L ead A RT I CL E   329

Cross-Cultural
Management and
Organizational Behavior
in Africa
By
Erika Amoako-Agyei

For Western operations to succeed in Africa, foreign executives must embrace cross-cultural
management skills as part of a broad strategic focus. This article examines culture as the crucial
dimension to forging strong social, economic, and diplomatic ties between Africa and the Western
world. To globalize successfully into the African marketplace, the effective cross-cultural manager
must have an in-depth understanding of the African cultural value system. By analyzing African
conventions, whose norms differ greatly from Western culture, this article clarifies the key roles that
African culture plays in management methods, organizational behavior, and business practices in
the sub-Saharan region. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In tr o d u c tio n business styles and ways of communication are likely to

differ greatly. For example, questioning a supervisor

F
or the Western manager, there are few destina-
tions on earth that present more cultural differ-
ences than sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, to be success-
ful in African commercial environments, it is crucial to
understand the role culture plays in business develop-
ment and relationship building. What may be accept-
able in Europe or North America may be offensive in
Africa. Many of the goals may be the same, but the
in Europe or North America may be considered ac-
ceptable, demonstrating ambition and intelligence. By
contrast, the same behavior in Africa may be viewed as
rude and disrespectful. Discerning the difference will
come easily to the expatriate manager well grounded
in the complexity of core African cultural values and
social norms commonly found in local commercial
environments.

Correspondence to: Erika Amoako-Agyei, 5334 W. Karen Dr., Glendale, AZ 85308, 602.488.9685 (phone), 602.494.4224 (fax), erikaagyei@gmail.com.

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).

© 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. • DOI: 10.1002/tie.20270
330   l ead a RT IC L E
A C o n tin e n t of Di ver s i t y
To globalize successfully into the African marketplace,
Western business leaders must understand what is cul-
turally expected of them. For the effective cross-cultural
manager, this includes developing an in-depth under-
standing of the African cultural value system (Shonhiwa,
2008)—and its direct impact on business practices and
organizational behavior. It is of critical importance to
note that there is no “one” African culture or society.
Africa is vast, comprising 54 independent nations, 900
million people, and 3,000 ethnic groups speaking more
than 1,000 indigenous languages—in addition to the
six European languages (English, French, Portuguese,
German, Spanish, and Italian) carried over from prior
colonization.
This article will focus on the behavioral patterns and
social customs of the people in the sub-Saharan region,
which includes all of Africa except North Africa—Tunisia,
Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Egypt—the five northern
nations bordering the Mediterranean. Although these
nations are geographically in Africa, their culture and
customs have been influenced by the Arab world.
Sub-Saharan Africa is the world’s fastest-growing re-
gion. It is culturally complex and commonly referred to
as “black” Africa. Certainly, sub-Saharan Africans share
many cultural elements, but with enormous variations.
Ghana is not Angola, and Angola is not Tanzania. Differ-
ences exist not only among countries, but within coun-
tries as well. In spite of the differences, however, there are
some basic cultural understandings and broad principles
that have been shared among the people of Africa for
centuries. These common beliefs and core cultural values
transcend national boundaries, languages, and ethnici-
ties and form a fundamental cultural unit. Building on
that common ground, this article adopts cultural gen-
eralizations to make cross-cultural comparisons, not to
oversimplify or deny the complexity of cultural patterns
in Africa but to offer a basic understanding from which
Westerners may build business relationships and avoid
cultural misunderstandings.1
Eco n o mic O ut l ook
Is it possible to think of Africa as the next frontier for
major business opportunity? To many Western busi-
ness leaders, Africa is a poor and unstable region with
chronic political hotspots and little to offer. Despite the
continent’s obvious problems, the development needs of
modern Africa provide many opportunities for Western
business and volunteer groups. On a global scale, there
Thunderbird International Business Review   Vol. 51, No. 4   July/August 2009 DOI: 10.1002/tie
is a growing recognition of Africa as a major destination
with vast stores of untapped opportunity, proven oil re-
serves, and critically important mineral resources, such as
gold, diamonds, chromium, and copper.
Adding to that, prime examples of Africa’s promis-
ing and positive economic potential lie within the tour-
ism and telecommunications sectors. To the surprise of
many, Africa is the fastest-growing market worldwide for
international tourism and telecommunications. Led by
Kenya, South Africa, and Mozambique, the continent
has consistently outperformed the world as a whole in
terms of the growth rate of international tourist arrivals,
increasing its share from 1.5% in 1970 to a record high
of 10.6% in 2006 (Zimmerman, 2008). Furthermore, the
continent has the fastest-growing mobile telephone mar-
ket in the world, making it the first place where mobile
phone subscribers have outnumbered fixed-line subscrib-
ers (Watson, 2007).
Between the continent’s burgeoning trade with China
(growing at 40% a year) and its steadily growing economy
(above 5%) and multiple stock markets boasting some of
the world’s highest rates of return, there is an undeniable
sense that over the next decade Africa is finally positioned
to take its place in the global economy. These figures
challenge Western companies and individuals to reassess
broad stereotypes and globalization strategies. But for
Western operations to work successfully in Africa, foreign
executives must embrace cross-cultural management
skills as an integral part of a broad strategic focus.
Today more than ever, successful business travel
requires cultural awareness and effective cross-cultural
communication skills. Yet, many executives, volunteers,
and expatriates are often sent into foreign markets with
little or no understanding of their host culture. While it’s
true that travel builds bridges, the only way to effectively
communicate across cultural boundaries is by acquiring a
thorough understanding of the cultures one encounters.
With an increasingly competitive business environment,
it is important to develop a tailored approach in working
with management teams from new or unfamiliar cultural
environments. International managers must recognize
that what may be considered unacceptable conduct in
one society could be considered normal or even praised
in another.
Breaking Into Africa: Developing a
Tailored Approach
Of all continents, Africa is the most heterogeneous—
linguistically, culturally, and ethnically. Consequently, in
the modern business world, identity in Africa can be a

complex and sensitive issue. Primarily, identity in Africa
still revolves around ethnic affiliation. In the business
office, the expatriate manager will need to tread care-
fully around personal questions as conversation starters,
particularly as they may relate to ethnicity. Such questions
should be asked only after mutual trust has been devel-
oped. Identity among “black” Africans is based on ethnic-
ity and linguistic and geographic affiliation as opposed to
race or nationality (as defined by colonial borders). For
example, “ethnically speaking,” an African may be (in this
order) Akyem (ethnic group), Akan (linguistic group),
Ghanaian (nationality), West African (regional affilia-
tion), and African (ancestral origin) all at once.
Awareness of these distinctions is essential in design-
ing strategies for dealing effectively with local counter-
parts. Throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa, diversity
is not about race, especially since well over 90% of the
population is black African. Diversity, instead, is based on
membership in a variety of ethnic groups. In Ghana, for
example, there are five major ethnic groups in the urban
south alone, including the Akan (Fante and Ashanti), Ewe,
and Ga peoples. And there are well over 50 other smaller
ethnic groups dispersed throughout the rest of the coun-
try. Southern Ghana is home to the economic center of the
country. Subsequently, much of the political power is in
the south. Being aware of language differences, status dif-
ferences, various ethnic perceptions, and stereotypes in the
country make a competitive advantage possible when oper-
ating in this market. This type of awareness offers deeper
insight into a new client base, and cross-cultural training
prior to arriving in a country can guide businesspersons
toward cultural sensitivity in this environment.
The need to diversify business partners can be a criti-
cal task—not just diversity in competency or ability, but,
more important, by the various ethnic groups; cultural
awareness here can make all the difference. Choosing
business partners to represent a company to the general
populace is a very sensitive issue. Many business partners
of a Western company in Africa are likely to be family-
owned enterprises, members of the elite classes, and be
operated by members of certain ethnic groups. By putting
company representation in the hands of ethnic groups
(e.g., Ewe, Ga, Nzema, Kwahu, Akwapim, Fante, and Ashanti)
that cut across the general population, a company might
attain more power to influence the buying decisions of
companies and consumers in this environment. This
strategy can enable a company to capture market share,
boost sales, and increase margins.
In the same way that a company should leverage its
cultural awareness, it is also possible to leverage the vari-
ous ethnic backgrounds of the ownerships of local compa-
DOI: 10.1002/tie Thunderbird International Business Review   Vol. 51, No. 4   July/August 2009
Cross-Cultural Management and Organizational Behavior in Africa   331
In the same way that a com-
pany should leverage its cul-
tural awareness, it is also
possible to leverage the vari-
ous ethnic backgrounds of the
ownerships of local companies.
nies. This will diversify the company’s presence, expand
its commercial reach, and broaden the client base, which,
ultimately, increases the bottom line. An expatriate man-
ager, moving among local business partners, a home cor-
poration, and African business and multinational clients,
becomes the focal point for ensuring effective communi-
cation across all cultural boundaries. This responsibility is
as critical as managing daily business activity.
Pointer: As a rule, it is wise to tread cautiously when discuss-
ing ethnic-related matters. Since ethnic identity is significant to
many Africans, etiquette demands respect for ethnic affiliations
and sensitivity to issues surrounding them. Due to complex
histories of ethnic strife, Africans themselves may engage in
disparaging remarks along ethnic lines. For an expatriate man-
ager, however, careless questioning of ethnic identity—through
ignorance or deliberate intention—can be an irreversible breach
of etiquette.
Issues in Cross-Cultural
Management
Throughout the world, business practices are extensions
of culture—and in African society, this is especially true.
Africans have an acute sense of solidarity and communal
life. A clear perspective of this value will provide deep
insights into the principles that drive business practices,
behavior patterns, and communication structures. To the
surprise of many, Africans have their own distinct systems
of commercial management uniquely rooted in their
own traditions and ideals. Many African firms are often
332   l ead a RT IC L E
structured like African families—reflecting the regional
history, ethnic origins, linguistic structure, and even the
family background of their founders (Fadiman, 1994).
A separate set of distinct principles guides local business
managers and leads to specific behavior appropriate to Afri-
can commercial settings. These same qualities are expected
of a nonlocal expatriate manager or supervisor. As a result,
knowledge of these principles is not only helpful, but criti-
cal, to success in dealing with African organizations.
In South Africa, (black) African scholars often state
that central to African management principles is the con-
cept of Ubuntu2 (Mbigi, 1995). Ubuntu has been said to
form the basis of African management philosophy and is
often summarized as “humanity toward others.” It is based
on the premise that everyone and everything is intercon-
nected. What hurts you hurts me. What heals you heals me.
Other management tools used in African commercial en-
vironments include paternal leadership, consultation, and
cohesive groups—all key to managing people in Africa.
Eigh t P r i n c i pl e s of Moder n Af r ican
M a n a g e me n t
For the Western manager of an Africa-based firm to deal
effectively across culture lines, the dominant Western man-
agement paradigm needs to adapt to, and value, African
management strategies as being equally important as those
For the Western manager of
an Africa-based firm to deal
effectively across culture
lines, the dominant Western
management paradigm needs
to adapt to, and value, Af-
rican management strategies
as being equally important as
those of Western countries.
Thunderbird International Business Review   Vol. 51, No. 4   July/August 2009
of Western countries. To gain insight into the cultural
intricacies of managing in Africa, it is useful to analyze
the principles that guide African management methods.
Eight key principles have emerged from research that sum-
marizes management tools used in African commercial
environments. These are essential to understanding local
organizational management (Mthembu, 1996). Hence, ef-
fective leadership in the African firm requires the integra-
tion of the following eight business principles:
1. Collective Solidarity: Employee teams work most ef-
fectively, achieving cohesiveness and solidarity, by
working toward a common purpose (Mbigi, 1995).
Thus, African enterprises are often communal, inter-
dependent, family-run, and family-oriented (Fadiman,
1994). Africans are motivated to work in teams and are
loyal to their own group.
2. Group Significance (Ubuntu): Ubuntu means that hu-
manity is a shared value in which personhood exists
within a group context, only insofar as a person values
others. Rooted in that same principle, modern Afri-
can firms are structured so that every team member
is given a meaningful role to play. Concern evolves
around team rather than individual interests. Personal
achievement is underplayed in favor of group achieve-
ment (Booysen, 1999).
3. Harmony and Social Cohesion: Emphasis is placed on
maintaining peace and keeping conflict to a minimum
by promoting internal, communal, and familial har-
mony (Shonhiwa, 2008). Thus, interconnectedness
and communal relationships, dignity, and mutual
respect are very highly valued (Lassiter, 1999).
4. Consensus: Emphasis is placed on collective decision
making. Conformity, collaboration, and cooperation
are encouraged (Booysen, 1999). Competition is dis-
couraged, as is individuality.
5. Consultation: Group participation is strongly empha-
sized, as are mutual understanding, joint problem
solving, and honoring the collective wisdom of all
team members.
6. Local Time (or “African” Time): In Africa, time standards
are ambiguous, and thus require flexibility on the
part of non-African managers. Western time restric-
tions and deadlines do not apply. An African manager
welcoming a business counterpart will take ample
time, before business, to form a personal connection
or relationship. This may include elaborate evening
meals, invitations to social events, and, possibly, even
traditional ceremonies. Inquiries will be made about
travel to Africa and motives for coming to Africa,
about personal interests and background—all in an

effort to gain insight into unfamiliar value systems and
find compatibility for a mutually trusting, long-term
business relationship.
7. Paternal/Maternal Leadership: African firms are often
structured like African families and, therefore, organi-
zational leaders (managers, supervisors, and owners)
tend to behave with paternal (or maternal) responsi-
bility toward their staff members. An African business
leader is expected to be more supportive and even
somewhat intrusive, providing advice on matters both
personal and professional, which would be consid-
ered inappropriate in Western business environments.
Leaders are also expected to be more parental by na-
ture, working to maintain group harmony, solve em-
ployees’ personal problems, and generally be consid-
erate and helpful (Booysen, 1999). Leaders will strive
to exhibit the capacity to facilitate collective decision
making, in addition to exercising strong listening and
problem-solving skills. Leaders will also respect and
encourage groups’ loyalties.
8. Age and Authority: It is important for Western business
managers to always consider a person’s age when doing
business in Africa (Fadiman, 1994). Within a business
relationship, age is an essential component in Africa.
Advanced age is inherently equated with authority, busi-
ness wisdom, rank, title, and experience. Thus, an older
person automatically holds a certain level of superiority,
regardless of rank, title, or education.
Pointers:
•  A wise strategy for Westerners is to make a special effort to
acknowledge the elders of their business host. This may in-
clude seeking their input first on an issue as a show of respect
for their experience and established place within the organiza-
tion. A subtle show of humility and respect such as this goes a
long way in relationship building. Additionally, since rank and
authority are highly respected, it is useful to acknowledge the
host’s authority and recognize company seniority.
•  The time invested in building relationships in the beginning will
deliver more returns in the long run than technical or industry
know-how. Managers should refrain from time-limited, transac-
tional views of African clients, as this will be counterproductive.
The goal in initial encounters should be, rather, to build a long-
term, mutually supportive, mutually beneficial, and mutually
trusting relationship.
These principles can be treated as behavioral ideals,
toward which most African business leaders aspire. Thus,
they serve as a model against which they actually conduct
business. At the same time, they give deeper insight into
the traditional value system on which African culture is
based.
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Cross-Cultural Management and Organizational Behavior in Africa   333
Dimensions of Culture
To describe some dominant thinking and value systems
found in African societies, it is useful to incorporate
some of the cultural dimensions developed by Dutch
anthropologists Hofstede (2000) and Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner (1998), who both conducted leading
studies of cross-cultural management. The dimensions
(Table 1) provide a useful framework for comparing Afri-
can and Western cultural values.
African Collectivism vs. American Individualism
Hofstede contrasted collectivism and individualism. Is it
the goal of individuals to enhance their own position or
the advancement of their group (community or corpora-
tion)? In the United States, Canada, Western Europe,
Australia, and New Zealand, the dominant culture is
individualistic, while collectivism predominates in Af-
rica. This is one of the fundamental differences between
African and Western cultures—the extent to which
members identify with the group rather than themselves
as individuals. Individualism refers to cultures in which
people see themselves first as individuals and believe that
their own interests take priority over those of the groups,
while collectivism refers to societies in which individuals
identify primarily as members of the group and believe
that the group’s interests take priority over their own.
In collectivist cultures, such as those found in Africa, the
group is valued above the individual. People in collectivist
societies think naturally in terms of “we” rather than “I.”
Furthermore, collectivist societies value social relations
over individual performance.
In many African business settings, collectivism is
reflected in teamwork, discouragement of competition
among individuals, encouragement of conformity, col-
lective decision making, cooperation, and collaboration.
Group conformity and commitment is maintained at the
expense of personal interests. Personal achievement is
underplayed (in favor of group achievement). Shame
is often used to achieve behavioral goals. Harmony,
getting along, and saving face are seen as crucial. Even
more, harmony is valued above honesty or truth, and
silence more than speech. Overall, success is achieved
in groups.
As one Kenyan scholar, John Mbiti, puts it, “Whatever
happens to the individual happens to the whole group,
and whatever happens to the whole group happens to the
individual. The individual can only say: ‘I am, because we
are; and since we are, therefore I am.’ This is a cardinal
point in the understanding of the African view of man”
(Lassiter, 1999).
334   l ead a RT IC L E
table 1  Dimensions of Culture: Value Differences Between Western and African Cultures
Western Cultural Values
Individualism
Achievement
Equality/Egalitarianism
Winning
Guilt (internal self-control)
Pride
Respect for results
Respect for competence
Time is money
Action/Doing
Systematic/Mechanic
Tasks
Informal
Directness/Assertiveness
Future/Change
Control
Verbal
Low power distance
Quantity-oriented
Table 2 expands on how these differences impact
management styles and business practices. It also sup-
ports the claim that management philosophies typically
evolve in harmony with the cultures within which they
function (Hofstede, 2000).
In both personal and professional spheres, Africans
have a more communal way of doing things and exhibit a
strong preference for joint problem solving. Whereas most
Westerners are oriented toward competition and higher
profits, Africans are oriented toward cooperation and build-
ing long-term relationships. For example, in African firms,
new clients, like new employees, represent new relationships.
Each new relationship represents an extension of that firm’s
commercial reach, and thus its economic security. When
Americans expand their business, they promote economic
security by seeking new sources of long-term profit. When
Africans expand their business, they seek new long-term
relationships. In Africa, wealth is counted not only in cur-
rency, but in the number of people to whom you are closely
linked. The idea is that in times of need there is reliability
within your social network—that within networks, members
will aid one another on request (Fadiman, 1994).
Where Management Techniques Differ: Performance
Reviews
Employee evaluations are a specific area where differ-
ences in cultural values have a deep impact on manage-
Thunderbird International Business Review   Vol. 51, No. 4   July/August 2009
African Cultural Values
Collectivism/Group
Ascription/Modesty
Hierarchy
Collaboration/Harmony
Shame (external control)
Saving face
Respect for status/Ascription
Respect for elders
Time is life
Being/Acceptance
Humanistic
Relationship/Loyalty
Formal
Indirectness
Past/Tradition
Fate
Nonverbal
High power distance
Quality-oriented
ment styles. It is useful to examine the performance
evaluation, ubiquitous in Western businesses, to illustrate
the differing cultural assumptions in American and Afri-
can business culture.
In the United States, an individualistic society, perfor-
mance reviews are periodic, one-on-one interviews, where
the work performance of a subordinate is openly exam-
ined and discussed between manager and employee.
This process helps to identify an employee’s strengths,
weaknesses, and opportunities for improvement, as well
as to manage career goals. The objective is to let manag-
ers and employees openly communicate—to share ideas,
opinions, and information. In individualist countries,
therefore, the ability to communicate “bad news” and
conduct objective performance reviews with subordinates
is considered a key skill for a successful manager.
But in collectivist cultures, such as those in sub-Saha-
ran Africa, the expatriate manager has to bear in mind
that discussing an employee’s performance, weaknesses,
shortcomings, or abilities openly with the employee is
likely to cause embarrassment and clash head-on with the
society’s harmony norm. Moreover, this may be felt by the
subordinate as an unacceptable loss of face.
African cultures have long endorsed more indirect
styles of communication to protect the image of the other
and promote trouble-free relationships. This show of
concern for a team member continues to serve as a useful

table 2  Collectivism vs. Individualism
African Culture: Collectivism
Cooperation, collaboration, and interdependence
Concern for group interests
Conformity
Personal achievement underplayed (in favor of group achievement)
Cohesive groups, unquestioning loyalty, group consensus
Harmony, maintaining social relationships, subdued controversy
Mastery of skills, training
Use shame to achieve behavioral goals
Older, wise, experienced leaders
Encourage teamwork, discourage individual competition
management tool in maintaining harmony and preserv-
ing significant social relationships. Since contact with the
employee is often through his or her family, African man-
agers are expected to be more paternal and supportive
(Booysen, 1999). Aware of their obligations to the com-
munity and to the extended family, the African manager
will typically not resort to firing an employee, outright, for
nonperformance. Socially and financially, the communal
consequences may be far greater and longer-lasting than
the act itself. This is especially true if the employee was
hired based on family obligations (nepotism) or as a favor
to a respected community member—an elder, senior
political official, or anyone with whom the company has
close ties (Fadiman, 1994).
Indeed, team members may go so far as to protect the
nonperformer, when necessary, by sharing or dividing
his or her responsibilities among themselves (Booysen,
1999). For these reasons, African societies will generally
use more subtle, indirect ways of communicating feed-
back, such as through the withdrawal of a normal favor
or verbally through a mutually trusted intermediary. Ad-
ditionally, the use of shame—reminding the employee of
his or her failure to uphold family honor—may be used
as another way to guide employee behavior.
Pointer: As a rule, managers should reward teams and not individu-
als. An effective way to deal with performance evaluations in African
collectivist societies is to direct all feedback to team performance
rather than individual performance (Booysen, 1999).
High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance
Power distance describes the degree to which large sta-
tus differences exist among people in a society and the
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Cross-Cultural Management and Organizational Behavior in Africa   335
Western Culture: Individualism
Individual rights (privacy), independence
Self-interest
Self-actualization, self-realization, self-government, and freedom
Motivation based on personal achievement
Loose ties, strong private opinions, pursuit of individual goals
Honesty/truth, lack of social relationships, strong privacy rights, per-
sonal time, controversial argumentative speech
Personal challenge, material rewards
Use guilt to achieve behavioral goals
Youth and action
Competition among employees for recognition and reward
extent to which these differences in power are accepted.
The high power distance characterizing African culture
shapes the behavior of professionals, elders, subordi-
nates, and youth in important ways. People of lower status
show much higher deference toward those of authority
or senior status than is typical in the West. High power
distance creates a web of social expectation. Traditional
upbringing instills from childhood the acceptance of ab-
solute authority on the part of parents, teachers, bosses,
or anyone seen as socially superior. Since age and experi-
ence are esteemed, it is often considered inappropriate
to question or challenge a teacher, supervisor, or any
member of the professional elite. This social custom rein-
forces conformity and carries over to the business world
in distinctive ways.
Unlike the Western world, where young executives
will openly question their way through the learning
curve, young African executives will avoid questioning or
even commenting on a decision of their superiors, even
if they totally disagree with it. At the same time, most
superiors will likely not accept such questioning from
subordinates.
As all authority resides in the company’s superior,
there is very limited, if any, delegation of authority, par-
ticularly in smaller firms. Thus, delegation of responsi-
bility normally takes the form of assignment of specific
tasks, which are carried out in constant consultation
with one’s superior. This limits the young executive’s
responsibility to carrying out instructions. Contrary to
young American executives, most African subordinates
prefer this approach—especially during their early pro-
fessional training—as it saves them from making errors
and losing face.
336   l ead a RT IC L E
table 3  Business Cultures: African vs. Americana
African
Consensus-driven
Deference to seniority
Hierarchical
Slow-paced
Relationships based on rapport, trust, friendship
Sources: Booysen (1999); Fadiman (1994); Shonhiwa (2008).
a
In the sub-Saharan region, South Africa may be the one exception here. Due to the country’s complex amalgam of several cultures and subcultures, the
dominant management practices are, for historical reasons, Western (Booysen, 1999).
Pointer: An American manager walks into an office and thinks noth-
ing of saying point blank “I need this or that” to an African employee.
In American society, this swift approach may be an honest attempt
to not waste the other person’s time, thereby getting straight to the
point. The manager may wonder why the African employee is slow to
respond and perhaps appears hostile even though providing assis-
tance may be part of his job responsibilities. From a local viewpoint,
the African may feel unacknowledged by the direct approach—and
thus, purposely disregarded—before getting down to what he or she
considers “secondary matters.” Such an approach is viewed as a
direct insult to the African. Take time to greet your colleague first.
American Businesses in Africa
Generally speaking, many businesses and expatriate
managers fail on the global market by incorrectly as-
suming that their ways of conducting business will be
easily adaptable the world over, and that issues like time
consciousness, negotiation styles, and social formality are
simple matters of common sense. However, studies show
that roughly 25% of U.S. managers and an estimated 14%
of British managers fail in their assignments abroad—
notwithstanding their functional business expertise in
marketing, accounting, finance, and other areas (Marx,
1999). Accounting for much of their failure is their in-
ability to adapt to new cultural environments.
The question becomes, then, how does an American
manager of an Africa-based firm learn to deal effectively
across cultural lines? In developing a plan for market
entry into Africa, it is good strategy to identify in advance
what is culturally expected (Table 3). Conducting busi-
ness in Africa is complex and tends to be a long process
because traditional African culture is based on investing
unlimited time in building long-term and mutually trust-
ing relationships. In contemporary African society, this
traditional principle is infused in business culture. But
once relationships are established, business ties tend to
be fruitful and long-lasting. When an American manager
is dealing with business practices that differ greatly from
those of the home culture, it is useful to consider two
Thunderbird International Business Review   Vol. 51, No. 4   July/August 2009
American
Time-driven
Glorifies youth
Individualism
Fast-paced
Relationships based on “bottom line,” best deal, best service
questions when designing business and communication
strategies to deal effectively with African counterparts:
• Where are the gaps widest between the American cul-
tural framework and that of Africa?
• Where does communication threaten to break down
due to cultural differences?
Pointer: In America, greetings are generally quite informal. Typically,
this is not intended to show a lack of respect, but rather a manifes-
tation of the American belief that everyone is equal. However, an
American’s easy-going approach can be mistaken as evidence that
they do not consider either the interaction or the people they are
dealing with to be important. In Africa, greetings are an essential
aspect of local culture. Never ask anyone a question without first
greeting him. Always start with “good morning,” “good afternoon,” or
“hello” and then proceed. Launching straight into a request is consid-
ered rude, as is the failure to greet someone.
Two Corporate Cultures
Consensus-Driven vs. Time-Driven
Throughout Africa, consensus is crucial in decision mak-
ing. In many African organizations, particularly smaller
ones, the entire team must be brought on board and
consulted on almost everything before a decision is made.
The process can take as long as required, without a time
limit, to reach decisions that satisfy everyone. This need
for reaching consensus is one reason why it may appear
so difficult to get things done. In African terms, reach-
ing a decision through consensus has the advantage of
taking into account all reasons for concern or disagree-
ment, whereas the Western style of “majority rule” does
not (Fadiman, 1994). Thus, the pace of business is much
slower, and closing a deal, especially a first transaction,
will likely require multiple meetings or trips. This custom
of consultation, even though there is a great degree of
hierarchy, is a key African value and is summarized in the

Ghanaian proverb, “When a king has good counselors,
his reign is peaceful.”
Harmony Trumps Frankness
In African culture, saving face is highly valued. Direct and
frank communication is not the norm in most parts of
the sub-Saharan region. Every action and every response
is conditioned by the need to avoid offending or hurting
the feelings of others. To avoid causing problems, Afri-
cans will often use metaphors, analogies, and stories to
make a point. Moreover, they may attempt to qualify what
they say so that the message is delivered with sensitivity.
In general, Africans are uncomfortable with blunt state-
ments. This often leads to evasive replies, incomplete an-
swers, and “white lies.” To an American executive trained
to interact with directness, openness, and, above all, hon-
esty in business dealings, this seeming lack of transpar-
ency can be disconcerting and problematic. Therefore, it
is important for the American manager of an Africa-based
firm to convey to local subordinates that admitting to a
mistake will not cause them to lose face in the eyes of the
American boss. Rather, they are more likely to lose that
respect and trust by dodging questions and being found
out later. Furthermore, American managers may wish to
moderate their delivery style and read between the lines
to discern what is really being said.
Understanding the African principle of maintaining
harmony at almost any cost in interpersonal relationships
will serve the Western executive well. An American must
understand the degree to which Africans will resist open-
ing up without first being personally close. If the relation-
ship is intimate, the communication style will become
more direct. But for newly established and more formal
relationships, the use of tact and diplomacy will be of
utmost importance—particularly in getting at the truth.
Because Africans, generally, are harmony-seeking, many
will avoid saying negative things to maintain harmony and
save the embarrassment and humiliation of others. In ad-
dition, Africans will often not say things as they are, and it
is generally accepted that one does not “have” to say every-
thing. The right approach will cement a mutually trusting
relationship and avoid alienating African subordinates.
Pointer: American managers should resist outright criticisms. An
African subordinate is very likely aware of a mistake, but expressing
it explicitly creates shame and is likely to make them withdraw in em-
barrassment. Rather, American executives may consider turning the
tables by admitting to a mistake of their own, thereby showing vul-
nerability, as this will model the human side of the executive as well
as the desired behavior. Additionally, in order to balance the many
situations that may require criticisms or corrective behavior, superiors
must find reasons to praise subordinates. Praise in African culture,
even for small tasks, is highly motivating.
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Cross-Cultural Management and Organizational Behavior in Africa   337
In Conversation, Dissent May Imply Disrespect
One of the most common frustrations American execu-
tives experience lies in the question: “Why do I sometimes
get the answer ‘yes,’ when they really mean ‘no’?” In African
business settings, a show of dissent can be interpreted
as a show of disrespect. The hierarchical nature of busi-
ness culture tends to inhibit subordinates from openly
disagreeing, challenging the status quo, speaking one’s
mind, criticizing ideas, giving feedback, and reporting
problems. This is especially true when a young executive
is facing a superior or a much older person. Thus, people
acquiesce to a request, even though they know they won’t
be able to fulfill it. In a collectivist society, consensus and
cooperation are important elements in promoting and
maintaining harmony. To avoid disturbing harmony, Af-
ricans will often give a positive answer and be reluctant to
refuse a request. In African business culture, this is part
of an innate sense of loyalty, employee obedience, and
courteous and formal behavior.
Pointers:
•  A question such as “Is this a problem you think you can fix?”
will likely be answered “yes,” since this is the answer your
African host may think will keep you happy—whether true or
not. So, avoid “yes” or “no” questions and inquire, through their
own explanations, what they find feasible. The key to getting a
genuine understanding of your African hosts and their vision is
to allow them to do most of the talking.
•  Pay special attention to how questions are phrased. Ask open-
ended questions—again, those that avoid yes or no answers.
For instance, “What do you think the problem is and how do
you think it can be fixed?” Then ask “why?” This will aid in get-
ting to the real reasons behind the issue.
Get all agreements in writing. A verbal “yes” may have been given
out of politeness and may not be considered binding. “Maybe” or “we
will see” generally means no.
The African practice of yielding to the will of a senior
person out of courteous respect can be difficult for the
Western businessperson to deal with, as it often stifles
progress. In African business settings, exceptionally tal-
ented youth often are not taken seriously because youth
may be viewed as lacking in business wisdom and knowl-
edge, especially when pitted against less competent se-
niors. Being aware of this ahead of time will help balance
a manager’s interactions with all members of the team.
Quality-Oriented, Not Quantity-Oriented
This is an important distinction. Quantity-oriented Ameri-
cans measure success based on bottom-line figures, which
allows an impartial, objective point of view: How much?
How many? What rate? What volume? These are measurable
metrics based on finite terms. In contrast, Africans use a
338   l ead a RT IC L E
more subjective, quality-oriented approach, which cannot
be measured and is usually based on personal experience.
This criterion requires a more diffuse and less easily
measurable metric: How will this improve our organizational
value? How original is the product? How well is the work per-
formed? How effective is the product?
Pointer: Many Americans focus on product presentation from the
moment they arrive. Their interest lies in closing “the deal” as quickly
as possible. Africans, on the other hand, strongly believe that ritual,
such as long conversations before business (inquiring about family,
health, and personal interests that give further insight to your inner
self), nurtures contact and builds trust between teams. As you wait
for response to your proposal, return to relationship building. Take
the time to market yourself.
Family Ties, Not Organizational Charts, Are the Ties
That Bind
In many family-owned businesses, hiring relatives is a
common practice. In the extended family firm, the hiring
process is based on nepotism (showing favoritism to fam-
ily members or friends), and succession is viewed as an
important factor, and quite unlike American succession
planning. Americans tend to hire on the basis of merit
(Fadiman, 1994). Thus, company interactions in the Af-
rican firm are often based on family obligations, rather
than the Western commercial supervisor/subordinate
relationships. But beyond family, nepotism transcends
blood ties to encompass loyal friends and important al-
lies, such as members of other large family firms.
Considering the central role family relationships play
in African life, it is unlikely that this traditional value will
change anytime soon. For the African, family relation-
ships come first, and foreign executives who expect to
be successful in this part of the world must accept and
understand this priority. This includes taking their em-
ployees’ family concerns seriously, listening carefully, and
expressing interest and concern about their employees’
families.
Pointer: In general, the foreign executive should be alert to the cul-
tural influences family ties will likely have on employee behavior. Ef-
fort toward this style of leadership will be reciprocated with long-term
employee trust, commitment, and loyalty.
Negotiations and Concessions
In English-speaking African businesses, the hierarchy is
generally as follows: the managing director (CEO in the
United States), the deputy (corporate vice president to
U.S. executives), the divisional officers, the deputy direc-
tors, and, finally, the managers. When negotiating with
a large company, the final decision maker may not be in
Thunderbird International Business Review   Vol. 51, No. 4   July/August 2009
the initial meetings. This allows African negotiators to
use the top executive as a bargaining tool. Since the top
executive did not actively participate in the negotiations,
the negotiators may use this person to make concessions
later, if necessary. This does not mean one should not
negotiate with the original company representatives, but
being aware of this tactic makes it possible to anticipate
last-minute concessions. It is helpful to clarify decision-
making authority early on in negotiations, when pos-
sible.
Relationships Precede the Bottom Line
In the United States, business relationships are formed
between companies based on the “bottom line.” In con-
trast, business in Africa is about friends and colleagues—
not solely work-related matters. Personal relations take
precedence over business. In order to be successful, it is
vital to establish good, personal relationships based on
mutual trust and benefit. Africans spend a significant
amount of time fostering and developing personal con-
tacts. Thus, time should be allocated for this process,
particularly during the first meeting, which is frequently
used to simply establish rapport and build trust. Wait
patiently for meetings to move beyond preliminary tea
and small talk. Once good, solid relations have been rec-
ognized between parties, continuous reinforcement and
maintenance is vital. It is not uncommon for Africans to
prefer to do mediocre business with a friend than superb
business with a stranger.
Pointers:
•  Since personal relationships are far more important than
corporate ones, frequent changes in your company or organi-
zation representative can result in setbacks. Each time your
company changes its representative, you will virtually be start-
ing from scratch. A new relationship must be built up before
business can proceed.
•  Your goal is not to market your product but yourself. Take
time to nurture a relationship. Show sincerity in your desire to
develop rapport and build long-lasting professional friendships.
This effort sends symbolic signals that you care for those with
whom you hope to deal.
•  The exchange of business cards is helpful for initiating intro-
ductions. Africans prefer to know the organizational level of the
person they are dealing with because of the hierarchical nature
of African business culture. It is important to emphasize your
title so that the correct authority, status, and rank are estab-
lished from the beginning.
Conclusion
Overall, the ability to recognize, respect, and effectively
manage cultural differences in either social or commer-
 Cross-Cultural Management and Organizational Behavior in Africa   339

cial settings will be essential for all Western managers
and corporations expecting to find significant returns
among African economies. Given Africa’s growth and
steady integration into the global economy, Western na-
tions can no longer afford to disregard Africa as a viable
contributor to the global marketplace. But to succeed
and lessen the likelihood of failure in African business
environments, Western companies must embrace cross-
cultural management skills as an integral part of a broad
strategic focus.

Erika Amoako-Agyei worked for the IBM Corporation, including three years in West Africa, as an American
expatriate based in Ghana. As a regional sales manager, she managed company operations in the West African
region overseeing multiple projects in Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, the Gambia, Nigeria, and Cameroon. Her
position requirements included regular visits to Johannesburg, South Africa. Upon returning to the United States,
Amoako-Agyei became the director of corporate relations for the Thunderbird School of Global Management. She
later went into business for herself, founding a computer hardware and software consultancy providing indepen-
dent consulting to Africa-based corporate, educational, and individual clients. Drawing from her experience, she
has written a businessperson’s guide to social and professional culture in sub-Saharan Africa, titled Business and
Social Etiquette in Africa: A Guide to Understanding Culture and Business Practices (forthcoming in 2009).

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1. “Africa” and “sub-Saharan Africa” are used interchangeably in this article.
2. Pronounced “oo-boon-too,” which means “people are people through
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DOI: 10.1002/tie Thunderbird International Business Review   Vol. 51, No. 4   July/August 2009