Introduction to Soft Computing

Soft computing (SC) is a branch, in which, it is tried to build intelligent and

wiser machines. Intelligence provides the power to derive the answer and not
simply arrive to the answer. Purity of thinking, machine intelligence,
freedom to work, dimensions, complexity and fuzziness handling capability
increase, as we go higher and higher in the hierarchy as shown in Fig. 1.1. The
final aim is to develop a computer or a machine which will work in a similar
way as human beings can do, i.e. the wisdom of human beings can be
replicated in computers in some artificial manner.

Intuitive consciousness/wisdom is also one of the important area in the soft

computing, which is always cultivated by meditation. This is indeed, an
extraordinary challenge and virtually a new phenomenon, to include
consciousness into the computers.

Soft computing is an emerging collection of methodologies, which aim to

exploit tolerance for imprecision, uncertainty, and partial truth to achieve
robustness, tractability and total low cost. Soft computing methodologies
have been advantageous in many applications. In contrast to analytical
methods, soft computing methodologies mimic consciousness and cognition
in several important respects: they can learn from experience; they can
universalize into domains where direct experience is absent; and, through
parallel computer architectures that simulate biological processes, they can
perform mapping from inputs to the outputs faster than inherently serial
analytical representations. The trade off, however, is a decrease in accuracy.
If a tendency towards imprecision could be tolerated, then it should be
possible to extend the scope of the applications even to those problems where
the analytical and mathematical representations are readily available. The
motivation for such an extension is the expected decrease in computational
load and consequent increase of computation speeds that permit more robust
system
What is Artificial Neural Network?
Artificial Neural Network ANNANN is an efficient computing system whose central
theme is borrowed from the analogy of biological neural networks. ANNs are also
named as “artificial neural systems,” or “parallel distributed processing systems,” or
“connectionist systems.” ANN acquires a large collection of units that are
interconnected in some pattern to allow communication between the units. These
units, also referred to as nodes or neurons, are simple processors which operate in
parallel.
Every neuron is connected with other neuron through a connection link. Each
connection link is associated with a weight that has information about the input signal.
This is the most useful information for neurons to solve a particular problem because
the weight usually excites or inhibits the signal that is being communicated. Each
neuron has an internal state, which is called an activation signal. Output signals,
which are produced after combining the input signals and activation rule, may be sent
to other units.

A Brief History of ANN

The history of ANN can be divided into the following three eras −
ANN during 1940s to 1960s
Some key developments of this era are as follows −
• 1943 − It has been assumed that the concept of neural network started with
the work of physiologist, Warren McCulloch, and mathematician, Walter Pitts,
when in 1943 they modeled a simple neural network using electrical circuits in
order to describe how neurons in the brain might work.
• 1949 − Donald Hebb’s book, The Organization of Behavior, put forth the fact
that repeated activation of one neuron by another increases its strength each
time they are used.
• 1956 − An associative memory network was introduced by Taylor.
• 1958 − A learning method for McCulloch and Pitts neuron model named
Perceptron was invented by Rosenblatt.
• 1960 − Bernard Widrow and Marcian Hoff developed models called "ADALINE"
and “MADALINE.”
ANN during 1960s to 1980s
Some key developments of this era are as follows −
• 1961 − Rosenblatt made an unsuccessful attempt but proposed the
“backpropagation” scheme for multilayer networks.
• 1964 − Taylor constructed a winner-take-all circuit with inhibitions among
output units.

• 1969 − Multilayer perceptron MLPMLP was invented by Minsky and Papert.

• 1971 − Kohonen developed Associative memories.
 • 1976 − Stephen Grossberg and Gail Carpenter developed Adaptive resonance
theory.
ANN from 1980s till Present
Some key developments of this era are as follows −
• 1982 − The major development was Hopfield’s Energy approach.
• 1985 − Boltzmann machine was developed by Ackley, Hinton, and Sejnowski.
• 1986 − Rumelhart, Hinton, and Williams introduced Generalised Delta Rule.

• 1988 − Kosko developed Binary Associative Memory BAMBAM and also gave
the concept of Fuzzy Logic in ANN.
The historical review shows that significant progress has been made in this field.
Neural network based chips are emerging and applications to complex problems are
being developed. Surely, today is a period of transition for neural network technology.

Biological Neuron
A nerve cell neuronneuron is a special biological cell that processes information.
According to an estimation, there are huge number of neurons, approximately
1011 with numerous interconnections, approximately 1015.
Schematic Diagram

Working of a Biological Neuron

As shown in the above diagram, a typical neuron consists of the following four parts
with the help of which we can explain its working −
• Dendrites − They are tree-like branches, responsible for receiving the
information from other neurons it is connected to. In other sense, we can say
that they are like the ears of neuron.
• Soma − It is the cell body of the neuron and is responsible for processing of
information, they have received from dendrites.
• Axon − It is just like a cable through which neurons send the information.
• Synapses − It is the connection between the axon and other neuron dendrites.
ANN versus BNN
Before taking a look at the differences between Artificial Neural
Network ANNANN and Biological Neural Network BNNBNN, let us take a look at the
similarities based on the terminology between these two.
Biological Neural Network BNNBNN Artificial Neural Network ANNANN

Soma Node

Dendrites Input

Synapse Weights or Interconnections

Axon Output

The following table shows the comparison between ANN and BNN based on some
criteria mentioned.

Criteria BNN

Processing Massively parallel, Massively parallel, fast but inferior than BNN
slow but superior
than ANN

Size 1011 neurons and 102 to

1015 interconnections 104 nodes mainlydependsonthetypeofapplicationandnet

Learning They can tolerate Very precise, structured and formatted data is required to tolerate am
ambiguity

Fault Performance It is capable of robust performance, hence has the potential to be fau
tolerance degrades with even
partial damage

Storage Stores the Stores the information in continuous memory locations

capacity information in the
synapse

Model of Artificial Neural Network

The following diagram represents the general model of ANN followed by its
processing.
For the above general model of artificial neural network, the net input can be
calculated as follows −
yin=x1.w1+x2.w2+x3.w3…xm.wmyin=x1.w1+x2.w2+x3.w3…xm.wm
i.e., Net input yin=∑mixi.wiyin=∑imxi.wi
The output can be calculated by applying the activation function over the net input.
Y=F(yin)Y=F(yin)
Output = function netinputcalculated
What is Fuzzy Logic?
Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning. The
approach of FL imitates the way of decision making in humans that involves all
intermediate possibilities between digital values YES and NO.
The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise input and
produces a definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent to human’s YES
or NO.
The inventor of fuzzy logic, Lotfi Zadeh, observed that unlike computers, the human
decision making includes a range of possibilities between YES and NO, such as −
CERTAINLY YES

POSSIBLY YES

CANNOT SAY

POSSIBLY NO

CERTAINLY NO

The fuzzy logic works on the levels of possibilities of input to achieve the definite
output.
Implementation
• It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging
from small micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control
systems.
• It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both.

Why Fuzzy Logic?

Fuzzy logic is useful for commercial and practical purposes.

• It can control machines and consumer products.

• It may not give accurate reasoning, but acceptable reasoning.
• Fuzzy logic helps to deal with the uncertainty in engineering.

Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture

It has four main parts as shown −
• Fuzzification Module − It transforms the system inputs, which are crisp
numbers, into fuzzy sets. It splits the input signal into five steps such as −

LP x is Large Positive

MP x is Medium Positive
 S x is Small

MN x is Medium Negative

LN x is Large Negative

• Knowledge Base − It stores IF-THEN rules provided by experts.

• Inference Engine − It simulates the human reasoning process by making
fuzzy inference on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.
• Defuzzification Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the inference
engine into a crisp value.

The membership functions work on fuzzy sets of variables.

Membership Function
Membership functions allow you to quantify linguistic term and represent a fuzzy set
graphically. A membership function for a fuzzy set A on the universe of discourse
X is defined as μA:X → [0,1].
Here, each element of X is mapped to a value between 0 and 1. It is
called membership value or degree of membership. It quantifies the degree of
membership of the element in X to the fuzzy set A.

• x axis represents the universe of discourse.

• y axis represents the degrees of membership in the [0, 1] interval.
There can be multiple membership functions applicable to fuzzify a numerical value.
Simple membership functions are used as use of complex functions does not add
more precision in the output.
All membership functions for LP, MP, S, MN, and LN are shown as below −
The triangular membership function shapes are most common among various other
membership function shapes such as trapezoidal, singleton, and Gaussian.
Here, the input to 5-level fuzzifier varies from -10 volts to +10 volts. Hence the
corresponding output also changes.

Example of a Fuzzy Logic System

Let us consider an air conditioning system with 5-level fuzzy logic system. This
system adjusts the temperature of air conditioner by comparing the room temperature
and the target temperature value.
Application Areas of Fuzzy Logic
The key application areas of fuzzy logic are as given −
Automotive Systems

• Automatic Gearboxes
• Four-Wheel Steering
• Vehicle environment control
Consumer Electronic Goods

• Hi-Fi Systems
• Photocopiers
• Still and Video Cameras
• Television
Domestic Goods

• Microwave Ovens
• Refrigerators
• Toasters
• Vacuum Cleaners
• Washing Machines
Environment Control

• Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters
• Humidifiers

Advantages of FLSs
• Mathematical concepts within fuzzy reasoning are very simple.
• You can modify a FLS by just adding or deleting rules due to flexibility of fuzzy
logic.
• Fuzzy logic Systems can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input information.
• FLSs are easy to construct and understand.
• Fuzzy logic is a solution to complex problems in all fields of life, including
medicine, as it resembles human reasoning and decision making.

Disadvantages of FLSs
• There is no systematic approach to fuzzy system designing.
• They are understandable only when simple.
• They are suitable for the problems which do not need high accuracy.
Fuzzy set:
1. Fuzzy set is a set having degrees of membership between 1 and 0. Fuzzy
sets are represented with tilde character (~). For example, Number of cars
following traffic signals at a particular time out of all cars present will have
membership value between [0,1].
2. Partial membership exists when member of one fuzzy set can also be a part
of other fuzzy sets in the same universe.
3. The degree of membership or truth is not same as probability, fuzzy truth
represents membership in vaguely defined sets.
4. A fuzzy set A~ in the universe of discourse, U, can be defined as a set of
ordered pairs and it is given by

5. When the universe of discourse, U, is discrete and finite, fuzzy set A~ is

given by

where “n” is a finite value.

6. Fuzzy sets also satisfy every property of classical sets.
7. Common Operations on fuzzy sets: Given two Fuzzy sets A~ and B~
• Union : Fuzzy set C~ is union of Fuzzy sets A~ and B~ :

• Intersection: Fuzzy set D~ is intersection of Fuzzy sets A~ and B~ :

• Complement: Fuzzy set E~ is complement of Fuzzy set A~ :

8. Some other useful operations on Fuzzy set:

• Algebraic sum:

• Algebraic product:
• Bounded sum:

• Bounded difference: