Rotating Machines and Transformers Unit 2 DC GENERATOR CLASS NOTES

UNIT - IV
DC GENERATORS
UNIT IV - DC GENERATORS
Construction and Components of DC Machine – Principle of Operation –Lap and Wave
Windings - EMF Equations– Circuit Model – Armature Reaction – Methods of Excitation–
Commutation and Inter-Poles –Compensating Winding –Characteristics of DCGenerators.
Introduction
DC Machines can be used as a generator or as a motor. Hence DC Machines are classified
into:
i) DC Generator
ii) DC Motor
Constructional Details of Direct Current Machine
 Direct Current (DC) machine can be used as a generator or as a motor.
 When the machine is driven by a prime-mover it converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy and is called a generator.
 If the electrical energy is supplied to it, it works as a motor and the energy conversion is
from electrical to mechanical.
 Therefore the constructional details of a DC generator and a DC motor are the same.
 A Direct Current (DC) machine (generator or motor) has the following parts:
i. Yoke or magnetic frame
ii. Field system - Pole cores, pole shoes, Field coils
iii. Armature - Armature core, Armature windings, Commutator
iv. Brushes, Bearings, End covers, shaft, terminal box, etc.
4.2 Electrical Machines-I
1. Yoke 2. Pole 3. Pole shoe 4. Field coil 5. Inter pole 6. Air-gap 7. Armature
8. Slot 9. Teeth10. Commutator 11. Shaft 12. Base 13. Terminal box
Yoke or magnetic frame
 The Yoke or frame is the outer cover of the machine. It is made of cast iron. But for
large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed which has greater strength and
high permeability.
The Yoke serves two purposes
 It provides Mechanical support for the poles and act as a protecting cover for the whole
machine.
 It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles
DC Generators 4.3
Field Poles
 Laminated steel sheets are used to fabricate poles. The sheets are stacked for the required
length and riveted together.
 The poles are fixed at the inner periphery of the hollow cylindrical frame.
 On each pole, a former wound coil is provided. Insulated copper wire is used as the coils.
 The coils of allpoles are connected in such a way to form North and South pole
alternatively. These are called fieldpoles.
 When the wire of the coils carries a current, the pole becomes an electro-magnet and
producesthe magnetic flux.
The purpose of providing pole shoes in the poles are,
i. It act as a mechanical support to the field coils.
ii. They reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path.
iii. They guide and spread out the flux in the air gap.
Inter Poles
 Inter poles or the commutating poles are fixed to the frame. These poles are provided to
improve commutation.
 The winding of the inter-pole is connected in series with armature.
Armature
 Armature is the rotating part of the machine. It is in cylindrical shape with slots on its
periphery.
 It is built up of steel laminations. It is mounted on the shaft. The armature lamination is
about 0.5 mm thick.
 Eddy current loss is reduced by using laminated sheets. Hysteresis loss is also reduced
by silicon steel for fabricating armature core.
 Due to losses (Hysteresis, Eddy Current andCopper losses) heat is developed in the
armature. To dissipate this heat a fan is provided at one end of the armature.
 Ventilating ducts are also provided in the armature for the purpose of cooling.
Armature Windings
 The armature winding is placed on slots available on the armature surface. Former wound
coilsare used.
 The ends ofthe coils are jointed with the commutator segments.
 Insulated high conductivitycopper wire is used.
 Lap winding or wave winding is used.
Commutator
 The commutator is made up of number of wedge shaped segments.
 It is of cylindrical shape. It is built up of segments of hard drawn copper. The segments
are separated by layers of mica. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature
conductor by means of a copper strip called riser.
 In DC generator, Commutator converts the alternating current induced in the armature
into unidirectional current.
 It acts as a mechanical rectifier.
DC Generators 4.5
Brushes
 The brushes are made of carbon. It is in the shape of rectangular block. The brushes are
placed in brush holder.
 The brush holders are mounted on rocker arm. The brushes are arranged on rocker armin
such a way, it touches the surface of the commutator.
 The function of a brush is to collect current fromcommutator, in case of generator.
 In case of motor, current to the armatureconductors are fed through by brushes.
Bearings
 Ball and roller bearings are used. For heavy duty conditions roller bearings are used.
Basic Principle of DCGenerator and Energy Conversion

 In general, an electrical generator is a rotating machine which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
 DC generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 The direction emf or current is determined by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
 According to Faraday’s Laws of Electro-Magnetic Induction, when a conductor or a coil
is rotatedin a magnetic field in such a way, to cut the magnetic lines of flux, an emf is
induced in a conductor or in the coil.
 If the circuit of the conductor or coil is closed in proper way, a current flows through the
circuit.
 The magnitude of induced emf is proportional to the speed of rotation of the conductor,
the flux in the magnetic field and the number of conductors or coils connected in series.
 In DC generators, the conductor or the coils are arranged on a cylindrical rotor called an
armature.
 The armature is rotated in the magnetic field so as to cut the magnetic lines of flux.
 To rotate this armature, another rotating device called prime-mover is used. The prime
movers may be water turbine or diesel engine or steam engine.
 The armature of the DC generator is driven by mechanical energy applied to its shaft.
Thus the mechanical energy is converted in to electrical energy.
The DC machine (DC generator or DC motor) has the following parts.

1. Poles or field poles to produce the magnetic flux
2. An armature with conductors and
3. Relative motion between magnetic field and armature conductors
 In DC generators, the magnetic field is stationary and the armature rotates.
 When the armature is rotated, the armature conductor cut the magnetic lines of flux, so a
dynamically induced emf is induced in the armature.
 The emf thus induced in DC generator is of alternating one and this is converted in to
direct emf by a device known as “Commutator”.
 The Commutator is mounted at the one end of the armature, on the same shaft of the
armature.
Generation of Electro Motive Force
Consider a magnetic field and a coil of single turn with slip rings
DC Generators 4.7
 Coil is provided in between the poles. It is rotated in clockwise direction at a uniform
speed in a uniform magnetic field.
 At position 1, the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of lines of

flux. Now, the flux linked with the coil is maximum. But the rate of change of flux
linkages is minimum. So, no emf is induced in the coil.
 That is at the starting position, emf induced is zero.
 When the coil is rotated further, the rate of change of flux linkages increases up to
position3 .
 At this position the plane of the coil is parallel to the lines of flux. Now, the flux linked
with the coil is minimum, but rate of change of flux linkages is maximum. Therefore, at
this position emf induced in the coil is maximum.
 On further rotation of the coil, from position 3, to position 5 the rate of change of flux
linkages decreases, and the emf, induced is gradually decreased.
 At position 5 it is reduced to zero. The magnitude of emf with respect to the coil is zero.
 From position 5 to position 7 (that is from 180° to 270°) the induced emf value starts
again from zero to maximum and from position 7 to position 1 (From 270° to 360°) the
induced emf value changes from maximum to zero.
 The direction of induced current in the conductor is from A to B and from C to D during
the revolution of the coil from position 1 to 5. (Applying Fleming’s Right Hand Rule).
 In the next half revolution, from position 5 to 1, the direction of the induced current is
from D to C and from B to A as shown in figures.
 The variation of the magnitude of emf is similar in both the half revolutions. But the
induced emf during the first half revolution is positive and negative in the second half
revolution.
 The current reverses its direction after every half revolution, thus the emf generated is an
alternating one.
 To rectify the alternating emf and get direct current, split rings are used instead of slip
rings.
 By using split rings the current in the external load circuit is maintained in unidirectional
as shown infigures. 9.6 (a) and 9.6(b).
 The wave from of the current (obtained by providing the slip rings) throughthe external
is as shown in figure. 9.8.
 The current thus obtained is unidirectional current but pulsatingone.
DC Generators 4.9
 In practical generator, the number of coils is large and is accommodated on the surface
of the armature.
 Instead of split rings the commutator (with large number of segments) is provided at the
one end of the armature. For example if there are two coils. Then the number of
commutator of large number of segments may be less pulsating as shown in figure. 9.9.
Winding terminologies
Conductor: The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and
responsible for the induced emf is called active length of the conductor. The conductors are
placed in the armature slots.
Turn: A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a turn. So
two conductors constitute a turn.
Coil: The number of turns are grouped together to form a coil. A coil may consist of single
turn called single turn coil.
Coil side: Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side of a coil.
Commutator Pitch (YC)
 The commutator pitch is the number of commutator segments spanned by each coil of
the winding. It is denoted by YC.
 For simplex lap winding, YC = 1
 For simplex wave winding, YC ~ 2 pole pitches (segments)
 In Fig. (1.17), one side of the coil is connected to commutator segment 1 and the other
side connected to commutator segment 2. Therefore, the number of commutator segments
spanned by the coil is 1 i.e., YC = 1.
 In Fig. (1.18), one side of the coil is connected to commutator segment 1 and the other
side to commutator segment 8. Therefore, the number of commutator segments spanned
by the coil = 8 - 1 = 7 segments i.e., YC = 7. The commutator pitch of a winding is always
a whole number. Since each coil has two ends and as two coil connections are joined at
each commutator segment,
Number of coils = Number of commutator segments

 For example, if an armature has 30 conductors, the number of coils will be 30/2 = 15.
Therefore, number of commutator segments is also 15. Note that commutator pitch is
the most important factor in determining the type of DC armature winding.
Pole-Pitch:
 It is the distance measured in terms of number of armature slots (or armature conductors)
per pole. Thus if a 4-pole generator has 16 coils, then number of slots = 16.
Also
Coil Span or Coil Pitch (YS)

 It is the distance measured in terms of the number of armature slots (or armature
conductors) spanned by a coil. Thus if the coil span is 9 slots, it means one side of the
coil is in slot 1 and the other side in slot 10.
Full-Pitched Coil
 If the coil-span or coil pitch is equal to pole pitch, it is called full-pitched coil.
 In this case, the emfs in the coil sides are additive and have a phase difference of 0°.
DC Generators 4.11
Fractional pitched coil.
 If the coil span or coil pitch is less than the pole pitch, then it is called fractional pitched
coil.
 In this case, the phase difference between the emfs in the two coil sides will not be zero
so that the emf of the coil will be less compared to full-pitched coil.
Back Pitch (YB)

 It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the two sides of a
coil at the back of the armature (See Fig. 1.23).
 It is denoted by YB For example, if a coil is formed by connecting conductor 1 (upper
conductor in a slot) to conductor 12 (bottom conductor in another slot) at the back of the
armature, then back pitch is YB = 12 - 1 = 11 conductors.
Front Pitch (YF)

 It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the coil sides attached
to any one commutator segment [See Fig. 1.23].
 It is denoted by YF For example, if coil side 12 and coil side 3 are connected to the same
commutator segment, then front pitch is YF = 12 - 3 = 9 conductors.
Resultant Pitch (YR)
 It is the distance (measured in terms of armature conductors) between the beginning of
one coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it is connected (See Fig. 1.23).
 It is denoted by YR. Therefore, the resultant pitch is the algebraic sum of the back and
front pitches.
Progressive Winding
 The connections to the commutator will progress around the machine in the same direction
as is being traced along the path of each individual coil. Fig. (1.24) (i) shows progressive
lap winding. Note that YB> YF and YC = + 1.
Retrogressive Winding
 The connections to the commutator will progress around the machine in the opposite
direction to that which is being traced along the path of each individual coil.
 Fig. (1.24) (ii) shows retrogressive lap winding. Note that YF> YB and YC = - 1. A
retrogressive winding is seldom used because it requires more copper.
DC Generators 4.13
Single layer and double layer winding:
 Basically there are two physical types of the windings. These are i) Single layer winding
ii) Double layer winding. The sequential arrangement of coils around the armature is
different for both these type of windings.
Single layer winding:
 In this type of winding, the complete slot is containing only one coil side of a coil. This
type of winding is not normally used for machine having commutators.
Double layer winding:
 Most of DC armature windings are double layer windings i.e., there are two coil sides
per slot as shown in Fig. (1.14).
 One coil side of a coil lies at the top of a slot and the other coil side lies at the bottom of
some other slot.
 The coil ends will then lie side by side. In two-layer winding, it is desirable to number
the coil sides rather than the slots.
 The coil sides are numbered as indicated in Fig. (1.14). The coil sides at the top of slots
are given odd numbers and those at the bottom are given even numbers. The coil sides
are numbered in order round the armature.
Closed and open windings:

 Armature windings are classified into two different types namely i) Closed type winding
ii) Open type winding.
Closed windings:
 In this type of winding, a closed path is formed around the armature. The starting point
of the winding is reached again after passing through all the turns.
 The current passing through closed type of winding is through brushes placed on
commutator. The commutator segments are connected to various armature coils.
 The closed type of winding is normally used in AC. and DCCommutator machines. This
type of winding is usually double layer.
Open windings:
 In case of AC machines, Commutator is not used and hence closed winding is not required
to be used.
 In such case, open type winding is used. The armature is left open at one or more points.
 This type of winding are either single type or double layer type and are mainly used in
induction machines and synchronous machines.
Types of DC Armature Windings
 There are number of armature conductors, which are connected in specific manner as per
requirement, which is called armature winding.
 According to the way of connecting the conductors, armature winding has basically two
types namely,
1. Simplex Lap Winding
2. Simplex Wave Winding
Lap winding:
Simplex lap winding
 For a simplex lap winding, the commutator pitch YC = 1 and coil span YS ~ pole pitch.
 Thus the ends of any coil are brought out to adjacent commutator segments and the
result of this method of connection is that all the coils of the armature wire in sequence
with the last coil connected to the first coil.
 Consequently, closed circuit winding results. This is illustrated in Fig. (1.21) where a
part of the lap winding is shown.
 Only two coils are shown for simplicity. The name lap comes from the way in which
successive coils overlap the preceding one.
DC Generators 4.15
Wave winding:
Simplex wave winding:
 For a simplex wave winding, the commutator pitch YC ~ 2 and coil span = pole pitch.
 The result is that the coils under consecutive pole pairs will be joined together in series
thereby adding together their emfs [See Fig. 1.22].
 After passing once around the armature, the winding falls in a slot to the left or right of
the starting point and thus connecting up another circuit.
 Continuing in this way, all the conductors will be connected in a single closed winding.
This winding is called wave winding from the appearance (wavy) of the end connections.
Difference between lap and wave winding:

Sl.No. Lap winding Wave winding
1. Number of parallel paths, A = Poles (P) Number of parallel paths, A = 2
2. Number of brush sets required is Number of brush sets required is always
equal to number of poles. equal to two.
3. No dummy coils needed Dummy coils may be needed
4. Equalizer rings needed Equalizer rings not needed
Applications of Lap and Wave Windings
 In multipolar machines, for a given number of poles (P) and armature conductors (Z), a
wave winding has a higher terminal voltage than a lap winding because it has more
conductors in series.
 On the other hand, the lap winding carries more current than a wave winding because it
has more parallel paths.
 In small machines, the current-carrying capacity of the armature conductors is not critical
and in order to achieve suitable voltages, wave windings are used.
 On the other hand, in large machines suitable voltages are easily obtained because of the
availability of large number of armature conductors and the current carrying capacity is
more critical.
 Hence in large machines, lap windings are used.
Note: In general, a high-current armature is lap-wound to provide a large number of parallel
paths and a low-current armature is wave-wound to provide a small number of parallel paths.
EMF Equation of DC Generator:-
Derive the EMF equation of DC Generator.(April/May 2015,Nov/Dec 2011, May/June
2012)
 The emf generated in a direct current generator is proportional to the speed rotation of
the armature, total number of armature conductors, total flux available in the field and
the type of winding adopted in the armature.
Let,
P = No. of poles
= Flux per pole, in weber
Z = Total no. of conductors in the armature
N = Speed of rotation of armature in RPM
A = No. of parallel paths in armature
= emf induced in any parallel path is armature.
Assume that the full flux per pole links with the armature coil to produce the induced emf
So in one revolution, the total flux cut by one conductor is,
DC Generators 4.17
Hence average emf induced in the conductor is,
The two conductors constitute one turn and there are Z number of conductors arranged in A
number of parallel paths.
All conductors per parallel path are in series.

Thus the total induced emf per parallel path,
The voltage across all parallel paths remains same which is total induced emf in a DC
machine.
The number of parallel paths depends on type of armature windings,

A = P for lap type winding.
A = 2 for wave type winding.
LAP WAVE WINDING

 Consider a P pole machine having flux/pole and rotating at rad/sec. It has a total of Z
conductors and maximum permissible conductor current is.
 Let us derive the expression for power converted and torque developed.
Torque developed
Or
 It means that torque value is same whether the conductors are lap connected or wave
connected. But it depends on number of conductors and conductor current.
Armature Reaction
Explain the effects of armature reaction on the operation of DC machines. How the
armature reaction is minimized? Nov/Dec 2009
 In DC generators, the armature conductors carry current and produce a magnetic field.
The effect of this magnetic field set up by the armature current on the distribution of the
flux under main poles is known as armature reaction.
 The phenomenon of armature reaction in a DC generator is shown in Fig. (2.1).
 When the generator is on no-load, a smal1 current flowing in the armature does not
appreciably affect the main flux coming from the pole [See Fig 2.1 (i)].
 When the generator is loaded, the current flowing through armature conductors sets up
flux . Fig. (2.1) (ii) shows flux due to armature current alone.
 By superimposing and, the resulting flux as shown in Fig. (2.1) (iii). The flux density at
the trailing pole tip (point B) is increased while at the leading pole tip (point A) it is
decreased.
 This unequal field distribution produces the following two effects:
DC Generators 4.19
Geometrical and Magnetic Neutral Axes
(i) The geometrical neutral axis (G.N.A.) is the axis that bisects the angle between the
centerline of adjacent poles [See Fig. 2.2 (i)]. It is the axis of symmetry between two
adjacent poles.
(ii) The Magnetic Neutral Axis (M. N. A.) is the axis drawn perpendicular to the mean
direction of the flux passing through the center of the armature. No emf is produced in
the armature conductors along this axis because they cut no flux. With no current in the
armature conductors, the M.N.A. coincides with G. N. A. as shown in Fig. (2.2).In order
to achieve sparkles commutation, the brushes must lie along M.N.A.
Explanation of Armature Reaction (APRIL / MAY – 2017)
 With no current in armature conductors, the M.N.A. coincides with G.N.A.
 However, when current flows in armature conductors, the combined action of main flux
and armature flux shifts the M.N.A. from G.N.A.
 In case of a generator, the M.N.A. is shifted in the direction of rotation of the machine.
 In order to achieve sparkles commutation, the brushes have to be moved along the new
M.N.A. Under such a condition, the armature reaction produces the following two effects:
1. It demagnetizes (or) weakens the main flux.
2. It cross-magnetizes (or) distorts the main flux.
 Let us discuss these effects of armature reaction by considering a 2-pole generator (though
the following remarks also hold good for a multipolar generator).
(i) Fig. (2.3) (i) shows the flux due to main poles (main flux) when the armature
conductors carry no current. The flux across the air gap is uniform.
 The mmf producing the main flux is represented in magnitude and direction by the
vector OFm in Fig. (2.3) (i). Note that OFm is perpendicular to G.N.A.
(ii) Fig. (2.3) (ii) shows the flux due to current flowing in armature conductors alone
(main poles unexcited).
 The armature conductors to the left of G.N.A. carry current “in” (+) and those to the
right carry current “out” (•). The direction of magnetic lines of force can be found
by cork screw rule.
 It is clear that armature flux is directed downward parallel to the brush axis. The
mmf producing the armature flux is represented in magnitude and direction by the
vector OFA in Fig. (2.3) (ii).
(iii) Fig. (2.3) (iii) shows the flux due to the main poles and that due to current in armature
conductors acting together.
 The resultant mmf OF is the vector sum of OFm and OFA as shown in Fig. (2.3) (iii).
 Since M.N.A. is always perpendicular to the resultant mmf., the M.N.A. is shifted
through an angle .
 Note that M.N.A. is shifted in the direction of rotation of the generator.
(iv) In order to achieve sparkles commutation, the brushes must lie along the M.N.A.
axis. Consequently, the brushes are shifted through an angle so as to lie along the
new M.N.A. as shown in Fig. (2.3) (iv).
 Due to brush shift, the mmf FA of the armature is also rotated through the same angle
. It is because some of the conductors which were earlier under N-pole now come
under S-pole and vice-versa.
 The result is that armature mmfFA will no longer be vertically downward but will be
rotated in the direction of rotation through an angle as shown in Fig. (2.3) (iv). Now
FA can be resolved into two rectangular components Fc and Fd.
DC Generators 4.21
(a) The component Fd is in direct opposition to the mmfOFm due to main poles. It has a
demagnetizing effect on the flux due to main poles. For this reason, it is called the
demagnetizing (or) weakening component of armature reaction.
(b) The component Fc is at right angles to the OFm due to main poles. It distorts the main
field. For this reason, it is called the cross-magnetizing (or) distorting component of
armature reaction.
 It may be noted that with the increase of armature current, both demagnetizingand
distorting effects will increase.
Conclusions:
(i) With brushes located along G.N.A. (i.e., = 0°), there is no demagnetizing component of
armature reaction (Fd = 0). There is only distorting or cross-magnetizing effect of armature
reaction.
(ii) With the brushes shifted from G.N.A., armature reaction will have both demagnetizing
and distorting effects. Their relative magnitudes depend on the amount of shift. This
shift is directly proportional to the armature current.
(iii) The demagnetizing component of armature reaction weakens the main flux. On the other
hand, the distorting component of armature reaction distorts the main flux.
a) Demagnetizing effect leads to reduce generated voltage
b) Cross-magnetizing effect leads to sparking at the brushes
Types of DC Generators:
With schematic diagram, explain the working principle of different types of DC
generator based on its excitation. May/June 2013
 DC Generators are classified according to the manner in which their field windings are
connected.
 The process of giving DC voltage to the field winding for producing magnetic field is
called field excitation. The generators are classified as follows:
DC Generators 4.23
Separately Excited Generators:
 In this type of generator, the field winding is excited by a separate DC source. The
schematic diagram of a separately excited DC generator is shown in the figure.
Self- Excited Generators

 In this type of generator, the field winding is excited by the same machine. When the
armature is rotated, some emf is generated due to the presence of residual magnetism.
 Thus some induced currents is produced and this passes through the field coils. This
induced current produce more flux.
 This actionis repeated and thereby sufficient current passes through the field coils to
generate the rated inducedEMF.
 The self-excited generators are further classified into three types, according to the way
of theirfield winding connected to the armature.
1. Shunt generator
2. Series generator
3. Compound generator.
Shunt Generator
 In this type of generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
terminals.
 The shunt field winding consists of a large number of turns of thin copper wire. Since the
field winding is connected in parallel, the voltage generated is applied across the terminals.
The schematic diagram of a shunt generator is shown in the figure.
Series Generator
 In this type of generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature. The
field winding consists of a few number of turns of thick copper wire because it has to
carry full load armature current. The schematic diagram of a series generator is shown in
the figure.
Compound Generator
 In the compoundgenerator, the shunt field winding and series field winding connected
withthe armatureterminals. Depending upon the shunt field and series field winding
connections, it is named as long shunt or short shunt generator.
 The schematic diagram of DC compound generator is shown inthe figure. In compound
generator, the shunt field winding and the series field winding are placed inthe main
poles as shown in figure.
DC Generators 4.25
 When series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively-compounded.
 If series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded.
Commutation
Explain the process of commutation and methods of commutation. Nov/Dec 2016,
Nov/Dec 2013
 Fig. (2.6) shows the schematic diagram of 2-pole lap-wound generator. There are two
parallel paths between the brushes.
 Therefore, each coil of the winding carries one half (Ia/2) of the total current (Ia) entering
or leaving the armature.
 Note that the currents in the coils connected to a brush are either all towards the brush
(positive brush) or all directed away from the brush (negative brush).
 Therefore, current in a coil will reverse as the coil passes a brush. This reversal of current
as the coil passes a brush is called commutation.
 The reversal of current in a coil, as the coil passes the brush axis is called commutation.
 When commutation takes place, the coil undergoing commutation is short circuited
by the brush.
 The period during which the coil remains short circuited is known as commutation
period Tc.
 If the current reversal is completed by the end of commutation period, it is called
ideal commutation.
 If the current reversal is not completed by that time, then sparking occurs between
the brush and the commutator which results in progressive damage to Commutator
and brush.
Ideal commutation
 Let us discuss the phenomenon of ideal commutation (i.e., coil has no inductance)
in one coil in the armature winding shown in Fig. (2.6) above. For this purpose, we
consider the coil A.
 The brush width is equal to the width of one commutator segment and one mica
insulation. Suppose the total armature current is 40 A. Since there are two parallel
paths, each coil carries a current of 20 A.
DC Generators 4.27
In Fig. (2.7) (i), the brush is in contact with segment 1 of the commutator. The
commutator segment 1 conducts a current of 40 A to the brush.
 20 A from coil A and20 A from the adjacent coil as shown. The coil A has yet to
undergo commutation.
 As the armature rotates, the brush will make contact with segment 2 and thus short-
circuits the coil A as shown in Fig. (2.7) (ii). There are now two parallel paths into
the brush as long as short-circuit of coil A exists.
Fig. (2.7) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is one-fourth on segment 2 and three-
fourth on segment 1.
 For this condition, the resistance of the path through segment 2 is three times the
resistance of the path through segment 1 (contact resistance varies inversely as the
area of contact of brush with the segment).
 The brush again conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 1 and 10 A through
segment 2. Note that current in coil A (the coil undergoing commutation) is reduced
from 20 A to 10 A.
Fig. (2.7) (iii) shows the instant when the brush is one-half on segment 2 and one-
half on segment 1.
 The brush again conducts 40 A; 20 A through segment 1 and 20 A through segment
2 (now the resistances of the two parallel paths are equal). Note that now. Current
in coil A is zero.
Fig. (2.7) (iv) shows the instant when the brush is three-fourth on segment 2 and
one-fourth on segment 1.
 The brush conducts a current of 40 A; 30 A through segment 2 and 10 A through
segment 1. Note that current in coil A is 10 A but in the reverse direction to that
before the start of commutation.
Fig. (2.7) (v) shows the instant when the brush is in contact only with segment 2.
 The brush again conducts 40 A; 20 A from coil A and 20 A from the adjacent coil to coil
A. Note that now current in coil A is 20 A but in the reverse direction. Thus the coil A has
undergone commutation.
DC Generators 4.29
 Each coil undergoes commutation in this way as it passes the brush axis. Note that during
commutation, the coil under consideration remains short circuited by the brush.
 Fig. (2.8) shows the current-time graph for the coil A undergoing commutation.
 The horizontal line AB represents a constant current of 20 A upto the beginning of
commutation.
 From the finish of commutation, it is represented by another horizontal line CD on the
opposite side of the zero line and the same distance from it as AB i.e., the current has
exactly reversed (20 A).
 The way in which current changes from B to C depends upon the conditions under which
the coil undergoes commutation. If the current changes at a uniform rate (i.e., BC is a
straight line), then it is called ideal commutation as shown in Fig. (2.8).
 Under such conditions, no sparking will take place between the brush and the commutator.
Practical difficulties
 The ideal commutation (i.e., straight line change of current) cannot be attained in practice.
This is mainly due to the fact that the armature coils have appreciable inductance.
 When the current in the coil undergoing commutation changes, self-induced emf is
produced in the coil. This is generally called reactance voltage.
 This reactance voltage opposes the change of current in the coil undergoing commutation.
 The result is that the change of current in the coil undergoing commutation occurs more
slowly than it would be under ideal commutation. This is illustrated in Fig. (2.9).
 The straight line BC represents the ideal commutation whereas the curve BE represents
the change in current when self-inductance of the coil is taken into account.
 Note that current CE (= 8A in Fig. 2.9) is flowing from the commutator segment 1 to the
brush at the instant when they part company.
 This results in sparking just as when any other current carrying circuit is broken. The
sparking results in overheating of commutator- brush contact and causing damage to
both.Fig. (2.10) illustrates how sparking takes place between the commutator segment
and the brush.
 At the end of commutation or short-circuit period, the current in coil A is reversed to a
value of 12 A (instead of 20 A) due to inductance of the coil.
 When the brush breaks contact with segment 1, the remaining 8 A current jumps from
segment 1 to the brush through air causing sparking between segment 1 and the brush.
Methods of Improving Commutation
 Improving commutation means to make current reversal in the short-circuitedcoil as

sparkless as possible. The following are the two principal methods ofimproving
commutation:
DC Generators 4.31
(i) Resistance commutation
(ii) E.M.F. commutation
(i) Resistance Commutation
 The reversal of current in a coil (i.e., commutation) takes place while the coil is short-
circuited by the brush. Therefore, there are two parallel paths for the current as long as
the short circuit exists. If the contact resistance between the brush and the commutator is
made large, then current would divide in the inverse ratio of contact resistances (as for
any two resistances in parallel). This is the key point in improving commutation. This is
achieved by using carbon brushes (instead of Cu brushes) which have high contact
resistance. This method of improving commutation is called resistance commutation.
 Figs. (2.11) and (2.12) illustrates how high contact resistance of carbon brush improves
commutation (i.e., reversal of current) in coil A.
 In Fig. (2.11) (i), the brush is entirely on segment 1 and, therefore, the current in coil A is
20 A. The coil A is yet to undergo commutation. As the armature rotates, the brush short
circuits the coil A and there are two parallel paths for the current into the brush.
 Fig. (2.11) (ii) shows the instant when the brush is one-fourth on segment 2 and three-
fourth on segment 1. The equivalent electric circuit is shown in Fig. (2.11) (iii) where R1
and R2 represent the brush contact resistances on segments 1 and 2. A resistor is not
shown for coil A since it is assumed that the coil resistance is negligible as compared to
the brush contact resistance.
 The values of current in the parallel paths of the equivalent circuit are determined by the
respective resistances of the paths. For the condition shown in Fig. (2.11) (ii), resistor R
has three times the resistance of resistor R1. Therefore, the current distribution in the
paths will be as shown. Note that current in coil A is reduced from 20 A to 10 A due to
division of current in (he inverse ratio of contact resistances. If the Cu brush is used
(which has low contact resistance), R1R2 and the current incoil A would not have reduced
to 10 A.
Fig. 2.11
Fig. 2.12
DC Generators 4.33
 As the carbon brush passes over the commutator, the contact area with segment 2 increases
and that with segment 1 decreases i.e., R2 decreases and R1 increases. Therefore, more
and more current passes to the brush through segment 2. This is illustrated in Figs. (2.12)
(i) and (2.12) (ii), When the break between the brush and the segment 1 finally occurs
[See Fig. 2.12 (iii)], the current in the coil is reversed and commutation is achieved.
 It may be noted that the main cause of sparking during commutation is the production of
reactance voltage and carbon brushes cannot prevent it. Nevertheless, the carbon brushes
do help in improving commutation. The other minor advantages of carbon brushes are:
(ii) The carbon lubricates and polishes the commutator.
(iii) If sparking occurs, it damages the commutator less than with copperbrushes and the
damage to the brush itself is of little importance.
(ii) E.M.F. Commutation
 In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by

producing a reversing voltage in the coil undergoing commutation. The reversing
voltage acts in opposition to the reactance voltage and neutralizes it to some extent.
If the reversing voltage is equal to the reactance voltage, the effect of the latter is
completely wiped out and we get sparkless commutation. The reversing voltage may
be produced in the following two ways:
a) By brush shifting
b) By using interpoles or compoles
a) By brush shifting
 In this method, the brushes are given sufficient forward lead (for a generator) to bring
the short-circuited coil (i.e., coil undergoing commutation) under the influence of
the next pole of opposite polarity. Since the short-circuited coil is now in the
reversing field, the reversing voltage produced cancels the reactancevoltage. This
method suffers from the following drawbacks:
(i) The reactance voltage depends upon armature current. Therefore, the brush shift will
depend on the magnitude of armature current which keeps on changing. This necessitates
frequent shifting of brushes.
(ii) The greater the armature current, the greater must be the forward lead for a generator.
This increases the demagnetizing effect of armature reactionand further weakens the
main field.
b) By using Interpoles or Compoles:
 The best way to produce reversing voltage to neutralize the reactance voltage is by
using interpoles or compoles.
 These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced mid-way between the main poles
(See Fig. 2.13).
 They are wound with comparatively few turns and connected in series with the
armature so that they carry armature current.
 Their polarity is the same as the next main pole ahead in the direction of rotation
for a generator (See Fig. 2.13).
 Connections for a DC generator with interpoles is shown in Fig. (2.14).
Functions of Interpoles
The interpoles perform the following two functions:
(i) As their polarity is the same as the main pole ahead (for a generator), they induce an emf
in the coil (undergoing commutation) which opposes reactance voltage.
DC Generators 4.35
 This leads to spark less commutation. The emfinduced by compoles is known as
commutating or reversing emf
 Since the interpoles carry the armature current and the reactance voltage is also
proportional to armature current, the neutralization of reactance voltage is automatic.
(ii) The mmf of the compoles neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction in
small region in the space between the main poles. It is because the two mmfs oppose
each other in this region.
Fig. (2.15) shows the circuit diagram of a shunt generator with commutating winding and
compensating winding.
 Both these windings are connected in series with the armature and so they carry the
armature current.
 The main function of commutating winding is to produce reversing (or commutating)
emf in order to cancel the reactance voltage.
 In addition to this, the mmf of the commutating winding neutralizes the cross magnetizing
ampere-turns in the space between the main poles.
 The compensating winding neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction
under the pole faces.
Calculation of Reactance Voltage
When a coil undergoes commutation, two commutator segments remain short- circuited
by the brush. Therefore, the time of short circuit (or commutation period ) is equal to
the time required by the commutator to move a distance equal to the circumferential
thickness of the brush minus the thickness of one insulating strip of mica.
Let,
The commutation period is very small, say of the order of 1/500 seconds.
Let the current in the coil undergoing commutation change from +I to –I (amperes) during
the commutation. If L is the inductance of the coil, then the reactance voltage is given by;
Compensating Windings
 The cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction may cause trouble in DC machines
subjected to large fluctuations in load.
 In order to neutralize the cross magnetizing effect of armature reaction, a compensating
winding is used.
 In absence of compensating windings, the flux will be suddenly shifting backward and
forward with every change in load. This shifting of flux will induce statically induced
emf in the armature coils. The magnitude of this emf will depend upon the rapidity of
changes in load and the amount of change.
DC Generators 4.37
 It may be so high as to strike an arc between the consecutive commutators segments
across the top of the mica sheets separation them.
 This may further develop into a flashover around the whole commutator thereby short
circuiting the whole armature.
 A compensating winding is an auxiliary winding embedded in slots in the pole faces as
shown in Fig.(2.5).
 It is connected in series with armature in a manner so that the direction of current through
the compensating conductors in any one pole face will be opposite to the direction of the
current through the adjacent armature conductors [See Fig. 2.5].
 In calculating the conductors per pole face required for the compensating winding, the
current in the compensating conductors is the armature current whereas the current in
armature conductors is where A is the number of parallel paths.
Let
= No. of compensating conductors/pole face
= No. of active armature conductors
= Total armature current
= Current in each armature conductor

 The use of a compensating winding considerably increases the cost of a machine and is
justified only for machines intended for severe service e.g., for high speed and high
voltage machines.
AT/Pole for Compensating Winding
If Z is the total number of armature conductors and P is the number of poles, then,
No. of armature conductors/pole = Z/P
No. of armature turns/pole = Z/2P
If Ia/A is the current through each armature conductor, then,
Characteristics of DC generators.
Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations:
(i) Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)
(ii) (ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and
(iii) (iii) External Characteristic.
These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

(i). Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)
Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load
saturation characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf
at no load (E0) and the field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just
the magnetization curve and it is practically similar for all type of generators.
DC Generators 4.39
The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the generator at no load and keeping
a constant speed. Field current is gradually increased and the corresponding terminal
voltage is recorded. The connection arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is as shown in
the figure (4.9(i)) below. For shunt or series excited generators, the field winding is
disconnected from the machine and connected across an external supply.
Fig:4.9(i)
Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kx. Hence, the generated
emf should be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to
the field current). However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is
generated (represented by OA in the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to
the fact that there exists some residual magnetism in the field poles.
Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial emf is induced in the armature. This initially
induced emf aids the existing residual flux, and hence, increasing the overall field flux.
This consequently increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C. follows a straight line.
However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and the x becomes
practically constant. Thus, even we increase the If further, x remains constant and hence,
Eg also remains constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.
Fig: 4.9(ii)
The above figure4.9(ii)shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit
characteristics for all types of DC generators.
(ii). Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)
An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf
(Eg) and the armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emfEg is always less than
E0 due to the armature reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from no-load voltage E0. Therefore, internal
characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve.
(iii). External Characteristic (V/IL)
An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the
load current (IL). Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emfEg due to voltage drop
in the armature circuit. Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal
characteristic curve. External characteristics are very important to determine the suitability
of a generator for a given purpose. Therefore, this type of characteristic is sometimes
also called as performance characteristic or load characteristic.
Characterisics of Separately Excited DC Generator
If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant
for any load current. Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load
voltage vs. loads current IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-
load generated emf is less than the no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load
generated emfEg vs. load current IL i.e. internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately
excited dc generator). Also, the terminal voltage is lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in
the armature and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage vs. load current
i.e. external characteristic.
DC Generators 4.41
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the machine
is allowed to build up its voltage before applying any external load. To build up voltage of a
shunt generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover. Initial voltage is
induced due to residual magnetism in the field poles. The generator builds up its voltage as
explained by the O.C.C. curve. When the generator has built up the voltage, it is gradually
loaded with resistive load and readings are taken at suitable intervals. Connection arrangement
is as shown in the figure below.
Fig: 4.9(iii)
Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL‘“Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence,
the internal characteristic can be easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct
value of If from Ia.
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current
increases. But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So,
load resistance can be decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage drastically
decreases due to excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and increased I2R
losses. Hence, beyond this limit any further decrease in load resistance results in decreasing
load current. Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted
line in the above figure.
Characteristics of DC Series Generator
Characteristics of DC Series Generator

The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is
because in DC series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load.
Hence, here load current is similar to field current (i.e. IL=If). The curve OC and OD represent
internal and external characteristic respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal voltage
increases with the load current. This is because, as the load current increases, field current
also increases. However, beyond a certain limit, terminal voltage starts decreasing with increase
in load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing effects of the armature reaction.
Characteristics of DC Compound Generator
External Characteristics of DC Compound

DC Generators 4.43
The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC compound generators. If series
winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal
voltage then the generator is called to be over compounded. The external characteristic for
over compounded generator is shown by the curve AB in above figure.
If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even
the load current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The external
characteristic for a flat compounded generator is shown by the curve AC.
If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat
compounded, then the generator is called to be under compounded. The external characteristics
for an under compounded generator are shown by the curve AD.
Generator types and diagrams

(i) Separately Excited D.C. Generators
Internal and External characteristics

(ii) Self-excited D.C.Generators a). D.C. series Generator
b). D.C. Shunt Generator

internal & external characteristics
External characteristics
DC Generators 4.45
c). D.C. Compound Generator(1.)
Long
shunt compound generator Short shunt compound generator

External Characteristics
Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators

This type of DC generators are generally more expensive than self-excited DC generators
because of their requirement of separate excitation source. Because of that their
applications are restricted. They are generally used where the use of self-excited generators
are unsatisfactory.
 Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are generally used
for testing purpose in the laboratories.
 Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field
excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of DC motors, whose
speeds are to be controlled for various applications. Example- Ward Leonard Systems of
speed control.
Applications of Shunt Wound DC Generators
 The application of shunt generators is very much restricted for its dropping voltage
characteristic. They are used to supply power to the apparatus situated very close to its
position. These type of DC generators generally give constant terminal voltage for small
distance operation with the help of field regulators from no load to full load.
 They are used for general lighting.
 They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output voltage.
 They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
 They are also used for small power supply.
Applications of Series Wound DC Generators
 These types of generators are restricted for the use of power supply because of their
increasing terminal oltage characteristic with the increase in load current from no load to
full load.
 We can clearly see this characteristic from the characteristic curve of series wound
generator. They give constant current in the dropping portion of the characteristic curve.
For this property they can be used as constant current source and employed for various
applications.
 They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for regenerative
breaking.
 This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the
feeder in various types of distribution systems such as railway service.
 In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.
Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators
 Among various types of DC generators, the compound wound DC generators are most
widely used because of its compensating property. Depending upon number of series
field turns, the cumulatively compounded generators may be over compounded, flat
compounded and under compounded. We can get desired terminal voltage by
compensating the drop due to armature reaction and ohmic drop in the in the line. Such
generators have various applications.
DC Generators 4.47
 Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used for lighting, power supply
purpose and for heavy power services because of their constant voltage property. They
are mainly made over compounded.
 Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.
 For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels, offices, homes and lodges,
the flat compounded generators are generally used.
 The differential compound wound generators, because of their large demagnetization
armature reaction, are used for arc welding where huge voltage drop and constant current
is required.
SOLVED PROBLEMS
GENERATORS
EMF Equation : & Types
1. A shunt genrator delivers 450A at 230V and the resistance of the shunt field and
armature are 50W & 0.03W respectively. Calculate the generate emf.
Current through shutn field winding
Ish I = 450A
Ia
50 G 230V
230
is Ish = = 4.6A
50
Armature current Ia = I + Ish
= 450 + 4.6 = 454.6A
Armature voltage drop
IaRa = 454.6 * 0.03 = 13.6V
Eg. = Terminal voltage + Armature drop
Eg. = 230 + 13.6 = 243.6V
2. An 8 pole dc shunt generator with 778 wave-connected armature condcutors and

running at 500 r.p.m. Supplies a load of 12.5 resistance at terminal voltage of 50V.
The armature resistance is 0.24 and the field resistance is 250. Find the armature
current, the induced emf and flux/pole.
V 250
Load current =  = 20A
R 12.5
250
Shunt current = = 1A
250
DC Generators 4.49
IA 20A
Ia
G 250V
12.5
Armature current = 20 + 1 = 21A

Induced emf = 250 + (21 * 0.24)
= 255.04V
 ZN   P   *778*500 ZN  8 
Eg. =    255.4   
60 A  6  60 2
 = 9.83mb
3. A separately excited generator, when running at 100 rpm supplied 200A at 125V.
What will be the load current when the speed drops to 800 rpm if IF is unchanged?
Given the the armature resistance = 0.04 and brush drop = 2V.
Eg R 125V
125
The load resistance R = = 0.625
200
Eg1 = 125 + 200 * 0.04 + 2
Eg = 135V
N1 = 1000 rpm.
135*800
At 800 rpm, Eg2 = = 108V
1000
If I ist he new load current, then terminal voltage ‘V’ is given by
V = 108 - 0.04 I - 2= 106 - 0.04I
V 106  0.4 I
I=  = 159.4 Amps
R 0.625
4. A long-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50A at 500V and has
armature, serieds field and shunt field resistances of 0.05, 0.03 and 250
respectively. Calcualte the generated voltage and the armature current - Alllow IV/
bruch for contact drop.
Ish=2A I=20A
0.03
Ia
500V
G 0.05
From Circuit
500
Ish = = 2A
250
Current through armature and series winding is = 50 + 2 = 52A
Voltage drop in series field winding = 52 * 0.03 = 1.56V
Armature voltage drop Ia Ra = 52 * 0.05 = 2.6V
Drop at bruches,
Eg. = V + Ia Ra + Series drop * brush drop
= 500 + 2.6 + 1.56 + 2 == 506.16 volts
DC Generators 4.51
5. A short shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 30A at 220V, and has
armature, series field and shunt field resistances of 0.05, 0.30 and 200
respectively. Calculate the induced emf and the armature current. Allow 1.9/brush
for contact drop.
30A I=20A
0.3
Ish
220V
200
Voltage drop in series winding = 30 * 0.3 = 9V

Voltage across shunt winding = 220 + 9 = 229V
229
Ish = = 1.45A
200
Ia = 30 + 1.45 = 41.145A
Ia Ra = 31.145 * 0.05 = 1.56V
Brush drop = 2 * 1 = 2V
Eg = V + Series drop * brush drop + Ia Ra
220 + 9 + 2 + 1.55 = 232.56V
7. A 4 pole, long-shunt lap wound generator supplies 25KW at a terminal voltage of

400V. The armature resistance is 0.03, series field resistance is 0.04 and shunt
field resistance is 200. The brush drop may be taken as 1.0V. Determine the emf
induced. Calcualte also the no. of conductors if the speed is 1200 rpm and flux/pole
is 0.02.
I=50A
0.04
200 500V
Neglect armature reaction.
25000
I= = 50A
500
500
Ish = = 2.5A
200
Ia = I + Ish
= 50 + 2.5 = 52.5A
Series field drop = 52.5 * 0.04 = 2.1V
Armature drop = 52.5 * 0.03 = 1.575V
Brush drop = 2 * 1 = 2V
General emf Eg = 500 + 2.1 + 1.575 + 2
= 505.67V
 ZN  P 
Eg =  
60  A 
0.02 * Z *1200  4 
505.67 =   ; Z  1264
60 4
7. A 4- pole, lap wound, dc-shunt generator has a useful flux/pole of 0.07wb. The
armature winding consists of 220 turns each of 0.004 resistance. Calculate the
terminal voltage when running at 900 r.p.m.If the armature current 50A.
 Each turn has two sides,
Z = 220 x 2 = 440 ; N = 900 rpm ;  = 0.07wb
P=A= 4
 ZN  P  0.07 * 440*900  4 
 Eg = 60  A   60
 
  4
= 462 volts
DC Generators 4.53
Total resistance of 220 turns (or) 440 conductors = 220 * 0.004
= 0.88
 There are 4 parallel paths in armature,
0.88
 Resistance of each path = = 0.22
4
Now, there are four such resistances in parallel each of value 0.22
0.22
 Armature resistance, Ra = = 0.055
4
Armature drop = Ia Ra = 50 * 0.055 = 2.75
Now, terminal voltage, V = Eg - Ia Ra = 462 - 2.75
= 459.25 volts
8. A 4-pole, lap-wound, long shunt, d.c. compound generator has useful flux/pole of
0.07wb. The armature winding consists of 220 turns and the resisntace/turns is
0.004. Calculate the terminal voltage if the resistance of shunt and series field are
100 respectively. When the generator is running at 900 rpm with armture current
of 50A. Also calcualte the power output in kw for the genertor.
0.055
100A
100 V
 Each turn has two sides Z = 220 x 2 = 440 Total Resistahnce of 220 turns (or 440
conductors)
= 220 * 0.004 = 0.88
 There are 4 parallel; paths in armature
0.88
 Resistance of each path = = 0.22
4
Now, there are foud such resistances in parallel each of value 0.22
0.22
 Armature Resistance, Ra = = 0.055
4
Armature circuit Resisance = Ra + Rse = 0.055 + 0.02 = 0.075
Armature circuit drop = 50 * 0.075 = 3.75V
458.25
V = 462 - 3.75 = 458.25V Ish = = 4.58A
100
I = 50 - 4.58 = 45.42A
Output VI = 458.25 * 45.42 = 20,814W = 20.814Kw.
9. A 10KW, 250V, d.c. 6-pole shunt generator runs at 1000rpm when deliverying full-
load. The armature has 534 lap-connected conductor. Full load cu.loss is 0.64kw.
The total brush drop is 1 volt. Determine the flux/pole. Neglect shutn current.
Note :  Shunt current is negligible, there is noshunt cu.loss. The copper loss occurs in
armature only.
10000
I = IA = = 40A
250
IA2 Ra = Armature cu.loss
(or)
402 Ra = 0.64 * 103
0.64*103
Ra = = 0.4
402
Ia Ra drop = 0.4 * 40 = 16V
Brush dop = 2 x 1 = 2V
 Generated EMG,, Eg.= 250 + 16 + 1 = 267V.
 ZN  P   *534*1000  6 
Eg =    267   
60  A  60 6
  = 30 * 10-3 wb = 30mwb.
DC Generators 4.55
LOSS EFFICIENCY PROBLEMS :
1. A shunt generator delivers 195A at terminal potential difference of 250V. The
armature resistance and shunt field resistance are 0.02 and 50 respectively. The
iron and friction losses equal 950W.
Find.
(a) EMF generalted (b) Cu.loss (c) Output of the prime moveer (d) Commercial,
Mechanical and Electrical efficiencies.
250
(a) I sh = = 5A ; Ia = 195 + 5 = 200A.
50
Armature voltage drop = Ia Ra = 200 * 0.02 = 4V.
 Generated emf = 250 + 4 = 254V..
(b) Armature Cu.loss = Ia2 Ra = (200)2 * 0.02 = 800W
Shunt cu.loss = V.Ish = 250 * 5 = 1250W
 Total cu.loss = 1250 + 800 = 2050W
(c) Stray Losses = 950W
Total Losses = 2050 + 950 = 3000V
Output = 250 * 195 = 48,750W ; Input = 48,750 + 3000 = 51750V
 Output of prime over = 51,750W
(d) Generator i/p - 51,750W
Stray Losses = 950W
Electrical Power Produced in armature = 51,750 - 950 = 50,800V
51800
% mech = * 100 = 98.2%
51750
Electrical or cu.losses
48750
 elec = * 100 = 95.9%
48750  2050
48750
ncomm = * 100 = 94.2%
51750
2. A shunt generator has a F.L current of 196A at 220V. The stray losses 720W and
shunt field coil resistance is 55W. If it has a F.L effficiency of 88%, Find the armature
resistance. Also, find the load current corresponding to maximum efficiency.
Output = 220 * 196 = 43,120W
n = 88% (Overall efficiency)
43120
Electrical i/p = = 49,000@
0.88
Total losses = 49,000 - 43,120 = 5880W.
220
Shunt field current = = 4A
55
 Ia = 196 + 4 = 200A
 Shut cu.loss = 220 * 4 = 88-W
Stray losses = 720W
Constant losses = 880 + 720 = 1600W
 Armature cu.loss = 5,880 - 1600 = 4,280W
 Ia2 a = 4,280W
Ia = 200A
2002 Ra = 4,280
4280
Ra = = 0.107
(200)2
For max efficiency
I2 Ra = constant losses = 1600W
1600 1600
I2 = 
Ra 0.107
1600
 I= = 122.2 Volts
0.107
DC Generators 4.57
3. A 4-pole d.c generator deliverying 20A to a load of 10. If the armature resistance
is 0.5W and the shunt field resistance if 50W. Calcualate the induced e.m.f. and the
efficiency of the machine. Allow a drop of iv/brush.
4A 20A
50 220V 10
Terminal voltage = 20 * 10 = 20V
200
Ish = = 4A
50
Ia = 20+4 = 24A
Ia Ra = 24 * 0.5 = 12V
Brus drop = 2 * 1 = 2V
 Eg = 200 + 12 + 2 = 214V
 Iron & Friction losses are not given only electrical efficiency of the machine can be
found out.
Total power generated in the armature.
= 214 * 24 = 5,136 watts
Useful output = 200 * 20 = 40,000W
4000
  =0.779
5136
  = 0.779 * 100 = 77.9%
4. A long-shunt compound-wound generator gives 240 volts at F.L. output of 100A.

The resistance of various windings of themachine are ; armature (including brush
contact) 0.1 series field 0.02, interpole field 0.025, shunt field (including
Regulating resistance) 100. The iron loss at F.L. is 1000W, windaga & friction
losses total 500W. Calculate F.L. efficiency of the machine.
Output = 240 * 100 = 24000W
Total armture circuit resistance = 0.1 + 0.02 + 0l025
= 0.145
240
Ish = = 2.4A
100
 Ia = 100 + 2.4 = 102.4A
 Armature circuit cu.loss = [102.4]2 * 0.145
= 1,521W
Shunt field cu.loss = 2.4 * 240 = 576W
Iron loss = 1000W ; Friction loss = 500W
Total loss = 1,521 + 1500 + 576 = 3,597
24000
%= * 100 = 87%
24000  3597
5. A wave wound, 6 pole, long shunt compound dc generator has 600 armture
conductors. The generator is driven at 300 rpm. Calculate the emf generated if the
flux/pole is 0.060wb. If now, the generator is required to produce emf of 550V at a
reduce value of flux/pole of 0.055wb. Calculate the speed at which the connective of
the generator must be driven.
P = 6, Z = 600 ; N1 = 300 rpm, 1 = 0.06wb, wave wound
 1PN 1Z
Eg1 =
60 A
0.06* 6*300 *600
=  540V
60 A
New value of flux f2 = 0.055wb & Eg2 = 550V
 2 PN 2 Z
Eg2 =
60 A
0.055* 6* N 2 *6.0
550 =
60 * 2
N2 = 333.33 rpm
It can be observed that to increased the generated emf with reduced flux, the speed must
be increased.
DC Generators 4.59
TWO MARKS
UNIT IV –DC GENERATORS
1. What is a DC generator?
A DC generator is an electromechanical device which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
2. What is the principle of DC generator?
When the armature conductor cuts the magnetic flux, emf is induced in the conductor.
3. Classify the two types of DC machines.
DC machines can be classified into two types.
 DC generator
 DC motor
4. State the law of conservation of energy.
According to the law of conservation of energy, “Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another form”.
5. State Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction.
It states that “whenever the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an emf is
always induced in it”.
6. State Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
The thumb, forefinger & middle finger of right hand are held so that these fingers are
mutually perpendicular to each other, then forefinger gives the direction of the lines
of flux, thumb gives the direction of the relative motion of conductor and middle
finger gives the direction of the emf induced.
7. How will you find the direction of force produced using Fleming’s Left Hand
Rule?
The thumb, forefinger & middle finger of left hand are held so that these fingers are
mutually perpendicular to each other, then forefinger gives the direction of magnetic
field, middle finger givesthe direction of the current and thumb gives the direction
of the force experienced by the conductor.
8. What is the purpose of Commutator? (N/D-2006)
Commutator is used to convert the alternating emf (AC) generated in the armature
winding into direct voltage (DC).
9. The outer frame of a DC machine serves double purposes, what are they?
 It acts as a mechanical support for the machine
 Magnetic circuit is formed through the core
10. List the main constituents of stator of DC machine.
 Stator
 Rotor
Stator parts:
1. Yoke
2. Pole core
3. Pole shoe
4. Field coils
Rotor parts:
1. Armature
2. Commutator
3. Brushes
11. What is the purpose of yoke in DC machine?(A/M-2003)
 It acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine and provides mechanical support
for the poles.
 It carries magnetic flux produced by the poles.
12. Express the emf equation of DC generator. (N/D-2003, 13) (A/M-2005)
EMF generated in DC generator
Where
-Flux/pole in Weber
Z- Total number of armature conductors
P- Number of poles
DC Generators 4.61
N- Speed in rpm
A-Number of parallel paths
13. What are the different methods of excitation of DC generator?
Depending upon the source from which the exciting current the DC machines is classified
into two types.
 Separately excited Dc generator
 Self-excited Dc generator
o Series generator
o Shunt generator
 Compound generator
o Long shunt Compound generator
o Short shunt Compound generator.
14. Distinguish between shunt and series field coil construction in DC machine.
SHUNT FIELD SERIES FIELD
Field winding is connected across the Field winding is connected in series with
armature the armature.
It has more number of turns of thin It has less number of turns of thick wire
wire
It has high resistance. It has low resistance.
15. What is a DC compound generator?

Compound generator is one of the self-excited DC generators. In that, there are two field
windings, one of them is connected across the armature and other is connected in series
with the armaturewinding.
16. List the conditions of self-excitation of DC generator.
There must be a sufficient residual flux in the field poles.
 The field terminals must be connected in such a way that the field current increases
flux in the direction of residual flux.
 The field circuit resistance should be less than the critical field resistance.
 The generator should run at the rated speed.
17. State the conditions under which a DC shunt generator fails to excite. (A/M-2017)
 There may not be any residual magnetism in the field system.
 The field winding connection may be such that it may not assist the voltage to get
build up.
 The total field circuit resistance is more than the critical field resistance.
 The break or opening in the field or armature circuit.
18. Define critical field resistance of DC shunt generator.
Critical field resistance is defined as the resistance of the field circuit which will cause
the shunt generator just to build up its emf at a specified field.
19. Compare lap winding and wave windings used for DC machine armature.
(A/M-2014)
LAP WINDING WAVE WINDING
It is suitable for high current, It is suitable for high voltage,
low voltage generator. low current generator.
Number of parallel paths A=P Number of parallel paths A=2
20. Whatare the functions of inter-poles and how are the inter-poles windings connected?
(A/M-2010)
 The inter-poles or commutator poles are narrow poles fixed to the yoke, midway
between the main field poles.
 The function of inter-poles is to improve commutation.
 The inter-poles have exciting coils, so it carries full armature current and used to
reduce the resistance.
21. Mention the application of a differentially compound generator.
It is a constant current generator and finds a useful application as an arc welding generator
where the generator is practically short-circuited every time the electrode touches the
metal plates to be welded.
22. Define commutation. (A/M-2012), (N/D-2012), (A/M-2009)
The process of reversal of current in the armature coils by means of brushes and
commutator bars is called commutation.
DC Generators 4.63
23. Differentiate self and separately excited DC generators.
SELF EXCITED SEPERATELY EXCITED DC
DC GENERATOR GENERATOR
The field winding is excited by an The field winding is excited by separate
emf induced in the armature conductors. Dc source.
24. Give the circuit model for DC shunt generator and write down the current and
voltage equation. (N/D – 2010)
Ia=IL+Ish
Eg= V+IaRa+Brush drop
V=Eg-IaRa- Brush drop
Where,
= Armature current (ampere)
= Load current (ampere)
= Shunt field current (ampere)
= Generated emf (volts)
Supply voltage (volts)
= Armature resistance (ohm)
25. What are the causes for drop in terminal voltage?
Eg= V+IaRa+Brush drop
V=Eg-IaRa- Brush drop
Where,
= armature current (amps)
= load current (amps)
= shunt field current (amps)
= generated emf (volts)
supply voltage (volts)
= armature resistance (ohm)
i. Armature circuit resistance drop

ii. Brush contact drop
iii. Demagnetizing effect of armature reaction
iv. Weakening of field current
26. What is the function of carbon brush used in DC generators?
The function of the carbon brush is to collect current from commutator and supply to
external load circuit and to load.
27. Why is the emf not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in dc generator?
Even after the field current is reduced to zero, the machine is left out with some flux as
residue soemf is available due to residual flux.
28. On what occasion DC generator may not have residual flux?
The generator may be put for its operation after its construction, in previous operation;
the generator would have been fully demagnetized.
29. Name any two application of DC series generator.
 Booster
 Constant illumination
 Constant current source
30. What are the factors on which hysteresis loss depends on?
It depends on magnetic flux density, frequency & volume of the material.
31. What is core loss? What is its significance in electric machines?
 When a magnetic material undergoes cyclic magnetization, two kinds of power
losses occur on it.
 Hysteresis and eddy current losses are called as core loss.
 It is important in determining heating, temperature rise, rating & efficiency of
transformers, machines & other AC run magnetic devices.
32. What is eddy current loss?
 When a magnetic core carries a time varying flux, voltages are induced in all possible
path enclosing flux. Resulting is the production of circulating flux in core.
 These circulating current do no useful work are known as eddy current and have
power loss known as eddy current loss.
DC Generators 4.65
33. How hysteresis and eddy current losses are minimized?
Hysteresis loss can be minimized by selecting materials for core such as silicon steel &
steel alloys with low hysteresis co-efficient and electrical resistivity. Eddy current losses
are minimized by laminating the core.
34. How does DC motor differ from DC generator in construction?
 Generators are normally placed in closed room and accessed by skilled operators
only. Therefore on ventilation point of view they may be constructed with large
opening in the frame.
 Motors have to be installed right in the place of use which may have dust, dampness,
inflammable gases, chemical etc. to protect the motors against these elements the
motor frames are used partially closed or totally closed or flame proof.
35. Define armature reaction in DC machines.What are its effects? (N/D-05, 09,11, A/
M-10,13)
The interaction between the main flux and armature flux cause disturbance is called as
armature reaction.
36. What are two unwanted effects of armature reactions?
 Cross magnetizing effect
 Demagnetizing effect
37. State the methods of improving commutation. (A/M-2005, 2006)
1. Resistance commutation.
2. Giving a brush shift.
3. Use of inter-poles.
38. Define critical speed.
The speed for which the given field resistance acts as critical resistance is called the
critical speed,denoted as NC.
39. Why DC generators are operated in parallel?
 Continuity and reliability of service without interruption.
 Ease from maintenance and repair point of view.
 Operating each generator efficiently.
 Increase in plant capacity.
40. What are the conditions for parallel operation of DC generator? (A/M-2007, N/D-
2008)
 The voltages of both generators must be equal.
 The polarities of the generators must be same or the connections must be interchanged
till they become same.
 The change of voltage with change of load should be of same character.
 The prime movers driving the generators should have stable and similar rotational
speed characteristics.
41. Define pole pitch.
It is the distance measured in terms of number of armature slots (or armature conductors)
per pole.
42. Define back pitch.
It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the two sides of a
coil at the back of the armature.
43. Define front pitch.
It is the distance measured in terms of armature conductors between the coil sides attached
to any one commutator segment.
44. Define commutator pitch. (N/D2005)
The commutator pitch is the number of commutator segments spanned by each coil of
the winding. It is denoted by YC.
45. What is meant by reactance voltage?(A/M-2012)
An armature coil has certain self-inductance. When coil undergoes commutation, there
is change in current (di) in that coil and the commutation takes certain time (dt). Thus
there is self-induced emf in a coil undergoing commutation given by L(di/dt). This emf
induced in the coil undergoing commutation is called reactance voltage.
46. Why the external characteristics of DC shunt generator is more drooping than that
of a separately excited generator? (A/M-2014)
In separately excited generator, Ia= IL and , Ish is not supplied by armature. In DC shunt
generator, Ia = IL + Ish hence the drop Ia Ra is more than in separately excited generator.
Hence the external characteristics of DC shunt generator are more drooping than that of
a separately excited generator.
47. What is meant by armature reaction? (A/M-2017)
Armature reaction means the effect of mmf set up by the armature current under main
poles of a DC machine
(or)
The armature reaction is defined as the interaction between mmf set by armature and
mmf set by field.
DC Generators 4.67
48. What is meant by armature reaction? (A/M-2017)
 Chamfering the pole shoes
 Providing compensating winding
 Alternating cross – section of poles
 Introducing saturation
49. What are the arrangements to be done for satisfactory parallel operation of DC
series generator?
 Equalizer bar is connected between the generators.
50. What is the use of equalizer bar connections?
Equalizer connections are in the form of thick copper rings at the back of the armature so
as to minimize (or) reduce (or) nullify the variations in current flowing through the
brushes.
51. What is the function of compensating winding in DC machine? (May – 2006)
 Compensating winding is mainly used to decrease the effect of armature reaction.
52. What is meant by resistance commutation?
 This method of improving commutation is by replacing the low resistance copper
brushes with high resistance carbon brushes.
53. Mention some applications of DC Generator.
1. Separately excited DC generator
a. Electro plating of material
b. Electro refining of material
2. Shunt DC Generator
a. Battery Charging
b. Lighting Purpose
3. Series DC Generator
a. Boosters
b. Welding generator
c. Arc Lamp
4. Cumulative Compound DC generator
a. Domestic Lighting purpose
b. Transmit energy over long distance
5. Differential Compound DC generator
a. Used in very rare applications like electric arc welding
QUESTION BANK
UNIT IV
PART - A
1. What is the function of carbon brush used in DC generator?
2. Distinguish between lap winding and wave winding used in dc machine.
3. Write the number of parallel paths in a lap and wave connected windings
4. Name the three things required for the generation of emf.
5. What is meant by self excited and separately excited dc generator?
6. What is the basic difference between dc generator and dc motor?
7. Write down the emf equation of dc generator. Give the meaning of each symbol
8. What is pole pitch?
9. How can the voltage in a DC generator be increased?
10. What is critical resistance of a DC shunt generator?
11. What are the conditions to be fulfilled for a shunt generator to build up voltage?
12. What do you mean by residual flux in DC generator?
13. A DC generator fails to self excite. List the cause for the failure for the failure.
14. What are open circuit characteristics of DC shunt generator?
15. How can one differentiate between long shunt compound generator and short shunt
compound generator?
16. Why is the emf not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in a dc generator?
17. Define the term ‘critical speed’ in dc shunt generator.
18. On what occasions dc generators may not have residual flux?
19. How the critical field resistance of a dc shunt generator is estimated from its OCC?
20. Define the term armature reaction in dc machines.
21. What are the two unwanted effects of armature reaction?
22. Differentiate between geometric neutral axis (GNA) and magnetic neutral axis (MNA).
23. In which part of the dc machine is the compensating winding situated?
24. What are the various types of commutation?
DC Generators 4.69
25. Name the two methods of improving commutation.
26. What is reactance emf in dc machine?
27. Define the term commutation in dc machines.
28. How and why the compensating winding in dc machine excited?
29. How is the interpole winding in dc machine excited?
30. To what polarity are the interpoles excited in dc generators?
31. Why are carbon brushes preferred for dc machines?
PART – B
1. Draw and explain various characteristics of DC shunt generator.
2. (a) Explain the construction and working of DC generator in detail.
(b) Explain the process of commutation in step by step.
3. (a) With neat sketch, discuss the constructional details of a DC generator explaining
the functions of each part.
(b) Derive the expression for generated emf in a generator.
4. (a) Explain the process of commutation in a DC generator.
(b) Draw the no load and load characteristics of a DC shunt generator and explain.
5. A 4 pole DC shunt generator, with a shunt field resistance of 100&! and an armature
resistance of 1&! has 378 wave connected conductors in its armature. The flux per
pole is 0.02 Wb. If a load resistance of 10&! is connected across the armature
terminals and the generator is driven at 1000 rpm, calculate the power absorbed by
load.
6. (a) Draw the load characteristics of DC compound generator and explain.
(b) Explain any one method of improving commutation in DC generator.
7. (a) Draw and explain the following characteristics of DC generator:
(i) No load and load characteristics, (ii) External and internal characteristics.
(b) Draw a neat sketch of a DC machine and mark all parts.
8. (a) What do you understand by armature reaction? And show how cross magnetising
and demagnetising mmf’s are produced?
(b) Explain what you understand by lap and wave winding.
9. (a) Explain the speed-current, torque-current and speed-torque characteristics of a
DC series motor.
(b) Derive the emf equation of a DC generator.
10. Explain in detail about the armature reaction in a DC machine and discuss the effect of
armature reaction can be neutralised.
11. Draw and explain the load characteristics of DC shunt, series and compound generators.
12. (a) A short shunt DC compound generator supplies 200 A at 100 V. The resistance of
armature, series field and shunt field windings 0.04, 0.03 and 60 ohms respectively.
Find the emf generated. Also find the emf generated if same machine is connected
as a long shunt machine.
13. (a) A shunt generator delivers 450 A at 230 V. The resistance of the shunt field and the
armature are 50 and 0.03 respectively. Calculate the generated emf.
(b) Derive the emf equation of a generator.
14. (a) Briefly explain the load characteristics of different types of compound generator.
(b) A 4 pole lap connected DC machine has 520 armature conductors. If the flux per
pole is 0.03 Wb and runs at 1500 rpm, determine the emf generated. If this machine
is driven as a shunt generator, with the same field flux and speed, calculate the
terminal voltage when it supplies a load resistance of 40. Given: Armature resistance
is 2 and shunt field circuit resistance as 450. Also find the load current.

Rotating Machines and Transformers Unit 2 DC GENERATOR CLASS NOTES

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UNIT - IV

Basic Principle of DCGenerator and Energy Conversion

The DC machine (DC generator or DC motor) has the following parts.

 At position 1, the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of lines of

Number of coils = Number of commutator segments

Coil Span or Coil Pitch (YS)

Back Pitch (YB)

Front Pitch (YF)

Closed and open windings:

Difference between lap and wave winding:

Hence average emf induced in the conductor is,

All conductors per parallel path are in series.

The number of parallel paths depends on type of armature windings,

LAP WAVE WINDING

Self- Excited Generators

Methods of Improving Commutation

 Improving commutation means to make current reversal in the short-circuitedcoil as

(i) Resistance Commutation

(ii) E.M.F. Commutation

 In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by

b) By using Interpoles or Compoles:

Calculation of Reactance Voltage

armature conductors is where A is the number of parallel paths.

= Current in each armature conductor

If Ia/A is the current through each armature conductor, then,

These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

Characteristics of DC Series Generator

External Characteristics of DC Compound

Generator types and diagrams

Internal and External characteristics

(ii) Self-excited D.C.Generators a). D.C. series Generator

b). D.C. Shunt Generator

shunt compound generator Short shunt compound generator

Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators

2. An 8 pole dc shunt generator with 778 wave-connected armature condcutors and

Armature current = 20 + 1 = 21A

Voltage drop in series winding = 30 * 0.3 = 9V

7. A 4 pole, long-shunt lap wound generator supplies 25KW at a terminal voltage of

Neglect armature reaction.

50 220V 10

Terminal voltage = 20 * 10 = 20V

4. A long-shunt compound-wound generator gives 240 volts at F.L. output of 100A.

15. What is a DC compound generator?

i. Armature circuit resistance drop

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