of leucocytes
 100-450 cells per mm3 of blood, their number increases during allergic reactions
 Lifespan of several days
 Has a diameter of 10-15 μm
 Nucleus contains 2 or 3 lobes
 Cytoplasm contains fairly large granules which can be stained with acid dye eosin
 Functions:
1. Help controlling allergic responses (e.g. secreting enzymes to inactivate
histamines)
2. Eosinophils are cytotoxic and releases hydrolytic enzymes to digest parasitic
worms
 Basophil (Granulocyte):
 0.5% of leucocytes
 40-100 cells per mm3 of blood
 Lifespan of 1-2 years
 Has a diameter of 14-16 μm
 Nucleus is bi or tri-lobed
 Cytoplasm contains fewer but larger granules which stain blue with basic dyes (e.g.
methylene blue)
 Functions:
1. Secretes histamine which is involved in inflammation and allergic reactions
2. Secretes heparin which helps preventing blood clot in body
 Lymphocyte (Agranulocyte):
 24% of leucocyte
 1500-2500 cells per mm3 of blood
 Lifespan of several months to years
 Has a diameter of 9-16 μm (smallest leucocyte)
 Round nucleus occupying a large portion of the cell
 Small amount of non-granular cytoplasm at the periphery
 Function:
1. Several types are responsible for specific immune responses
2. B-lymphocytes produces antibodies that promote the destruction of
antigens or neutralise toxins
3. T-lymphocytes attack and destroy infected cells
 Monocyte (Agranulocyte):
 4% of leucocyte
 200-800 cells per mm3 of blood
 Lifespan of about several days in the blood, and several months or years in
connective tissues
 Has a diameter of about 16-20 μm (largest leucocyte)
 Nucleus is large and kidney-shaped
 Cytoplasm is non-granular
 Only spend a few days in blood, then migrates to tissues and mature to become
large macrophages (phagocytic cells)
 Functions:
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 1. Macrophages engulf antigens that enters the body
2. Macrophages engulf and destroy dead and damaged cells of body
 Platelets (thrombocytes):
 250000-400000 cells per mm3 of blood
 Lifespan of 8-12 days
 About 3 μm in size
 Irregularly shaped membrane-bound cell fragments
 Lacking of nuclei
 Functions:
1. Important for blood clotting
 Loose connective tissue:
֎ Areolar tissue:

 Named after the airy appearance of the tissue

 Found surrounding blood vessels, nerve bundles, muscles, and organs
 Fill spaces between organs and connects skin to underlying muscle
 Location:
 Beneath the dermis layer
 Underneath epidermis layer of all body systems which have external opening
 Functions:
 Hold organs in place
 Attach epithelial tissues to other underlying tissues
 Serve as a reservoir of water and salts
 Almost all cells obtain nutrients from and release wastes into areolar tissues
֎ Adipose tissue:

 Known as body fat, found all over the body

 Consists of adipocytes which are lipid-rich cells
 Comprises of 20-25% body weight of healthy individuals
 Main function is to store energy in the form of lipids (fats)
 Can be found under the skin (subcutaneous fat), packed around internal organs (visceral fat),
between muscles, within bone marrow and in breast tissue
 In integumentary system, it accumulates in the deepest level (subcutaneous layer), providing
heat and cold insulation
 White adipose tissue:
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  Contain single large lipid droplets and few mitochondria
 Secretes adipose derived hormones which regulates insulin sensitivity and satiety
 Stores excess energy as triglycerides, releases energy during fasting period
 Brown adipose tissue:
 Contain multiple small lipid droplets, rich in mitochondria
 Densely vascularised and innervated by sympathetic nerve endings
 Dissipates chemical energy mainly from fatty acids to generate energy

NERVOUS TISSUE
 Also known as nerve tissue
 Composed principally of densely packed neurones which are specialised for transmission of electrical nerve
impulses
 Neurone (nerve cell/fibre): electrically excitable cells of nervous system

o Specialised cells for generation and transmission of nerve impulses (action potentials)
o Sensory neurones (afferent neuron):
➢ Transmit nerve impulses from receptors/sensory organs to central nervous system (CNS)
o Interneurons (efferent neuron):
➢ Major components of integration centres in CNS (brain, spinal cord)
➢ Connects one neuron to another neuron and frequently connects one sensory neuron to an=
motor neuron
o Motor neurons (efferent neuron):
➢ Transmit nerve impulses from CNS to motor organs (e.g. muscle and glands that carry out
responses)
o Cell bodies have different shapes, depending on the types of neuron
➢ Surrounded by plasma membrane and contain a nucleus
➢ Has a lot of mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes
➢ No centrioles
o Nerve process is the thin slender structure attached to the cell body
➢ Includes dendron, axon and dendrites
➢ Dendrons transmit nerve impulses towards from cell body
➢ Axon transmit nerve impulses away from cell body
➢ End of axons and dendrons are branched to form smaller dendrites
➢ Axon dendrites end with synaptic knobs
 Nerve consists of many neurones bound together by connective tissues
 Varies in length and diameter
 Sensory nerves contain only sensory neurons
 Motor nerves contain only motor neurons
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 Mixed nerves contain both sensory and motor neurons
 Neuroglia do not generate/transmit nerve impulses

o Function to support and protect neurons

o 10 times as many neuroglia cells as neurons
o Types: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglial, ependymal
cells, satellite cells, Schwann cells which form the myelin sheath of axons in peripheral nervous
system
 Structure of a motor neuron:

o Possess a cell body

➢ Cytoplasm contains many mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and
ribosomes
➢ Nissl’s granules (large granular body found in neurons) which consists of endoplasmic
reticulum and ribosomes function in protein synthesis
➢ Has a number of processes (dendrons), fine terminal branches are dendrites
➢ Dendrites conduct nerve impulses toward the cell body
o Axon is longer and conduct impulses away from the cell body
➢ Contains axoplasm (cytoplasm) surrounded by axolemma (plasma membrane)
➢ Length can vary from a few millimetres to several metres
➢ In some neurones, axon have a fatty myelin sheath formed by Schwann cells which wrap
themselves around axon
➢ Small uncovered parts of axon between Schwann cells are nodes of Ranvier
o In myelinated fibre, myelin sheath acts as electrical insulator and speeds up transmission of nerve
impulses
o Action potential travels from one node of Ranvier to another node by saltatory conduction (action
potentials traveling down the axon "jump" from node to node)
o Terminal dendrites of axons contain synaptic knobs
➢ Contain many mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, synaptic vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters
o Many invertebrate animals (e.g. annelids, arthropods and molluscs) have non-myelinated axons with
diameters of approximately 1 mm to speed up the rate of conduction of nerve impulses

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MUSCLE TISSUE
 Also known as muscular tissue
 Composed of specialised contractile cells or fibres held by connective tissue
 Major function: to produce motion
 Involuntary muscle (contraction is controlled by the autonomic nervous system (ANS)): smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle
 Voluntary muscle (contraction is controlled under conscious): skeletal muscle
 Smooth muscle:
Involuntary muscles, supplied with nerves from visceral motor neuron (part of ANS)
Muscle fibre (muscle cell) consists of a single, elongated spindle-shaped cell containing a central
nucleus arranged in strands or layers
⁕ Do not contain visible cross striation as actin and myosin filaments may have a spiral
arrangement within smooth muscle cells
⁕ Sarcolemma is present as a thin membrane
⁕ Does not form sarcomere
⁕ Sarcoplasmic reticulum is absent
⁕ Does not have intercalated discs
⁕ Contain less myosin than striated muscles
⁕ Myosin is not associated with specific actin strands
⁕ Due to its organisation, smooth muscle cannot generate as much tension as striated muscle,
but it can contract over a much greater range of lengths
Line walls of hollow organs (e.g. artery, vein, digestive tract, urinary bladder, uterus, respiratory
tract)
Produces slow, rhythmic and sustained contractions but does not fatigue
Functions:
⁕ Digestive tract: peristalsis (moves food through digestive tract)
⁕ Blood vessels: vasoconstriction and vasodilation (regulates diameter of blood vessels)
⁕ Respiratory tract: bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation (controls diameter of respiratory
passageways)
⁕ Urinary tract: moves urine
 Cardiac muscle:

Involuntary muscles, not supplied with nerves

Tissues that make up the heart
Cardiac muscle cells have 1-2 nuclei, many mitochondria
⁕ Cylinder-shaped
⁕ Striated
⁕ Connected to one another by intercalated discs so that the excitation can be transmitted
effectively from cell to cell
⁕ Branch and form bridges with one another to form a net-like arrangement
Has sarcomere
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 ⁕ Sarcoplasmic reticulum is present
Produces moderately rapid and powerful contractions with rests in between
Myogenic
⁕ Contracts and releases automatically (has its own pacemaker to generate excitation that is
transmitted across fibres before they contract)
⁕ does not depend on stimulation by nerves
⁕ Brings about the continuous rhythmic contractions of the heart and pumps blood around the
body
 Skeletal muscles (striated muscle):

Nuclei

Normally arranged in antagonistic pairs, and are mostly attached to bones by tendons
Bring movement of skeleton and organs
Contains several bundles of muscle fibres (fascicle) bound by connective tissues (perimysium)
⁕ Each bundle consists of hundreds of muscle fibre
Each muscle fibre is surrounded by endomysium (connective tissue)
⁕ Long, cylindrical in shape, and arranged parallel to each other
Singular: fascicle ⁕ Vary in length from a few millimetres to several centimetres and between 0.1 mm and 0.01
Plural: fasciculi mm in diameter
⁕ Multinucleated (syncytium) with nuclei at periphery
⁕ Cytoplasm (sarcoplasm) contains many mitochondria
⁕ Intercalated discs are absent
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 ⁕ Each muscle fibre consists of hundreds of myofibrils arranged parallel to each other, located
just beneath the plasma membrane (sarcolemma)

Endomysium, meaning within the

muscle, is a wispy layer of areolar
connective tissue that ensheaths
each individual myocyte (muscle
fibre, or muscle cell)

Myofibril made up of two types of filaments

⁕ Thick filaments with diameter of about 15 nm are composed of protein myosin
⁕ Thin filaments with diameter of about 5 nm are composed mainly of actin with smaller
amounts of proteins troponin and tropomyosin
Sarcomere
}

H zone
⁕ Consists of all thick and thin filaments between the two Z lines
⁕ Arrangement of filaments form alternating dark and light bands in myofibrils
⁕ A (anisotropic) band with darkest appearance consists of overlapping thick myosin filaments
and thin actin filaments
♪ Has a central dark line (M line) consisting of proteins to hold thick filaments
⁕ H zone (dark region) consists only of portions of thick filaments which do not overlap the
thin filaments
⁕ I (isotropic) band (lightest region) consists only of thin filaments

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 ♪ Has a central line (Z line) which its region contains proteins which serve as
attachment sites for thin filaments
♪ Distance between two Z lines represents a functional unit called sarcomere
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum forms sarcoplasmic reticulum
⁕ Consists of longitudinal interconnected tubules between myofibrils
⁕ Contains sacs filled with calcium ions needed for muscle contraction
Transverse tubules (T tubules) are invaginations of sarcolemma membrane
⁕ Extend transversely and surround myofibril at region of the junction of A and I region
Neurogenic
⁕ Contracts only in response to impulses from motor nerves
Produces rapid, powerful but not sustained contractions

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