DOC-20200116-WA0002 - Copy3

SIWES TECHNICAL REPORT
A TECHNICAL REPORT ON
STUDENT INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE
SCHEME (S.I.W.E.S)
UNDERTAKEN AT
MECHANICAL AND TRANSPORT DIVISION OF

ESTATE DEPARTMENT
RANSOM-KUTI ROAD, UNIVERSITY OF BENIN,
BENIN CITY
BY
ONYIBE FABIAN ANDREW

ENG1506561
DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION/INDUSTRIAL
ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD

OF
BACHELORS OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) IN
PRODUCTION/INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
FROM
AUGUST 2019 TO JANAURY 2020
ABTRACT
This industrial training report presents the experience gathered during
my 6 months of industrial training undertaken at Mechanical and
Transport Division of Estate Department at Ransom Kuti road,
University of Benin, Benin city.
My training was on welding and fabrication with basic mechanical

services.
During this period, I acquired practical knowledge on how to design,

weld, fabricate and conduct basic mechanical services on auto mobile
and motor cars alike.
This report discusses the technical skills gained during the training
period and justifying the relevance of the scheme in equipping students
with needed technical competence to thrive in the real world.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My appreciation goes to God almighty, through the help of the Holy
Spirit made me to choose production/industrial engineering as my
discipline.
I must appreciate the efforts of Engr. Iredia Walter Osakpamwan,

whom I can conveniently call my supervisor. He is a man of wisdom,
and is always calm. He is always of help whenever he is needed.
I appreciate the production engineering department, university of
Benin, for providing me with some theoretical background for the work
at hand, I say a big thank you. Without them, I would have probably
been at a state of tabula raza.
I also wish to appreciate the Industrial training fund for their
foresight in putting this program in place for student to gain experience
of their various field.
My fellow attaches must also be commended for the role they
played such as making the environment look lively. I say a big thank
you to you all.
I must also acknowledge my own very good friend, Okunbor
Omozuwa, he is more than a friend.
What else can I say without acknowledging my lovely mother,
Mrs. Juliana Onyibe and my late father Mr. Andrew Onyibe without
them, there wouldn’t have been me.
DEDICATION
I dedicate this report to God almighty, the maker of heaven and

earth, and without whom, this earth would have had no form. He is the
giver of life, and what can a lifeless being do?
DECLARATION
I, Onyibe Fabian Andrew hereby declare that the presented report of

internship is uniquely prepared by me after the completion of six
months internship at Mechanical and Transport Division of Estate
Department at Ransom-Kuti road, University of Benin, Benin city.
I also confirm that, the report is only prepared for my academic

requirement not for any other purpose. It might not be used with the
interest of opposite party of the corporation.
Title
page
ABSTRACT…….……………………………………………………..i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.…………....……………………………….ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………….iii-v
LIST OF TABLES
………………..………………………………………………..v
LIST OF DIAGRAMS……...……………………………………..v-vii
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING PROGRAM ............................. 1
1.0 CONCEPT OF SIWES .................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF SIWES Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES ................................... 3
1.3 COMPANY’S PROFILE ................................................... 4
1.3.1 MECHANICAL AND TRANSPORT DIVISION. .......... 4
1.4 ESTABLISHMENT’S CORPORATE GOAL .................... 5
1.5 THE ESTABLISHMENT SCOPE OF WORK ................... 5
1.6 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE ...................................... 6
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................... 7
THE TRAINING PROGRAM ......................................................... 7
2.0 DESCRIPTION OF WORKDONE .................................... 7
2.1 WELDING AND FABRICATION ..................................... 7
2.1.1 MEASURING AND MARKING OUT ........................... 8
2.1.2 CUTTING AND PREPARING BLANKS FROM STOCK
MATERIAL ............................................................................. 9
2.1.3 FORMING BLANKS TO MAKE THE REQUIRED
ARTICLE ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1.4 JOINING AND ASSEMBLY ........................................ 11
2.2 AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS .......................................... 12
CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................... 19
WORK PROCESSES ............................................................................ 19
3.0 WELDING AND FABRICATIONS PROCESSES .................. 19
3.0.1 MEASURING AND MARKING OUT ......................... 19
3.0.2 MARKING OUT EQUIPMENT (tools for marking lines) ... 21

3.0.3 MARKING OUT EQUIPMENT (tools for providing
guidance) ............................................................................... 22
3.0.4 MATERIAL REMOVAL ............................................... 23
Cutting tool principle ............................................................. 23
3.0.6 PORTABLE POWER TOOLS ...................................... 28
3.0.8 JOINING OPERATION (mechanical connections) ....... 31
3.0.9 JOINING PROCESSES (Manual metal arc welding) ... 33
WELDING TECHNIQUES ................................................... 34
3.1 OTHER BASIC MECHANICAL SERVICES CARRIED OUT
...................................................................................................... 38
3.1.1 CHANGING OF BRAKE PADS .................................. 38
3.1.1 CHANGING OF ENGINE OIL .................................... 41
3.1.2 MANUAL GEARBOX SERVICING ............................ 45
3.1.3 TOOLS REQUIRED ..................................................... 47
CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................... 48
OBSERVATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS................................. 48
4.1 OBSERVATIONS ............................................................ 48
4.2 CONTRIBUTIONS ......................................................... 48
CHAPTER 5 ......................................................................................... 49
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .............................. 49
5.0 CONCLUSION ................................................................ 49
5.1 RECOMMENDATION .................................................... 49
5.2 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED DURING PERIOD OF
TRAINING ............................................................................ 50
REFERENCES ...................................................................... 51
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.0; Organisational chart of Estate Department ........................... 6

Figure 2.0: Newly fabricated burglar proof............................................. 8
Figure 2.1; shearing .............................................................................. 10
Figure 2.2: blanking .............................................................................. 11
Figure 2.3: punching ............................................................................. 11
Figure 2.4: Comparison of common cold-forming applications .....Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2.5 Types of joint ....................................................................... 12
Figure 2.6: Fuel system ......................................................................... 15
Figure 2.7: exhaust system .................................................................... 15
Figure 2.8: lubrication system .............................................................. 17
Figure 2.9: Transmission System .......................................................... 18
Figure 3.1: Steel rules ........................................................................... 19
Figure 3.2: The vernier caliper (a) construction (b) vernier scale (50
divisions) .............................................................................................. 20
Figure 3.3-(a) Scriber (b) centre punch ................................................. 22
Figure 3.4-(a) and (b) correct way to use dot and centre punches; .Error!
Figure 3.5 Scribing a straight line perpendicular to an edge ................. 23
FIGURE 3.6: Marking of holes on channels sectionsError! Bookmark
not defined.
Figure 3.7 fitter’s vice .......................................................................... 24
Figure 3.8: the use of a chisel for cutting thin plate. (a) Cutting sheet
metal with a flat chisel; (b) cutting slots or apertures; (c) Cutting sheet
metal supported in a vice ...................................................................... 25
Figure 3.9: Hammer construction (a), ball pein type (b), cross pein type
(c), straight pein type (d), correct grip (e), used with another tool (f),
used directly (g). ................................................................................... 26
Figure 3.10: (a) Engineer’s file (b) position of feet and balance ........... 27
Figure 3.11 (a) typical hacksaw (b) use of hack saw ............................. 27
Figure 3.12: A taper shank twist drill and a two-flute twist drill ....Error!
Figure 3.13: portable electric drill ........................................................ 28
Figure 3.14: portable grinding machine ................................................ 28
Figure 3.15: the action of oxygen cutting. ............................................ 29
Figure 3.16: the cutting torch. ............................................................... 30
Figure 3.17(a): Cutting with straight-edge and single support .............. 30
Figure 3.17(b): Small circle cutting ...................................................... 31
Figure 3.17(c): Large circle cutting ...................................................... 31
Figure 3.18: (a) welding machine (b) electrodes ................................... 33
Figure 3.19: manual metal-arc welding................................................. 34
Figure 3.20: electrode angles ................................................................ 35
Figure 3.21: welding of rectangular steel bar ........................................ 36
Figure 3.22: stopping and restarting a weld .......................................... 38
Figure 3.23: oil filters ........................................................................... 43
Figure 3.24: tools for repairs and servicing .......................................... 47
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING PROGRAM
1.0 CONCEPT OF SIWES

INTRODUCTION
The student industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is the

accepted skilled training program forming part of the approved
minimum academic standard in the various degree program of all
Nigerian universities. It is geared towards closing the existing gap
between theory and practices of science, agriculture, medicine,
engineering and technology, management and other professional
educational programs in Nigeria tertiary institutions. It is aimed at
exposing students to machines and equipment’s, professional works,
methods and ways of safeguard of work areas, workers, industries and
organizations. The maximum duration stipulated for SIWES should be
twenty-four (24) weeks except for engineering and technology program
where the minimum duration is forty (40) weeks, the scheme is a
tripartite program involving the students, the universities and the
industries (employers of labor) it is founded by the federal government
of Nigeria and jointly co-ordinated by the industrial training fund (ITF)
and Nigerian university commission (NUC).
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK
EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES).
In accordance with the SIWES program, it is made specifically that

the objectives of the student’s industrial work experience includes;
1. To provide avenue for the student in Nigerian universities to acquire
industrial training skills and experience in their course of study.
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2. To prepare students for the work situation they are likely to encounter
after graduation.
3. To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling
equipment that may not be available in the university.
4. To make transition from the university to the world of work and this
enhances student contact for better job placement.
5. To provide student with an opportunity to apply the theoretical in real
work situation, thereby bridging the gap between university work and
actual work experience.
6. To enlist and strengthen employers’ involvement in the entry process
of preparing university graduates for employment in industries.
The following mandates are on the part of the students to play;
1. To be regular and punctual at respective places of attachment.
2. To comply with the employers’ rules and regulations.
3. To keep proper records of training activities and other assignment in
the log book.
4. To submit to ITF through their employers’ form SPE-1.
5. To submit to ITF through their institution the evaluation report
FORM-8 duly completed by the student, employer and the institution.
ROLE OF THE EMPLOYERS
1. To accept the student and assign them to relevance on-the job
training.
2. To attach experience to the students for effective training and
supervision.
3. To control and discipline students as permanent staff.
4. To pay student monthly as at when due.
5. To provide medical cares for the students within the limits of the
employers and conditions of service during attachment.
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6. To permit representation of ITF and that of the institute based

supervisors to visit the students on attachment for assessment.
7. To grade students as provided in the assessment form and the ITF
form-8 at the end of the program and submit the same to the institution.
The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skill

training program, designed to expose and prepare Nigerian students
studying occupationally related courses in higher institutions, to the
experience that would supplement their theoretical learning The scheme
also facilitate the full realization and mandatory skills acquisition and
proper training program designed to expose students to the industrial
workplace environment of their respective disciplines during their
course of study . Before the establishment of the scheme, there was a
growing concern among our Industrialists that graduates of our
Institutions of higher learning lacked adequate practical background
studies preparatory for employment in Industries.
The employers were of the opinion that the theoretical education going
on in higher Institutions was not responsive to the needs of employers
of labor. It is against this background that the rationale for initiating and
designing the Scheme by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) during its
formative years – 1973/1974 was introduced to acquaint students with
the skills of handling employers’ equipment and machinery.
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
a. To provide students with industrial skills and needed experience
while in their course of study.
b. To create conditions and circumstances, this can be as close as
possible to the actual workflow.
c. To prepare specialists who will be ready for any working situations
immediately after graduation.
d. Enhance Students’ contacts for later job opportunities/placements.
3
e. To teach students the techniques and methods of working with

facilities and equipment that may not be available within the walls
of an educational institution.
f. Help in bridging the gap between university work and actual
practice.
I undertook my SIWES at Mechanical and Transport Division of Estate

Department located at Ransom-Kuti road, University of Benin, Benin
city. From AUGUST 2019 to JANUARY 2020.
1.3 COMPANY’S PROFILE

Estate Department, University of Benin located at Ransom-kuti road
opposite the university of Benin fire service Department, is a
department in the university which has four major divisions operating
under its supervision. The division includes;
1. Civil Engineering Division: Takes care of all the building

projects in the university
2. Electrical Engineering Division: Takes care of Electrical power
in the school.
3. Property Division: Takes inventory of the number of properties
purchased and owned by the university.
4. Mechanical and Transport Division: Carries out maintenance of
all the university’s official cars and vehicles including welding
and fabrication of the school project.
1.3.1 MECHANICAL AND TRANSPORT DIVISION.

The Mechanical and Transport Division has its own division which
includes;
1. Heavy duty: Carries out the maintenance of big truck and

luxurious bus hence the name, heavy duty.
2. Light Duty: Carries out maintenance of small cars and vehicles.
3. Vulcanizing: Carries out the maintenance and repairs of Tubes
and Tyres.
4. Electrical: Works hand in hand with heavy and light duty as
regards maintenance of vehicles with electrical issues.
4
5. Welding and Fabrication: Deals with the maintenance and

production of products made of cast iron and steel.
1.4 ESTABLISHMENT’S CORPORATE GOAL

At Mechanical and Transport Division our goals to our clients is to
ensure the weld and fabricated components works at very good and
considerable efficiency and to fix your engine to the proper working
conditions.
We also want you to have the trust and confidence in us that you are
being treated honestly and fairly. Also, to have freedom to approach us
at any time with any questions or concern with the service you are
receiving.
The goal to my employees is to provide them with the best working

conditions possible with the proper tools and equipment to perform any
operation. This in turn gives them the privilege to associate with happy,
satisfied and dedicated clients. Also, for the trainee to have the freedom
to input on how to better improve the working conditions to offer better
service to our clients.
1.5 THE ESTABLISHMENT SCOPE OF WORK

In the area of specialization, The Mechanical and Transport Division has
the capacity of providing the following services;
1. Servicing, repair and maintenance of vehicle engines

2. Welding and fabrication of steel doors, burglar proof e.t.c.
5
1.6 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE
ESTATE DEPARTMENT
ELECTRICAL
CIVIL ENGINEERING PROPERTY MECHANICAL AND
ENGINEERING
DIVISION DIVISION TRANSPORT DIVISION
DIVISION
VULCANISING WELDING AND

HEAVY DUTY LIGHT DUTY ELECTRICAL FABRICATION
Figure 1.0; Organisational chart of Estate Department
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CHAPTER 2
THE TRAINING PROGRAM
2.0 DESCRIPTION OF WORKDONE
During the period of my internship at The Mechanical and Transport
Division of Estate department, I worked at the welding and fabrication
section where I spent most of my time. Sometimes I was also opportune
to participate in the light servicing of auto mobiles at the mechanical
servicing section.
The jobs I did were usually cutting of different shapes of steel rods for
fabrication of frames, steel doors, burglar proof (protector), steel
drawers e.t.c. The fabrication processes includes; basic operations such
as measurements, forging, welding and cutting. The sequence of
operations depends on the kind of work to be done. The basic
maintenance works such as changing of fan belts, changing of gear box
seating and changing of brake pads, oil changes, replacing oil filters,
e.t.c. were also done.
2.1 WELDING AND FABRICATION

The production of fabricated components and structures involves five
principal operational stages:
1. Measuring, marking out and the production of templates
2. Cutting and preparing blanks from stock material
3. Forming blanks to make the required article
4. Joining and assembly
5. Surface finishing – painting.
7
Figure 2.0: Newly fabricated burglar proof
2.1.1 MEASURING AND MARKING OUT

Measuring can be considered to be the most important process in
engineering. Without the ability to measure accurately, we cannot:
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1. Mark out components

2. Set up machines to produces components to the required size and
shape
3. Check components whilst we are making them to ensure that they
finally end up the correct size and shape
4. Inspect finished components to make sure that they have been
correctly manufactured. This is particularly important for large
fabrications that have to be assembled on site
When you measure length, you measure the shortest distance in a

straight line between two points, lines or faces. It doesn’t matter what
you call this distance (width, thickness, breadth, depth, height and
diameter) it is still a measurement of length.
Measurement of length is the comparison of the size of a component or

a feature of a component and a known standard of length.
2.1.2 CUTTING AND PREPARING BLANKS FROM STOCK

MATERIAL
Cutting processes are those in which a piece of sheet metal is separated
by applying a great enough force to cause the material to fail. The most
common cutting processes are performed by applying a shearing force.
Cutting is a compressive and shearing phenomenon, and occurs
only when the total stress generated by the cutting implement
exceeds the ultimate strength of the material of the object being cut.
The simplest applicable equation is:
stress = force / area
9
Cutting processes include the following:

1. Shearing- separating material into two parts
2. Blanking- removing material to use for parts
3. Punching- removing material as scrap
Shearing
Several cutting processes exist that utilize shearing force to cut sheet
metal. However, the term “shearing” by itself refers to a specific cutting
process that produces straight line cuts to separate a piece of sheet
metal. Most commonly, shearing is used to cut a sheet parallel to an
existing edge which is held square, but angled cuts can be made as well.
For this reason, shearing is primarily used to cut sheet stock into smaller
sizes in preparation for other processes.
Figure 2.1; shearing
Blanking
Blanking is a cutting process in which a piece of sheet metal is removed
from a larger piece of stock by applying a great enough shearing force.
In this process, the piece removed, called a blank, is not scrap but rather
the desired part. Blanking can be used to cutout parts in almost any 2D
shape, but is most commonly used to cut work pieces with simple
geometrics that will be further shape in subsequent processes.
Often times multiple sheets are blanked in a single operation. Blanked

parts typically require secondary finishing to smoothing out burrs along
the bottom edge.
10
Figure 2.2: blanking
Punching
Punching is a cutting process in which material is removed from a piece
of sheet metal by applying a great enough shearing force. Punching is
similar to blanking except that the removed material, the slug, is scrap
and leaves behind the desired internal feature in the sheet, such as a hole
or slot.
Punching can be used to produce holes are simple geometric shapes

(circle, square, rectangle, e.t.c.) or combination thereof. The edges of
these punched features will have some burrs from being sheared but are
of fairly good quality. Secondary finishing operations are typically
performed to attain smoother edges.
A variety of operations are possible to form different features, these

operations include the following: piercing, slotting, perforating,
notching, nibbling, lancing, slitting, parting, cutoff, trimming, shaving,
dinking.
Figure 2.3: punching
2.1.3 JOINING AND ASSEMBLY

Fabricated components can be joined together in a variety of ways. The
type of joint may be temporary or permanent. Temporary joints may be
11
assembled and dismantled as often as is required without damage to the

members being joined or the joining device (e.g. a nut and bolt).
Permanent joints cannot be dismantled after assembly without damage
to, or the destruction of, the joint device (e.g. drilling out a rivet) or th e
members being joined (e.g. flame cutting a welded joint). Figure 2.5
shows the different ways in which fabrications may be joined .
Figure 2.5 Types of joint
2.2 AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS

The major systems of an automobile are the engine, fuel system, exhaust
system, cooling system, lubrication system, electrical system,
transmission, and the chassis. The chassis includes the wheels and tires,
the brakes, the suspension system, and the body. These systems will be
found in every form of motor vehicle and are designed to interact with
and support each other.
2.2.1 ENGINE
The engine is the heart of your car. It is a complex machine
built to convert heat from burning gas into the force that turns
the road wheels. The chain of reactions which achieve that
objective is set in motion by a spark, which ignites a mixture of
petrol vapour and compressed air inside a momentarily sealed
cylinder and causes it to burn rapidly. That is why the machine is
called an internal combustion engine. As the mixture burns it
expands, providing power to drive the car. To withstand its heavy
workload, the engine must be a robust structure. It consists of two
basic parts: the lower, heavier section is the cylinder block, a
casing for the engine's main moving parts; the detachable upper
12
cover is the cylinder head. The cylinder head contains valve-

controlled passages through which the air and fuel mixture enters
the cylinders, and others through which the gases produced by
their combustion are expelled. The block houses the crankshaft
which converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons into rotary
motion at the crankshaft. Often the block also houses the
camshaft, which operates mechanisms that open and close the
valves in the cylinder head. Sometimes the camshaft is in the head
or mounted above it.
Car Engine
2.2.2 FUEL SYSTEM

The fuel system is made up of the fuel tank, pump, filter, and injectors
or carburetor, and is responsible for delivering fuel to the engine as
needed. Each component must perform flawlessly to achieve expected
vehicle performance and reliability.
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Over time, an engine’s performance can slowly diminish because of
buildup, which clogs vital parts of the fuel system and causes reduced fuel
efficiency and power.
Fuel Injectors/Carburetors; the fuel injector is the last stop for fuel in your
engine before it goes "boom!" inside the combustion chamber. It is
13
basically an electrically operated gate that opens just long enough to meter
the perfect amount of fuel to run the engine. Carburetors, were the usual
method of fuel delivery for most vehicles up until the late 1980s. Most
carburetors are manual non-electric devices that are used for mixing
vaporized fuel with air to produce a combustible or explosive mixture for
internal combustion engines. Carburetors have been mostly supplanted by
electronic fuel injection.
Intake Valve; the valve opens to allow the air/fuel mixture to be drawn into
the combustion chamber. Deposits on the intake valves can restrict or
change the flow of the air/fuel mixture into the combustion chamber. Fuel
can stick to deposits on the intake valve and not enter the combustion
chamber when needed. The right fuel additive can help reverse these effects
and restore lost performance.
Piston; the piston travels up and down, and converts the pressure from
combustion into movement. Detergent additives that can help remove or
reduce deposits have been shown to be effective in reducing or eliminating
deposit-related drivability and performance loss.
Combustion Chamber; this is where burning of the air/fuel mixture

happens. Deposits in the combustion chamber can affect heat transfer and
air/fuel compression. Excess heat can cause premature ignition and
knocking. Some vehicles contain knock sensors that are used to determine
engine knock or pre- or post-detonation. With these sensors, the computer
will detune the engine to eliminate this symptom, which has an adverse
effect on performance. Fuel system deposits will cause knocking, which is
why it is so important to keep your fuel system clean.
14
Figure 2.6: Fuel system
2.2.3 EXHAUST SYSTEM

After the fuel is burned in the pistons, the gases and heat created must
be released from the cylinder to make room for the next intake of fuel.
The exhaust system is also responsible for reducing the noise caused by
the explosion of the fuel.
Exhaust gases are released from the cylinder through an exhaust valve.
The gases gather in an exhaust manifold before eventually being
channeled through the exhaust pipe and muffler and finally out the
tailpipe and away from the car. The muffler is constructed with a maze
of baffles, specially developed walls that absorb energy (in the form of
heat, force, and sound) as the exhaust passes through the muffler.
Figure 2.7: exhaust system
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The burning of fuel creates hazardous gases (hydrocarbons, carbon

monoxide, and nitrogen oxide) that are extremely harmful to the
engine's components and the environment. The emission control system
of a car, linked to the exhaust system, functions in two primary ways.
First, it reduces the levels of unburned fuel by burning as much of the
exhaust as possible. It does this by returning the exhaust to the fuel -air
mixture injected into the cylinders. Second, it uses a catalytic converter
(fitted before the muffler) to increase the conversion of the harmful
gases to less harmful forms.
2.2.4 COOLING SYSTEM

The cooling system also maintains the engine at a temperature that will
allow it to run most efficiently. A liquid-cooled system is most
commonly used. The explosion of fuel in the cylinders can produce
temperatures as high as 4000°F (2204°C). Liquid-cooling systems use
water (mixed with an antifreeze that lowers the freezing point and raises
the boiling point of water) guided through a series of jackets attached
around the engine. As the water solution circulates through the jackets,
it absorbs the heat from the engine. It is then pumped to the radiator at
the front of the car, which is constructed of many small pipes and thin
metal fins. This design creates a large surface area that draws the heat
from the water solution. A fan attached to the radiator uses the wind
created by the movement of the car to cool the water solution further.
Temperature sensors in the engine control the operation of the cooling
system so that the engine remains in its optimal temperature range.
2.2.5 LUBRICATION SYSTEM.

Without the proper lubrication, the heat and friction created by the rapid
movements of the engine's parts would quickly cause it to fail. At the
16
bottom of the engine is the crankcase, which holds a supply of oil. A

pump, powered by the engine, carries oil from the crankcase and
through a series of passages and holes to all the various parts of the
engine. As the oil flows through the engine, it forms a thin layer
between the moving parts so they do not actually touch. The heated oil
drains back into the crankcase, where it cools. The fumes given off by
the crankcase are circulated by the PCV (positive crankcase ventilation)
valve back to the cylinders, where they are burned off, further reducing
the level of pollution given off by the automobile .
Figure 2.8: lubrication system
2.2.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM.

Electricity is used for many parts of the car, from the headlights to the
radio, but its chief function is to provide the electrical spark needed to
ignite the fuel in the cylinders. The electrical system is comprised of a
battery, starter motor, alternator, distributor, ignition coil, and ignition
switch. The starter motor is necessary for generating the power to carry
the engine through its initial movements. Initial voltage is supplied by
the battery, which is kept charged by the alternator. The alternator
creates electrical current from the movement of the engine, much as
windmills and watermills generate current from the movement of air or
water.
Turning the key in the ignition switch draws electrical current from the
battery. This current, however, is not strong enough to provide spark to
the spark plugs. The current is therefore drawn through the ignition coil,
which is comprised of the tight primary winding and the looser
secondary winding. The introduction of current between these windings
creates a powerful magnetic field. Interrupting the current flow, which
17
happens many times a second, causes the magnetic field to collapse. The
collapsing of the magnetic field produces a powerful electrical surge. In
this way, the 12-volt current from the battery is converted to the 20,000
volts needed to ignite the gasoline.
Because there are two or more cylinders, and therefore as many spark
plugs, this powerful current must be distributed—by the distributor—to
each spark plug in a carefully controlled sequence. This sequence must
be carefully timed so that the cylinders, and the pistons powering the
crankshaft, work smoothly together. For this reason, most present-day
automobiles utilize an electronic ignition, in which a computer precisely
controls the timing and distribution of current to the spark plugs .
2.2.7 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM.
Once the pistons are firing and the crankshaft is spinning, this energy
must be converted, or transmitted, to drive the wheels. The crankshaft
spins only within a limited range, usually between 1,000 to 6,000
revolutions per minute (rpm). Although the wheels spin at far lower
rpms, the range at which they spin is wider (to accommodate the wide
range of driving speeds of an automobile). The gears of the transmission
accomplish the task of bringing down the fast-spinning input from the
crankshaft to the smaller number of rpms needed by the wheels.
Figure 2.9: Transmission System
There are two types of transmission: manual and automatic.

Automobiles generally have at least three gears, plus a reverse gear
(many manual transmissions have four or even five gears). With manual
transmission, the driver controls the shifting of the gears. In an
automatic transmission, gears are engaged automatically. Both types of
transmission make use of a clutch, which allows the gears to be engaged
and disengaged.
18
CHAPTER 3
WORK PROCESSES
3.0 WELDING AND FABRICATIONS PROCESSES
3.0.1 MEASURING AND MARKING OUT
Measuring tape (use of)
A measuring tape is a portable measurement device used to quantify
the size of an object or the distance between objects. The tape is
marked along the tape edge in inches and fractional inches, typically in
quarter-, eight-, sixteenth-inch increments. Some tape measures are
marked in millimeters, centimeters, and meters, feet.
Figure 3.1: Measuring tape
When using the tape to make direct measurements, the accuracy of

measurement depends upon the visual alignment of a mark or surface on
the work with the corresponding graduation on the tape. This may
appear relatively simple but, in practice, errors can very easily occur.
These errors can be minimized by using a thin rule and keeping your
eyes directly above and at 90° to the mark on the work. If you look at
the work and the rule from an angle, you will get a false reading. This is
known as a parallax error.
Vernier calipers
Vernier calipers are included here by way of introduction to the vernier
principle. The vernier principle is often applied to marking out
instruments, such as the trammel (beam compass) for striking large radii
and the vernier caliper used for measuring angles. Although more
cumbersome to use and rather more difficult to read, It can be used for
both internal and external measurement Remember that for internal
19
measurements you have to add the combined thickness of the jaws to the
scale readings.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.2: The vernier caliper (a) construction (b) vernier scale (50 divisions)
In the example shown in Fig. 3.2(b) the main scale is marked off in 1.00
mm increments, whilst the vernier scale has 50 divisions marked off in
0.98 mm increments. This enables you to read the instrument to an
accuracy of 1.00 - 0.98 = 0.02 mm. The reading is obtained as follows:
Note how far the zero of the vernier scale has moved along the main
scale (32 ‘whole’ millimetres in this example)
Note the vernier reading where the vernier and main scale divisions
coincide (11 divisions in this example. You then multiply the 11
divisions by 0.02 mm which gives you 0.22 mm
Add these two readings together:
32 `whole’ millimetres = 32.00 mm plus

11 vernier divisions = 00.22 mm
Therefore, the reading = 32.22 mm
Always check that the instrument reads zero when the jaws are closed.
If not, then the instrument has been strained and will not give a correct
reading. There is no means of correcting this error and the instrument
must be scrapped.
20
As for all measuring instruments, vernier callipers must be cleaned

before and after use. They should always be kept in the case provided.
This not only protects the instrument from damage, it also supports the
beam and prevents it from becoming distorted
Correct use of measuring equipment
No matter how accurately measuring equipment is made, and no matter
how sensitive it is, one of the most important factors affecting the
accuracy of measurement is the skill of the user. The more important
procedures for the correct use of measuring equipment can be
summarized as follows.
1. The measurement must be made at right angles to the surface of

the component.
2. The use of a constant measuring pressure is essential. This is
provided automatically with micrometer callipers by means of
their ratchet. With other instruments such as plain callipers and
vernier callipers the measuring pressure depends upon the skill
and ‘feel’ of the user. Such skill only comes with practice and
experience.
3. The component must be supported so that it does not distort under
the measuring pressure or under its own weight.
4. Measuring instruments must be handled with care so that they are
not damaged or strained. They must be cleaned and kept in their
cases when not in use. Measuring instruments must be regularly
checked to ensure that they have not lost their initial accuracy. If
an error is detected the instrument must be taken out of service
immediately so that the error can be corrected. If correction is not
possible the instrument must be immediately discarded.
3.0.2 MARKING OUT EQUIPMENT (tools for marking lines)

Marking out is, essentially, drawing on metal so as to provide guide
lines for cutting out templates and blanks, and for marking where sheet
metal is to be folded and holes are to be drilled or punched in the
component. Usually a pencil line would not be suitable; the hard metal
surface would soon make a pencil blunt and the line would become
thick and inaccurate; also, a pencil line is too easily wiped off a metal
surface. Therefore, the line is usually scribed using a sharp pointed
metal tool, such as a scriber, which cuts into the surface of the metal
and leaves a fine, permanent line. The exception is when marking out
21
tin-plate (as a scriber would cut through the protective film of tin and
allow the steel base metal to corrode). Here, bend lines are always
drawn with a soft pencil so as to protect the tin coating. Only cutting
lines are drawn with a scriber.
Scriber
This is the basic marking out tool. It consists of a handle with a sharp
point. The pointed end is made from hardened steel so that it will stay
sharp in use. Engineers’ scribers usually have one straight end and one
hooked end, as shown in Fig. 3.5. It is essential that the scribing point is
kept sharp. Scribing points should not be sharpened on a grinding
machine – the heat generated by this process tends to soften the point of
the scriber so that it soon becomes blunt. Instead, the scribing
Centre punch
They are used for making indentation in the surface of the metal for
locating the point of a twist drill point should be kept needle sharp by
the use of an oilstone
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3-(a) Scriber (b) centre punch
3.0.3 MARKING OUT EQUIPMENT (tools for providing guidance)

Try-square
When you need to scribe a line at 90° to a datum edge a try-square is
used as shown in Fig. 3.5. A line scribed at 90° to an edge or another
line is said to be at right angles to that edge or line or it is said to be
perpendicular to that edge or line. They both mean the same thing.
22
Figure 3.5 Scribing a straight line perpendicular to an edge
3.0.4 MATERIAL REMOVAL

Cutting tool principle
Technical and economic feasibility of the use of a particular tool
depends on the sizes and designs of items and received the type of
production. For processing holes in parts such as bushings, in
mass production, rationally to use a special broach, while serial —
boring cutter or countersink bit. At the same time, if the item is
freestanding and relatively large size, it is advisable to apply a thin
boring or a floating block cutters.
When using hand tools at the bench, it is necessary to hold the work
piece material securely so that the cutting forces can be resisted and the
cutting process accurately controlled. To do this the work piece is
usually secured in a vice.
Bench vice
Figure 3.7(a) shows a typical parallel jaw vice. It is often fitted with a
quick-release device that frees the screw from the nut so that the vice
can be opened and closed quickly when changing between components
of different widths in order to save time. To keep the vice in good
condition the following rules should be observed:
1. Clean and oil the screw and nut regularly.
2. Clean and oil the slide-ways regularly.
3. Ensure that the vice is substantial enough for the work in hand.
4. Heavy hammering and bending should be confined to the anvil
and not performed on the vice.
5. When cutting with a cold chisel the thrust of the chisel should be
towards the fixed jaw.
23
6. Never hammer on the top surface of the slide.
Figure 3.7 fitter’s vice (bench vice)
Cold chisels
Chisels are used for rapidly breaking down a surface by hand but the
finish is poor and the accuracy is low.
When used for cutting sheet metal, the flat chisel must be held at a
slight angle to the line of cut as shown in Fig. 3.8(a). The reasons for
inclining the chisel are:
1. To provide a shearing angle.
2. To make the chisel move along the line of cut smoothly and
continuously.
(a) (b)
24
(c)
Figure 3.8: the use of a chisel for cutting thin plate. (a) Cutting sheet metal
with a flat chisel; (b) cutting slots or apertures; (c) Cutting sheet metal
supported in a vice
Figure 3.8: the use of a chisel for cutting thin plate. (a) Cutting sheet
metal with a flat chisel; (b) cutting slots or apertures; (c) Cutting sheet
metal supported in a vice
If the chisel is held vertically, a separate cut is made each time a

hammer blow is delivered and the ‘line’ becomes a series of irregular
cuts. A block of soft cast iron is generally used to support the sheet
metal whilst it is being cut. The chisel is also inclined when cutting slots
or aperture of various shapes and sizes. In this case the removal of the
material is simplified by punching or drilling a series of holes (chain
drilling) as near together as possible, before the chisel is used. The
advantages of pre-drilling or pre-punching the sheet metal are shown in
Fig. 3.8(b).
Figure 3.8(c) shows how sheet metal may be cut between a chisel and
the vice jaws to create a shearing action. Care must be taken to ensure
that the line along which the cut is to be made is as near to the top of the
vice jaws as possible to prevent the sheet metal being bent and the cut
edge badly burred over.
Hammer
In the previous section, we saw that hammers were used to drive the
chisel through the material being cut. If a hammer is too big, it will be
clumsy to use and proper control cannot be exercised. If a hammer is
too small it has to be wielded with too much effort, so that again proper
control cannot be exercised. In both these instances the use of the
incorrect size of hammer will result in an unsatisfactory job, possible
damage to the work and possible injury to the user. Before using a
hammer you must check it to make sure of the following:
1. The handle is not split.

2. The head is not loose.
3. The head is not cracked or chipped.
When using a hammer never ‘strangle’ it by holding it too near the

head. It should be held as shown in Fig. 3.9(e). A hammer is usually
used to strike other tools such as chisels, drifts, and centre punches as
shown in Fig. 3.9(f). When a hammer is used to strike a component,
25
such as a key or a location dowel, directly as shown in Fig. 3.9(f), care

must be taken so that the component is not bruised. In order to avoid
damage to the component either a soft metal drift (brass or aluminium)
must be inserted between the component and the hammer head or,
alternatively, a soft-faced hammer should be used.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
(g)
Figure 3.9: Hammer construction (a), ball pein type (b), cross pein type (c),
straight pein type (d), correct grip (e), used with another tool (f), used directly
(g).
Files
Files are used for a wide range of operations from ‘roughing down’ to
final finishing on a wide variety of components and surfaces. The point,
body and shoulder of the file are hardened and tempered, whilst the tang
is usually left soft to prevent it from inadvertently being snapped off.
In order to generate a plane surface by filing, the file must be moved

parallel to the plane of the required surface. This carefully controlled
movement depends solely on the muscular co-ordination of the
craftsperson.
26
An important point to remember when filing metal components is that

files are designed to cut in a forward direction. Therefore, wherever
possible, try to use the whole length of the file to ensure it wears evenly.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.10: (a) Engineer’s file (b) position of feet and balance
Hacksaw
Figure 3.11(a) shows a typical metal-worker’s hacksaw with an
adjustable frame that will accept a range of blade sizes. For best results
the blade should be carefully selected for the work in hand. It must be
correctly fitted and correctly used.
Figure 3.11 (a) typical hacksaw (b) use of hack saw
27
3.0.6 PORTABLE POWER TOOLS

1. Portable drilling machine
2. Portable grinding machine
Portable drilling machine
Our portable drill is engineered to deliver high-torque performance to
quickly drill more holes in less time.
Figure 3.13: portable electric drill
Portable grinding machine

Portable grinding machines are used for cleaning up welded joints.
Angle-type grinding machines can be fitted with depressed centre,
reinforced grinding wheels. Such wheels have a honeycomb of small
holes to ventilate the wheel and work to prevent overheating. The angle-
type grinding machine can also be fitted with cutting-off grinding
wheels. For dressing curved surfaces the angle-type grinding machine
can be fitted with flexible abrasive discs as shown in Fig. 6.48(c).
Figure 3.14: portable grinding machine
1. Always wear safety goggles.

2. Always wear a dusk mask.
28
3. Do not overheat the wheel and work or apply excessive force

against the wheel.
4. Always move the wheel back and forth to even out the wear.
Flame cutting
Flame-cutting is used for cutting thick plate and structural sections. It
can only be used for cutting ferrous metals since the process depends
upon a chemical reaction between the hot steel and a stream of high-
pressure oxygen. Despite its appearance a set of flame-cutting
equipment is not the same as welding equipment although it looks
similar. The oxygen regulator must be capable of passing a much larger
volume of gas and a special torch and nozzle is used .
Figure 3.15: the action of oxygen cutting.
A typical cutting nozzle is shown in Fig. 3.15. It provides a ring of

flames to preheat the metal being cut to 870–900°C (red heat). When the
metal reaches this ignition temperature, a powerful jet of pure oxygen is
released into the centre of the preheated area. This initiates an
exothermic reaction between the hot steel and the oxygen jet. The steel
immediately below the oxygen jet is converted into metal oxides or slag.
These oxides are blown away by the jet of oxygen in a shower of sparks.
If the jet is not powerful enough or the speed of cutting is too quick the
slag will solidify in the cut and the cut will not be achieved. This
oxidizing reaction helps to heat up the metal being cut and the process
becomes continuous. The cutting torch is then moved forward along the
line of the cut. Figure 3.16 shows a cutting torch and various types of
nozzle.
29
Figure 3.16: the cutting torch.
FLAME CUTTING ATTACHMENT

Figure 3.17 shows some useful attachments which, when fitted to the
hand-held cutting torch, ensure a steady rate of travel and enable the
operator to execute straight lines, bevels and circles with relative ease.
Single cutting support
This simple device may either be a ‘spade-type’ support or a single
‘roller guide’ which can be adjusted vertically to give the correct ‘stand-
off’. Figure 3.17(a) shows a single roller guide supporting the cutting
torch at the correct height above the work and guiding it by means of a
straight-edge clamped to the work-piece.
Figure 3.17(a): Cutting with straight-edge and single support

Circle cutting device (small diameter)
This is simply a pivot which is attached to the shank of the torch at the required
distance from the nozzle according to the radius required. The point of the pivot is
located in a centre punch mark as shown in Fig. 3.17(b). Vertical adjustment is
provided in order to set the correct ‘stand-off ’.
30
Figure 3.17(b): Small circle cutting
Circle cutting device (large diameter)

An example of a large-circle cutting attachment is shown in Fig.
3.17(c). This is similar to the small-diameter-circle cutting device
except that it has a graduated radius bar to facilitate setting the pivot
position.
Figure 3.17(c): Large circle cutting
3.0.8 JOINING OPERATION (mechanical connections)

Threaded fastenings
Various types of threaded fastenings are used where components must
be assembled and dismantled regularly. They are also used for making
connections in structural steelwork on site. The fastenings used in
making connections in fabricated steelwork will all have a thread with a
‘V’ form. This has many advantages which is why it is so widely used:
1. It is the easiest and cheapest form to manufacture.

2. It is easily cut with taps and dies.
3. It is the strongest thread form.
4. It is self-locking and only works loose when subjected to extreme
vibration.
31
Washers in screwed connections

The use of a washer between the face of a nut and the part being
fastened has the following functions:
1. It increases the frictional grip thus reducing slip between the

components being joined.
2. It improves the locking action of the nut on the screw thread.
3. The prevention of damage to the work-piece when the nut is being
tightened.
4. In the case of taper washers, it ensures the bolt head and/or nut
can tighten down on a smooth surface that is at right-angles to the
axis of the bolt.
In addition to the commonly used ‘plain’ or ‘flat’ washer, various other

types are used; for example, the taper washer and the spring washer.
32
3.0.9 JOINING PROCESSES (Manual metal arc welding)
Figure 3.18: (a) welding machine (b) electrodes
The electrode
Most electrodes used in the manual arc-welding process are coated
electrodes; that is, the coated electrode consists of a wire core of
suitable composition surrounded by a concentric covering of a flux
and/or other materials which will melt uniformly along with the core
wire to form a partly vaporized and partly molten shield around the arc
stream. This shield protects the arc from contamination by atmospheric
gases. The liquid slag that is produced performs three important
functions:
1. It protects the solidifying weld metal from atmospheric

contamination.
2. It prevents the weld metal cooling too rapidly.
3. It controls the contour of the completed weld.
The function of an electrode is more than acting simply as a conductor

for the electric-arc current–it also acts as a filler rod. The core wire
melts in the arc and tiny globules of molten metal transferred
explosively across the arc into the molten weld pool (the arc crater in
the parent metal) during welding. These tiny globules of molten metal
are not transferred by the force of gravity (otherwise overhead welding
would not be possible) but are explosively transferred across the arc to
form the arc stream. The chemical coating surrounding the core wire
melts or burns in the heat of the arc. Since it melts at a slightly higher
temperature than the metal core it protrudes a little beyond the core and
directs the arc. This extension also prevents sideways arcing when
welding in deep grooves. The arc stream and other basic features of
manual metal-arc welding are shown in Fig.3.19.
33
Figure 3.19: manual metal-arc welding
WELDING TECHNIQUES
Striking the arc
Before welding can commence it is necessary to strike the arc. To do
this, the electrode must first touch the work briefly and then be
withdrawn to the correct arc distance. There are two methods for
striking the arc:
1. Use of a scratching motion.

2. Use of an up-and-down motion.
At first the electrode may stick to the job or the arc may not be
maintained if the electrode is withdrawn too far. Regular practice will
enable you to overcome these difficulties.
Electrode angles
There are two angles to consider when welding and these are shown in
Fig.3.20. These angles are known as the tilt angle and the slope angle.
The tilt angle is the angle between the electrode and the work in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of electrode travel along the joint. The
slope angle is the angle between the electrode and the work in a plane
parallel to the joint. Figure 3.20(a) shows how these angles are applied
to a ‘T’ fillet joint.
34
(a) (b)
Figure 3.20: electrode angles
Figure 3.20 shows how the slope angle affects the quality of the weld.
The nearer the electrode slope angle approaches the vertical, the greater
will be the depth of penetration since the full force of the arc is directed
and concentrated on to the parent metal. In this position the force of the
arc stream tends to drive the molten metal from the edge of the weld
pool outwards and, in doing so, produces undesirable undercutting of
the weld profile. Further, with the electrode in the upright position, the
slag will build up and surround the weld metal deposited as shown in
Fig. 3.20(a). This causes problems as soon as the electrode is moved
along the joint line as slag will become entrapped in the weld. Also it is
difficult for the operator to see and control the weld pool.
(c)
When the electrode is inclined at the correct angle as shown in Fig.
3.20(b), the direction and force of the arc stream causes the slag to form
away from the molten weld pool and ahead of the arc, thus eliminating
the problem of slag entrapment. Further, the operator can easily see the
weld pool and control the deposition of the weld metal and the slag. The
35
inclination of the electrode will vary with the job in hand but is usually
about 60°.
If the angle of inclination is too low, as shown in Fig. 3.20(c), there will
be lack of penetration, resulting in a weak weld. This will also be
accompanied by excessive spatter and a poor ‘fish-tail’ weld profile.
One factor that influences the choice of electrode angle is the class of
electrode being used. These may have coatings that produce a very fluid
slag whilst others have coatings that form a highly viscous slag. A very
fluid slag is difficult to control and there is the ever-present danger of
slag entrapment as the angle of inclination of the electrode approaches
the vertical. Between the extremes of flat and upright positions there is
always one angle that provides the optimum welding conditions of:
1. Adequate penetration.
2. Correct weld profile.
3. Correct width of weld bead.
4. Minimum spatter.
5. Adequate slag control.
Figure 3.21: Welding of hollow rectangular steel bar
36
Arc length
The arc gap is the distance, measured in millimetres, between the tip of
the electrode and the molten weld pool during welding. Considerable
skill is required to maintain the correct arc length during welding as the
electrode melts away. Only constant practice enables the welder to
attain this skill. A weld made with an arc gap of the correct length will
enable the electrode metal to be deposited in a stream of small molten
particles forming an even bead with a fine rippled appearance and good
penetration.
If the arc length is too great the arc is noisy (crackles) and the weld
metal is deposited in large uneven globules resulting in a poor weld with
little penetration and low strength. On the other hand, if the arc length is
too short it is difficult to maintain an even weld bead and the electrode
will keep sticking to the work.
Weaving
Weaving is the side-to-side movement of the electrode during welding
and is required to spread the molten metal across the joint width. There
are a number of different weave patterns that can be used and the
maximum weave width for a given size of electrode is two to three
times the electrode diameter. A larger weave pattern would produce a
weld of coarse appearance and lack of fusion, leading to poor
mechanical properties.
Stopping and re-starting
Stopping requires practice to prevent metal being lost at the end of the
weld. This is not only unsightly but could result in the weld breaking as
a result of fatigue failure at a later date. To prevent loss of metal the
weld crater should be built up at the end of the weld as shown in Fig.
3.22(a).
Re-starting is necessary after stopping to change an electrode. The skill

required here is not only in striking the arc in the correct place but also
in joining up with the existing weld. Re-strike the arc with the new
electrode at the edge of the existing weld crater and move the electrode
quickly back over the crater as shown in Fig. 3.22(b). Then resume
welding in the correct direction of travel at the normal welding speed.
37
Figure 3.22: stopping and restarting a weld
3.1 OTHER BASIC MECHANICAL SERVICES CARRIED OUT

3.1.1 CHANGING OF BRAKE PADS
Nearly all cars these days have front disc brakes. Front brakes usually
wear out more quickly than the rear brakes (which could either be disc
or drum brakes), so they need to be changed more often. You need to
change brake pads when they get too thin, especially if they begin to
make a persistent metallic squeaking or grinding noise when you press
the brake pedal. But noise alone isn't always the best indicator, so it's
best to anticipate when this will happen by periodically inspecting the
thickness of the brake pads.
3.1.1.1 SEQUENCE OF OPERATION

1) Remove the wheel
2) Remove the slider bolt
3) Pivot the caliper up
4) Slide out the old brake pads
5) Replace the retaining clips
6) Slide in the new brake pads
7) Retract the pistons
38
8) Monitor the brake fluid level

9) Reposition the caliper
10) Reinstall the slider bolt
11) Repeat for the other side
12) Test-drive under safe conditions
1. Remove the wheel

Loosen the lug nuts on the wheel. Then jack up the car and place a jack
stand under the car's frame. Lower the jack so its weight rests on the
jack stand. Fully remove the lug nuts and remove the wheel. You now
have access to the brake assembly and can safely reach under the car.
2. Remove the slider bolt

Find the two slider bolts (sometimes called "pins") that hold the caliper
in place. It's generally only necessary to remove the lower bolt. It can be
long but once it is fully loosened, it will slide out easily.
3. Pivot the caliper up
With the bottom bolt removed, the caliper pivots up, the rubber hose,
which is the hydraulic line, will flex to allow this so do not disconnect
any hydraulic lines.
At this point, it is very easy to inspect the thickness of the brake pads to
confirm that they need to be changed. Most brake pads have metal wear
indicators, which are small metal tabs that squeak when they contact the
rotors. Even if these are not yet touching, the pads are worn out if the
friction material is 1/8th of an inch thick or less at any point.
4. Slide out the old brake pads
The brake pads are now exposed and the retaining clips hold them
loosely in place. Simply slide the old brake pads out.
5. Replace the retaining clips
New pads almost always come with new clips, which allow the pads to
slide back and forth easily. Use the new ones and chuck the old ones.
There are no retaining screws for the clips. They just snap in place.
There are usually left-handed and right-handed clips, so change one at a
time, making sure they match up exactly as you go.
39
Often, a small packet of graphite-based grease will come with the brake
pads. Apply this to the clips of the new brake pads to keep them from
squeaking.
Some brake pads might have unattached shims that have to be

temporarily held in position until you lock the pads in place. The "ears"
are the metal tabs on either end of the brake pad (only the two left ears
are visible here). These ears fit into the slots in the clips. Some of the
grease can be applied to the ears and between any loose metal shims,
too.
6. Slide in the new brake pads
The new pads slide into place as easily as the old ones did when they
came out, though sometimes the new clips will be tighter. The ears of
the new pads should slot nicely into place on the grease you applied.
7. Retract the pistons
The pistons press on the brake pads and squeeze the rotor to stop the
car. Your car might only have one piston for each wheel, but the
principle is the same. Before you can lower the caliper into place, these
pistons need to be retracted (pushed back) so that they will clear the
new, thicker brake pads.
8. Monitor the brake fluid level
When you push the pistons back, the brake fluid level slowly rises.
Open the master cylinder reservoir and check it often. This is more of a
concern when you work on the second brake, because the combined
fluid volume of two calipers could cause the brake fluid to overflow. If
it looks like this is going to happen, suck out some of the brake fluid
with a turkey baster. There is more danger of overflowing if someone
topped off the fluid level during regular service visits. (This is why the
brake fluid reservoir shouldn't necessarily be topped off like that.) The
fluid level naturally goes down as the pads wear. And it comes back up
when the pads are replaced. As long as the level doesn't go below
"MIN," on the lower half of the reservoir, everything is cool.
9. Reposition the caliper
With the pistons retracted, the caliper should slip over the pads with
little effort. Sometimes the fit is tight and the caliper will slide on the
newly installed brake pads. If the pistons catch on the brake pads, you
might need to check that you retracted the piston completely.
40
10. Reinstall the slider bolt

Reinstall and retighten the slider bolt. Straighten the car's wheels, re-
mount the tire and tighten the lug nuts.
11. Repeat for the other side
Repeat all these steps for the other side of the front brakes. Remember
that the brake fluid will be higher in the reservoir now that new pads are
installed on one side, so keep your eye on the fluid level as you retract
the piston on the other side. The fluid will only rise further the second
time around. You don't want it to overflow since the brake fluid is
highly corrosive. If it looks as if the fluid will overflow, suck some out
with the turkey baster. If the level is below the "MAX" when both sides
are done, add fresh fluid to top things off to the line.
12. Test-drive under safe conditions
Test-drive the car under safe conditions to make sure everything is
working properly, being especially careful for the first few stops. Be
aware that your brake pedal might have a higher engagement point. You
will quickly get used to this change.
3.1.1 CHANGING OF ENGINE OIL

1) Check the type and amount of oil needed
2) Get together your filter, wrenches, and other supplies
3) Prepare your vehicle
4) Locate the oil filter and drain plug
5) Drain the oil
6) Tighten the drain plug
7) Change the oil filter
8) Add the new oil
9) Check the oil level
1. Check the type and amount of oil needed
Before heading to the auto parts store to buy supplies, be sure about the
type and amount of oil that's required. The amount is easy, make sure to
match the oil's viscosity to your engine
2. Get together your filter, wrenches, and other supplies

In addition to oil, you'll need an oil filter, an oil-filter removal wrench, a
wrench to remove the drain plug, a funnel, a drain pan and some gloves.
You may also need to raise the car to gain access, in which case you'll
need a floor jack and safety stands, or a pair of purpose-made steel
41
ramps. For this kind of work, never use the flimsy jack that's supplied
with the car.
3. Prepare your vehicle
Your engine and its oil should be warm when you get started, but not
hot. Let the car sit so the exhaust system cools off some, but don't allow
things to go stone cold.
If you need to raise the car for better access, this is a good time to do it.
Make sure you install proper safety stands.
If necessary, take off the undercover. Some newer cars have these
aerodynamic covers to improve fuel economy and keep things clean.
Unfortunately, the covers can hide the engine's oil drain plug and oil
filter. Some covers have built-in access hatches and they're usually
labeled. Sometimes you have to remove the undercover entirely.
4. Locate the oil filter and drain plug
Locate the oil filter and drain plug. The vast majority of cars have a
bottom-mount screw-on filter.
If the plug and filter are far apart, meaning I must reposition the drain
pan after I drain the oil and before I remove the filter. For this reason,
you will have to completely finish draining and replugging the engine
before working on the filter.
If these elements were closer (or if the pan were bigger) you could
begin removing the filter while the last of the oil was still dribbling out.
If yours is one of the growing numbers of new cars with a top-mount

cartridge filter, the following oil-drain and refill steps are the same, but
the filter change process is not.
5. Drain the oil
To drain the oil out of the engine, it's important to place the drain pan
under the drain plug but not directly under it. The angle of the drain
plug will cause the oil to stream out at an angle, so, offset the pan to that
side by several inches. Sometimes, you would also account for wind.
Remove the oil filler cap. Hold your thumb atop a drinking straw filled
with water to keep it from running out, it's not always the same, because
oil might still drain with the oil filler cap on, but it does seem to flow
out more smoothly and quickly with the cap removed. If nothing else,
42
taking the cap off now serves as a reminder to put the new oil in before
you start the engine.
You can usually remove the drain plug with a common end wrench and
a bit of muscle. Go slowly as you remove the drain plug and keep your
hands away from the expected path of the oil. It's going to come out
quick and warm. If you miscalculate, it could dribble down your arm.
This is another reason why it's best not to change oil when the engine
and its oil are piping hot.
6. Tighten the drain plug
Inspect and clean the oil drain plug while the rest of the oil is draining.
Tighten the drain plug. Theoretically, there is a torque specification for
drain plugs, but they're almost never published in the owner's manual.
Even if you do find the spec, it's unlikely that the half-inch drive torque
wrench you bought to tighten lug nuts will go low enough for this job.
But anything longer or larger can lead you down the path of over-
tightening. You want the bolt to be tight, but you don't want to strip it
out.
7. Change the oil filter

Remove the oil filter. New filters that are properly installed don't go on
terribly tight. But they can be hard to get off later because their sealing
gaskets swell over time.
You can add extension to the ratchet to get a little extra knuckle room.
Filters loosen in a hurry, at which point oil starts to gush out all around
the perimeter. Go slowly and switch to unscrewing the filter by hand as
soon as you can.
Figure 3.23: oil filters
43
Unlike drain plug removal, there is no way to avoid making a mess at

this stage. Make sure you reposition the drain pan before you start. Have
rags handy and prepare to get some oil down your arm. Don't let go of
the filter once it starts to come off.
Hold the filter over the pan to drain it, but try not to drop it in. It makes
a very messy splash.
Use rags to clean as much oil away as you can, paying special attention
to the filter sealing surface. Make sure to remove the old filter's O-ring
if it stuck itself to the surface. This rarely happens nowadays, but it's
one of those things you check anyway because a double stack of O-rings
won't seal, allowing your new oil to pump out and ruin your engine.
The last messy step involves smearing a dab of new oil on the new
filter's O-ring.
Install the new filter. At this point one may want to take the gloves off
in other to get a good grip. Spin the filter on gently until the O-ring
makes first contact with the sealing surface.
At three-quarters of a turn with no tools. This is enough. You can go to a

full turn if you can manage it by hand, but don't resort to a filter wrench
just because you want to tighten it more than the recommended amount.
In most cases you'll only need a filter wrench for tightening if access is
too tight or if your hands are too oily for a solid grip.
8. Add the new oil

After you reconfirm that the oil drain bolt and filter are both in place
and properly tightened, it's time to add oil. Add approximately one quart
less than the recommended amount.
Now it's time to replace the oil cap and start the engine. Run the engine
for 30 seconds or so to circulate the new oil, then shut it down and
check your work area underneath the car for leaks.
Once satisfied, lower the car off the jack stands or ramps.
44
9. Check the oil level

Now that you're on flat ground, check the oil level, sometimes, you
might want to add a little more oil. As usual, you'll know the level is full
when the oil comes up to the upper hole or hash mark.
The only other step now is to properly dispose of the old oil and filter.
3.1.2 MANUAL GEARBOX SERVICING

The gearbox is one of the hardest working parts of your car,
experiencing great stresses.
The engine works at a relatively narrow range of speeds, and only uses
energy effectively at the middle of that range. The gearbox has to
convert the engine output to speeds and torque so it becomes practical
for driving.
This holds great potential for heat and friction to be generated – threats
counteracted by the gearbox fluid lubricating the gears, shafts and
bearings where metal slides over metal. It also transmits heat away from
the working surfaces.
But, as time goes by, the fluid tends to become dirty, losing its ability to
do its job effectively. The dirtier it gets, the worse the fluid performs,
causing greater heat and friction. It’s a vicious cycle you should break
regularly to preserve your gearbox and its performance or be prepared
for major costs.
That’s why you need to service your gearbox regularly on your driving
style.
45
Gear Box
3.1.2.1 SEQUENCE OF OPERATION

1) Drain gearbox fluid
2) Inspect the fluid for evidence of sludge
3) Fill the gearbox to the recommended level with new fluid of the
correct type and viscosity
4) Inspect fit of plug and drain plug
5) Check for leaks and wear on seals
6) Check shift lever bushes
7) Check clutch operation
8) Test to check working of serviced gearbox.
Viscosity relates to how thick or runny the oil is. Different gearboxes
may require fluid with different levels of viscosity.
46
3.1.3 TOOLS REQUIRED
Figure 3.24: tools for repairs and servicing
47
CHAPTER 4
OBSERVATIONS AND CONTRIBUTIONS
4.1 OBSERVATIONS
As a student my first observation was the cognition of the difference
between the school environment and the labor market, as it is a different
ball game entirely.
I also observed that safety was paramount because it was always

emphasized by the supervisor but even at that the other technicians and
apprentice seems to always not taking safety seriously, while wrongly
thinking that experience is what matters.
I also observed that measurement is key when it comes to technical

works, due to the fact that so many damage and wastage was caused
owing to negligence of the importance of measurement in engineering
works.
Neatness was also a key attribute as even though the job is usually seen
as a dirty job, technicians were always admonished to be as neat as
possible in their dressing and in carrying out their duties.
Lastly, Communication played a vital role in the successful execution of

jobs, from among technicians communicating within themselves and
also customers with company’s technicians for better service delivering.
4.2 CONTRIBUTIONS
Although due to fear of my safety and damage of work, I was restricted
at first from performing some operations but after some time I was now
being allowed to perform certain operation such cutting of the steel
channels used for fabrication with the dimensions given, welding after
the major and crucial welding operation has been done, even with
general sanitation of the workshop environment.
Throughout my industrial training I was assign to ensure proper care,

safety and availability of every tool in the workshop.
48
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.0 CONCLUSION
My 6months industrial attachment as a junior technician at The
Mechanical and Transport Division in the Estate Department was a huge
success and a great time of acquisition of knowledge and skills. Through
my training I was able to appreciate my chosen course of study even
more, because I had the opportunity to blend the theoretical knowledge
acquired from school with the practical hands-on application of
knowledge gained here to perform very important tasks that contributed
in a way to my productivity in the company.
My training here has given me a broader view to the importance and

relevance of production Engineers in the immediate society and the
world as a whole, as I now look forward to impacting it positively after
graduation. I have also been able to improve my communication and
presentation skills and thereby developed good relationship with my
fellow colleagues at work. I have also been able to appreciate the
connection between my course of study and other disciplines in
producing a successful result.
At this juncture I will say from my training that the basic skill gap has
been fully bridged: teamwork, accuracy, precision, effective
communication, time management, dedication, innovative thinking and
most especially punctuality.
5.1 RECOMMENDATION
I want to use this means to make the following recommendations
concerning the training of students in Industrial Attachments, from the
observations I made.
5.1.1 Ways of Improving the Program
1. Proper supervision should be rendered by the departmental
supervisors as stated on the student log book.
2. Proper and guided orientation should be given to the students by
49
the university before the commencement of the SIWES program.
3. Monetary benefits should also be made available to SIWES

students to ease the burden of transportation
5.1.2 Advice to my institution.
I would like to recommend that the Engineering curriculum in
UNIVERSITY OF BENIN be adjusted such as would provide, going on
industrial attachments for a longer period of time as opposed to 6
months or making the program to occur twice throughout an engineering
degree program.
5.1.3 Advice to Future Participants
1. The students should make all the needed personal protective
equipment, available for them to avoid not participating in some
of the maintenance exercise.
2. The search for relevant place of attachment should begin on time,
to avoid the disappointment of organizations being full.
3. The need to acquire relevant knowledge pertaining to their field
of study should be the drive and not monetary benefits.
5.1.4 Advice to SIWES Managers
Allowances should be paid to students during their program just like
NYSC and not after their training. This would help them a great deal to
handle some financial problems during their training course.
5.2 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED DURING PERIOD OF
TRAINING
Most of the operations require strength such as putting on the generator,
which took me some time to learn, fixing of couplings on the alternator
coil used for assembling diesel engine generator, and the welding
tongue seems to be very hot but anytime I try to use a hand glove they
sometimes laugh at me.
I wasn’t given regular support for transportation and feeding, which

means I had to feed and transport myself.
50
REFERENCES
1) Introduction to manufacturing technology by A.O. Ibhadode.
2) Harold Cliffordtown technology of the machine.
3) Marlow, Frank (2008). Machine shop Essentials: Q & A. metal Arts press
4) Rex Miler, Mark Riochard Miller(2004)
5) https://mechtecher.com/
6) https://www.engineersedge.com/
51

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SIWES TECHNICAL REPORT

MECHANICAL AND TRANSPORT DIVISION OF

ONYIBE FABIAN ANDREW

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD

My training was on welding and fabrication with basic mechanical

During this period, I acquired practical knowledge on how to design,

I must appreciate the efforts of Engr. Iredia Walter Osakpamwan,

I dedicate this report to God almighty, the maker of heaven and

I, Onyibe Fabian Andrew hereby declare that the presented report of

I also confirm that, the report is only prepared for my academic

3.0.2 MARKING OUT EQUIPMENT (tools for marking lines) ... 21

Figure 1.0; Organisational chart of Estate Department ........................... 6

1.0 CONCEPT OF SIWES

The student industrial work experience scheme (SIWES) is the

In accordance with the SIWES program, it is made specifically that

6. To permit representation of ITF and that of the institute based

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skill

e. To teach students the techniques and methods of working with

I undertook my SIWES at Mechanical and Transport Division of Estate

1.3 COMPANY’S PROFILE

1. Civil Engineering Division: Takes care of all the building

1.3.1 MECHANICAL AND TRANSPORT DIVISION.

1. Heavy duty: Carries out the maintenance of big truck and

5. Welding and Fabrication: Deals with the maintenance and

1.4 ESTABLISHMENT’S CORPORATE GOAL

The goal to my employees is to provide them with the best working

1.5 THE ESTABLISHMENT SCOPE OF WORK

1. Servicing, repair and maintenance of vehicle engines

1.6 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

VULCANISING WELDING AND

Figure 1.0; Organisational chart of Estate Department

2.1 WELDING AND FABRICATION

Figure 2.0: Newly fabricated burglar proof

2.1.1 MEASURING AND MARKING OUT

1. Mark out components

When you measure length, you measure the shortest distance in a

Measurement of length is the comparison of the size of a component or

2.1.2 CUTTING AND PREPARING BLANKS FROM STOCK

stress = force / area

Cutting processes include the following:

Figure 2.1; shearing

Often times multiple sheets are blanked in a single operation. Blanked

Figure 2.2: blanking

Punching can be used to produce holes are simple geometric shapes

A variety of operations are possible to form different features, these

Figure 2.3: punching

2.1.3 JOINING AND ASSEMBLY

assembled and dismantled as often as is required without damage to the

Figure 2.5 Types of joint

2.2 AUTOMOBILE SYSTEMS

cover is the cylinder head. The cylinder head contains valve-

2.2.2 FUEL SYSTEM

FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Combustion Chamber; this is where burning of the air/fuel mixture

Figure 2.6: Fuel system

2.2.3 EXHAUST SYSTEM

Figure 2.7: exhaust system

The burning of fuel creates hazardous gases (hydrocarbons, carbon

2.2.4 COOLING SYSTEM

2.2.5 LUBRICATION SYSTEM.

bottom of the engine is the crankcase, which holds a supply of oil. A

Figure 2.8: lubrication system

2.2.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM.