Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Narcissism and Counterproductive Work Behavior: Do Bigger Egos Mean Bigger Problems?
Narcissism and Counterproductive Work Behavior: Do Bigger Egos Mean Bigger Problems?
Narcissism and Counterproductive Work Behavior: Do Bigger Egos Mean Bigger Problems?
In accordance with the theory of threatened egotism and aggression, the relationships
among narcissism, trait anger, job constraints and counterproductive work behavior
(CWB) were explored in a questionnaire study. The results were supportive of the
hypotheses that narcissism would relate to trait anger, job constraints, and CWB and
that the relationship between narcissism and CWB would be mediated by anger. In
addition, narcissism was found to moderate the relationship between job constraints
and CWB, such that individuals high in narcissism reported more CWB when
constraints were high, than individuals low in narcissism.
ß Blackwell Publishers Ltd 2002, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and
126 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
NARCISSISM AND CWB 127
investigated in relation to the broader category of CWB. Bushman and Baumeister (1998), it is important to
Based on an interdisciplinary review of research, distinguish between high self-esteem due to an accurate
Baumeister, Smart and Boden (1996) proposed the theory appraisal of one's positive traits versus that due to an
of threatened egotism and aggression. This theory inflated or grandiose self-image. One way of conceptual-
contends that acts of aggression are often caused by the izing the later form of high self-esteem is narcissism.
combination of high self-esteem and an ego threat, which Unlike individuals whose high self-esteem is well founded,
they described as any event that challenges or jeopardizes individuals with narcissistic self-esteem hold a positive
favorable views of the self (p. 8). However, the theory self-image that is not grounded in objective reality.
does not suggest that all individuals with high self-esteem Because their self-appraisal is distorted by their desire to
would be prone to aggressive behavior. Instead, it be superior, narcissists expect to be better than most
proposes that a subset of individuals with high self- across situations and may seek confirmation of their
esteem, particularly those most vulnerable to ego threats, dominance in situations that may not always provide
would be most likely to perpetrate aggressive acts. feedback consistent with their self-appraisal. Hence, they
Baumeister et al. presented their theory in a diagram are likely to encounter information that refutes their
illustrating the proposed relationship between high self- positive, but inaccurate self-appraisal and threatens their
esteem or egotism and aggressive behavior (see Figure 1). self-esteem.
An abbreviated model of their theory is presented in The correlations between self-esteem and narcissism
Figure 2 for the purposes of the current study. As noted by vary greatly across studies, although the majority fall in
between .25 and .35. While a number of factors likely esteem proposed by Anderson (1994). According to
contribute to this variability, including the instruments Anderson, the amount of esteem available in a group
used, sampling error, and other artifacts, it is possible hierarchy is fixed and therefore, in order for one to gain
that the conceptualization of narcissism as simply a esteem it must be taken from another. Historically and
subset of high self-esteem may be inaccurate. An culturally, aggressive responses such as fighting are
alternative explanation defines narcissism as the linked to gains in status. In sum, the theory of threatened
motivated preference for being superior to others. That egotism and aggression proposes that narcissistic
is, narcissists have an extreme emotional investment in individuals, because they are hyper-sensitive to negative
establishing their superiority, even if they are unsure that information, will be more likely to encounter
their superiority is merited (Bushman and Baumeister information or situations that challenge their positive
1998). Therefore, it is possible for narcissists to have high self-appraisals. In response to these challenges, or ego
or low self-esteem. Raskin et al. (1991) offered a similar threats, these individuals will likely experience negative
conceptualization of narcissism as a mechanism to emotions, such as anger, frustration, or hostility, that in
regulate self-esteem. They suggest that the grandiosity turn, lead to aggression.
associated with narcissistic self-esteem regulation acts as There is research evidence to support the link between
a defense against having an unfavorable self-image and narcissism and hostility and aggression. Smalley and
the feelings of failure and shame that accompany it (for a Stake (1996) investigated the effects of narcissism on the
detailed discussion on the relationships among self- evaluation of human vs. instrument sources of ego
esteem, narcissism, and defensive self-enhancement, see threatening feedback in a laboratory setting. They
Raskin et al. 1991). Except for the requirement that high predicted and found that narcissists were more likely to
esteem is necessary for aggression, this perspective is experience increased hostility and derogate the evaluator,
consistent with the theory of threatened egotism and as opposed to the instrument, in response to receiving
suggests that narcissists would be extremely vulnerable to negative feedback in order to uphold their exaggerated
ego-threatening information. Research has demonstrated self-appraisal. Laboratory studies by Bushman and
that people are very reluctant to lose self-esteem Baumeister (1998) found that, overall, individuals high
(Baumeister 1995; Baumeister et al. 1996) and this would in narcissism were more aggressive toward competitors
be especially true of narcissists, who are vigilant in their than individuals low in narcissism. The high narcissists
desire to maintain a sense of superiority over others and were more aggressive, as indicated by the intensity of
defend their egos against unpleasant evaluative infor- blasts of noise administered to another, when their
mation, even if the information is factual and accurate. competitor gave them a negative evaluation of an essay
Encountering an ego threat, therefore, would arouse they wrote, and less aggressive when their competitor
negative emotions, such as anger or frustration, that in praised their work. Additionally, a second study
turn, would lead to aggression. demonstrated that narcissists' aggression was high only
According to the theory of threatened egotism, an toward the source of the evaluation and not toward an
aggressive response would be expected in reaction to an innocent third party. In each of these studies, narcissists
ego threat because it could serve several purposes opted to aggress against individuals perceived as the
(Baumeister et al. 1996; p. 11). For example, an source of the ego threat as opposed to other targets, such
aggressive response could serve to punish and discourage as the instrument or an innocent third party. This would
the source of the ego threat, as well as others, from suggest that the purpose of the aggression may be to
expressing negative feedback or challenging them in the punish the evaluator or reaffirm one's dominance over
future. Another possibility is that a successful act of the evaluator, thereby achieving an `ego boost' to lessen
aggression could signify dominance over another which the impact of the ego threat.
would affirm their self-perceived superiority. A third The discussion thus far has examined the tenets of
explanation is based on the zero-sum aspect of self- theory of threatened egotism in the context of aggression
in general. However, the purpose of the current study is turn lead to CWB. Several studies provide evidence in
to examine the relationships proposed by the theory in support of this model (Fox and Spector 1999; Fox et al.,
the context of aggressive behavior in the workplace, or in press; Spector 1975; Storms and Spector 1987). Thus,
CWB. Although narcissism has not been examined in the process by which narcissists would come to engage in
research on CWB, evidence exists in the CWB literature aggressive behavior is similar in both models. However,
that supports other portions of the theory of threatened the theory of threatened egotism suggests that individuals
egotism. high in narcissism would experience a wider range of
One of the central points of the theory is that events or situations as ego-threatening or frustrating due
aggression occurs in response to ego-threatening to their strong preference to be superior to others.
information. The workplace has the potential to provide Although these findings support portions of the theory
an abundance of information to an individual that may of threatened egotism and aggression, there apparently
be interpreted as ego-threatening. Although it is likely have not been any attempts to explore the theory as a
that individuals vary in the kinds of information they whole in the context of the workplace. It is clear from the
would find threatening, it stands to reason that infor- literature that CWB includes acts that are aggressive.
mation that undermines beliefs central to one's definition Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that personality
of self would be particularly intolerable. For example, in variables that are related to aggressive behavior in
the USA, most people at least partially define themselves general would also be related to workplace aggression,
by their occupation. It is, therefore, reasonable to and more broadly, CWB. The purpose of the current
presume that, regardless of their profession, most study is to examine the relationships proposed by the
individuals would identify with or perceive themselves theory of threatened egotism and aggression in the
as being good performers in their job. Consequently, any context of the workplace. Based on the theory and
information that suggests one is incapable of effective job previous research regarding the role of negative emotions
performance or any situation that prevents one from in predicting CWB, the following relationships are
demonstrating effective job performance would qualify proposed:
as an ego threat.
Hypothesis 1: Narcissism will be positively related to
According to Peters and O'Connor (1980), situational
trait anger.
constraints are circumstances or conditions in the
immediate work situation that prevent individuals from Hypothesis 2: Narcissism and trait anger will be
using their abilities and motivation toward effective positively related to CWB.
performance. The eight organizational constraint areas
outlined by Peters and O'Connor are: (a) job-related Hypothesis 3: Trait anger will mediate the
information; (b) tools and equipment; (c) materials and relationship between narcissism and CWB.
supplies; (d) budgetary support; (e) required services; (f)
task preparation; (g) time availability; and (h) work In addition, the theory of threatened egotism and
environment. To the extent that constraints obstruct aggression holds that narcissists are most likely to engage
successful job performance and, therefore, confirmation in aggressive behavior in response to ego threats. Using
of one's ability to do a job well, constraints could be job constraints as an indicator of ego threats, it would be
perceived as ego-threatening. Prior research has expected that job constraints be positively related to both
demonstrated a positive relationship between job narcissism and CWB. It also follows that narcissists
constraints and CWB (Fox and Spector 1999; Fox et would be more likely to behave aggressively when they
al., in press), however, these variables have not been encounter ego-threatening information than when they
examined in conjunction with narcissism. do not encounter such information. That is, narcissists
Additionally, recall that the theory of threatened would be more likely to engage in CWB when they
egotism argues that encountering ego-threatening experience job constraints than when they do not
information elicits negative emotions such as anger and experience job constraints. Therefore, the following
frustration, that lead to aggression. This portion of the additional hypotheses are proposed:
theory mirrors Spector's model of organizational Hypothesis 4a: Job constraints will be positively
frustration (Spector 1978; Spector 1997). According to related to narcissism and CWB.
Spector's model, an individual will experience frustration
if he or she interprets an event or situation at work as Hypothesis 4b: Narcissism will moderate the
interfering with a goal. For narcissists, one possible goal relationship between job constraints and CWB such
is being better than everyone else, and thus any that when narcissism is high, the relationship between
information that indicates otherwise would be a source job constraints and CWB will be stronger than when
of frustration. The emotional reaction associated with narcissism is low.
the experienced frustration can range from `minor
annoyance to rage' (Spector 1997, p. 2), that may in
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for measures and intercorrelation matrix with scale alpha coefficient reliabilities
on the main diagonal
Table 2. Multiple regression of Narcissism (NPI) and Trait Anger (TAS) onto CWB (JRS)
was found that individuals high in narcissism reported effect of narcissism on the relationship between job
experiencing anger more frequently and reported constraints and CWB. Specifically, the results indicated
engaging in more CWB than individuals lower in that when narcissism was low, the incidence of CWB
narcissism. In addition, the relationship between trait remained low across levels of constraints. However,
anger and CWB was also significant indicating that when narcissism was high, the slope of the line changed
individuals with higher trait anger were more likely to such that CWB increased as constraints increased.
engage in CWB than individuals lower in trait anger. All These findings suggest that job constraints, or
of these findings are consistent with the theory of circumstances that prevent successful job performance,
threatened egotism. The theory also predicts that anger do not affect everyone in the same manner. That is, there
will precede an aggressive response. Therefore, it was are individuals differences in the way people respond to
expected that the relationship between narcissism and constraining circumstances. Similarly, a recent study by
CWB would be mediated by trait anger. The results were Skarlicki et al. (1999) found that differences in negative
supportive of the mediator hypothesis suggesting that the affectivity and agreeableness affected individual
reason narcissistic individuals engage in more CWB is responses to the perceived lack of organizational justice.
because they are angry. These results are also supportive Specifically, they found that individuals who were high in
of other research that has highlighted the importance of negative affectivity or low in agreeableness were more
negative emotional arousal to counterproductive likely to retaliate in response to low distributive,
behavioral responses, particularly the model of organiz- procedural, and interactional justice than individuals
ational frustration proposed by Spector and his low in negative affectivity or high in agreeableness. In
colleagues (Fox and Spector 1999; Spector 1978, 1997). addition, Storms and Spector (1987) reported that locus
Other findings of the current study involved the of control moderated the relationship between
perception of situational constraints at work. As frustration and CWB, such that individuals with an
hypothesized, a small but significant positive correlation external locus of control were more likely to respond to
was found between narcissism and job constraints frustration by engaging in CWB. Taken together, these
suggesting that narcissistic individuals were more likely findings suggest that personality traits may be effective
to perceive constraints. In addition, job constraints and predictors of CWB under difficult or trying conditions.
CWB were strongly positively correlated. This finding is However, additional research is needed to explore this
consistent with results reported in other research (Fox et possibility.
al., in press; Fox and Spector 1999) demonstrating a link The current study contained several limitations that
between the experience of job constraints and CWB. The may have affected the results. First, the use of
more interesting finding, however, was the moderating undergraduate students as subjects has been questioned.
However, as stated previously, Fox et al. (in press) found
that students were no different from non-student workers
in reporting CWB. Therefore, the use of students may
not have posed a serious threat to the current findings.
However, future research on this topic should include the
use of a more heterogeneous population.
Second, all of the data were collected by self-report
and, therefore, it is possible that participant biases
common across measures may have distorted the
observed relations. Unfortunately, it is difficult to obtain
measures of personality without using self-report.
Figure 3. Job constraints as a moderator of the Likewise, the assessment of individual engagement in
relationship between narcissm and CWB. CWB is difficult to assess through objective measures or
supervisor ratings because very often CWB occurs in a Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of
covert manner making it difficult to identify through Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219±229.
Chen, P.Y. and Spector, P.E. (1992) Relationship of work
these other methods. Self-reports of CWB, therefore, may stressors with aggression, withdrawal, theft and substance
be the best means to link individuals to specific abuse: An exploratory study. Journal of Occupational and
behaviors. In addition, it seems likely that individuals Organizational Psychology, 65, 177±184.
under-report CWB due to a self-presentation bias. If this Dailey, R.C. and Kirk, D.J. (1992) Distributive and procedural
is the case, the correlations with CWB obtained in this justice as antecedents of job dissatisfaction and intent to
turnover. Human Relations, 45, 305±317.
study may actually be underestimates of the true Dollard, J., Doob, L.W., Miller, N.E., Mowrer, O.H. and
relationships. However, as Fox and Spector (1999) note, Sears, R.R. (1939) Frustration and Aggression. New Haven,
there have been no studies to date that have shown CT: Yale University Press.
different results for self-report versus other methods of Fox, S. and Spector, P.E. (1999) A model of work frustration-
measuring CWB. Finally, the sample used in this study aggression. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 20, 915±
931.
was predominantly female (only 26% of subjects were Fox, S., Spector, P.E. and Miles, D. (in press) Counter-
male). Although subgroup analyses did not indicate any productive work behavior (CWB) in response to job
differences in the correlations among the variables stressors and organizational justice: Some mediator and
between males and females, the results did find gender moderator tests for autonomy and emotions. Journal of
differences in narcissism, job constraints, and CWB. Vocational Behavior.
Geddes, D. and Baron, R.A. (1997) Workplace aggression as a
Future studies may wish to further explore these gender consequence of negative performance feedback. Manage-
differences. ment Communications Quarterly, 10, 433±454.
Overall, the results of this study were supportive of the Giacalone, R.A. and Greenberg, J. (eds) (1997) Antisocial
theory of egotism and aggression. It appears that Behavior in Organizations. London: Sage Publications.
individuals with high narcissism experience anger more Giacalone, R.A. and Knouse, S.B. (1990) Justifying wrongful
employee behavior: The role of personality in organizational
frequently and are more likely to express their anger by sabotage. Journal of Business Ethics, 9, 55±61.
engaging in CWB, especially when job constraints are Gough, H.G. (1956) California Psychological Inventory. Palo
high. These findings suggest that narcissistic individuals Alto: CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
are likely to handle ego-threatening information or Govoni, S.J. (1992) To catch a thief. CFO, February, 24±32.
situations with less equanimity. Thus, narcissism is Greenberg, J. (1990) Employee theft as a reaction to under-
payment inequity: The hidden cost of pay cuts. Journal of
another individual difference variable that may be an Applied Psychology, 75, 561±568.
important factor in determining CWB, particularly under Greenberg, J. (1993) Stealing in the name of justice:
conditions perceived to be difficult or stressful. Informational and interpersonal moderators of theft
reactions to underpayment inequity. Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 54, 81±103.
Greenberg, J. and Scott, K.S. (1996) Why do workers bite the
References hands that feed them? Employee theft as a social exchange
process. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 111±156.
Adams, J. S. (1965) Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz Lee, C. (1995) Prosocial organizational behaviors: The roles of
(ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 2. workplace justice, achievement striving, and pay
New York: Academic Press. satisfaction. Journal of Business and Psychology, 10, 197±
Anderson, C.A., Anderson, K.B and Deuser, W.E. (1996) 206.
Examining an affective aggression framework: Weapon McGurn, T. (1988) Spotting the thieves who work among us.
and temperature effects on aggressive thoughts, affect and Wall Street Journal, 7 March, p. 16A.
attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, Moorman, R.H., Niehoff, B.P. and Organ, D.W. (1993)
366±376. Treating employees fairly and organizational citizenship
Anderson, E. (1994) The code of the streets. Atlantic Monthly, behavior: Sorting the effects of job satisfaction,
273 (May), 81±94. organizational commitment, and procedural justice.
Barling, J. and Phillips, M. (1993), Interactional, formal, and Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 6, 209±225.
distributive justice in the workplace: An exploratory study, Neuman, J.H. and Baron, R.A. (1998) Workplace violence and
Journal of Psychology, 127, 649±656. workplace aggression: Evidence concerning specific forms,
Baron, R.A. (1994) The physical environment of work settings: potential causes, and preferred targets. Journal of
Effects on task performance, interpersonal relations, and job Management, 24, 391±419.
satisfaction. In B.M. Staw and L.L. Cummings (eds) Ones, D.S., Viswesvaran, C. and Schmidt, F.L. (1993)
Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 16. Greenwich, Comprehensive meta-analysis of integrity test validities:
CT: JAI Press. Findings and implications for personnel selection and
Baumeister, R.F. (1995) Self and identity: An introduction. In A. theories of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology,
Tesser (ed.) Advanced Social Psychology. New York: 78, 679±703.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Perlow, R. and Latham, L.L. (1993) Relationship of client abuse
Baumeister, R.F., Smart, L. and Boden, J.M. (1996) Relation of with locus of control and gender: A longitudinal study in
threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side mental retardation facilities. Journal of Applied Psychology,
of high self esteem. Psychological Review, 3, 5±33. 78, 831±834.
Bushman, B.J. and Baumeister, R.F. (1998) Threatened egotism, Peters, L.H. and O'Connor, E.J. (1980) Situational constraints
narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: and work outcomes: The influence of a frequently
overlooked construct. Academy of Management Review, 5, with reported behavioral reactions of employees. Journal of
391±397. Applied Psychology, 60, 635±637.
Raskin, R., Novacek, J. and Hogan, R. (1991) Narcissism, self- Spector, P.E. (1978) Organizational frustration: A model and
esteem, and defensive self-enhancement. Journal of review of the literature. Personnel Psychology, 32, 815±829.
Personality, 59, 19±38. Spector, P.E. (1997) The role of frustration in antisocial
Raskin, R. and Hall, C.S. (1979) Anarcissistic personality behavior at work. In R.A. Giacalone and J. Greenberg
inventory. Psychological Reports. 45, 590. (eds) Antisocial Behavior in Organizations. London: Sage
Raskin, R. and Terry, H. (1988) A principal-components Publications.
analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further Spector, P.E. and Jex, S.M. (1998) Development of four self-
evidence of its construct validity. Journal of Personality and report measures of job stressors and strain: Interpersonal
Social Psychology, 54, 890±902. Conflict at Work Scale, Organizational Constraints Scale,
Robinson, S.L. and Bennett, R.J. (1995) A typology of deviant Quantitative Workload Inventory, and Physical Symptoms
workplace behaviors: A multidimensional scaling study. Inventory. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3,
Academy of Management Journal, 38, 555±572. 356±367.
Robinson, S.L. and O'Leary-Kelly, A.M. (1998) Monkey see, Spielberger, C.D. (1998) Manual for the State-Trait Anger
monkey do: The influence of work groups on the antisocial Expression Inventory (STAXI). Odessa, FL: Psychological
behavior of employees. Academy of Management Journal, Assessment Resources, Inc. (PAR).
41, 658±672. Spielberger, C.D., Reheiser, E.C. and Sydeman, S.J. (1995)
Skarlicki, D.P. and Folger, R. (1997) Retaliation in the Measuring the experience, expression, and control of anger.
workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural and In H. Kassinove (ed.) Anger Disorders: Definitions,
interactional justice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Washington, DC: Taylor &
434±443. Francis.
Skarlicki, D.P., Folger, R. and Tesluk, P. (1999) Personality as a Storms, P.L. and Spector, P.E. (1987) Relationship of
moderator in the relationship between fairness and organizational frustration with reported behavioral
retaliation. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 100±108. reactions: The moderating effect of locus of control. Journal
Smalley, R.L. and Stake, J.E. (1996) Evaluating sources of ego- of Occupational Psychology, 60, 227±234.
threatening feedback: Self-esteem and narcissism effects. Tansky, J.W. (1993) Justice and organizational citizenship
Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 483±495. behavior: What is the relationship? Employee
Spector, P.E. (1975) Relationships of organizational frustration Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 6, 195±207.